aquatic plants and animals
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Aquatic Plants and Animals
Chapter 2
US Aquatic Plant Species
• Important in Asia• Europe and North America are dead last in
plant production• Cultivate aquatic plants– Production of food, feed, and chemical products– Wastewater treatment– Biomass production for conversion to energy
Common Name Scientific Name Water Type
Uses Notes
Spirulina Spirulina spp. F Food Protein content of some species 70%; collected and dried into patties for human cosumption is some Asian countries and Mexico; nutritious supplement; distinct taste
Brown algae or kelp Undaria pinnatifida macroMacrocystis pyriferaMacrocystis intergrifolia
S FoodMulchFertilizerPhycocolloids
Called wakame in Japan; dried, chopped, and used in salads; brownish color comes from xanthophyll; giant kelp may grow to 200 feet
Green algae Monostroma macroEnteromorphaChlorella
S, F FoodMulchFertilizer
Least cultured of three macroalage; called aonori in Japan
Red algae or Laver Porphyra spp.Gelidium spp.Gracilaria spp.
S, B FoodFeedMulchFertilizerPhycocolloids
Cultured in Japan back to 1570; dried and high in protein; some harvested for livestock feed; United States leads in carrageen prodcution-a phycocolloid
Duckweed Lemna spp. Spirodela spp.Wolffia spp.Wolfiella spp.
F FeedWaste water treatment
Favorite food of herbivorous fish and water fowl; harvested and used for livestock feed; one of least expensive to produce
Common Name Scientific Name Water Type
Uses Notes
Water spinach Ipomoea reptans F Feed food Commonly cultured in Thailand, Malaysia, and Singapore; often in polyculture; low protein and carbohydrate content
Water hyacinth Eichhrnia crassipes F Waste water treatmentFuel source
Effectively removes waste from water and easy to harvest; possible used for methane gas production
Chinese waterchestnut
Eleocharis dulcis F Food Small-scale production in the US compared to Asia; corm consumed; each corm produces about 20 lbs. of new corms in about 220 days; labor intensive; useful in polyculture
Common Name Scientific Name Water Type
Uses Notes
Watercress Nasturtium officinale
F Food Primary freshwater aquatic plant produced in the US; requires abundant continuous flowing water; many people harvest wild crop
Cattail Typha latifoliaT. Angustifolia
F Ornamental Grown in aquatic gardens and used in dried flower arrangements; edible parts but not cultured for food
Arrowhead Sagittaria sp. F Ornamental Grown in aquatic gardens; edible parts but not cultured for food
• Phycocolloid – carrageen – obtained from plants– Used in foods for gelling, thickening, and
stabilizing• Phytoplankton – Primary producers– Photosynthesis – using sunlight and carbon
dioxide to produce oxygen– Food source for zooplankton– Bloom – helps shade out unwanted rooted aquatic
plants (pond fertilization)
US Aquatic Animal SpeciesCommon Name Scientific Name Water
Temp Water Type
Diet Notes
Atlantic salmon Salmo salar C A C Important as rod catalyst, sport fish, and commercial netting; fishing regulated by national, international, and local laws
Bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis
W F C Excellent food animal; suited for polyculture; acceptance increasing in the US
Black bullhead Ictalurus melas W F O Susceptible to disease; tolerant of adverse water conditions; demand low
Blue catfish Ictalurus furcatus
W F C Some culture work; silvery white to light blue color
Brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis
C F C Used in hybrid crosses with Lake Trout-Splake
Brown Trout Salmo trutta C F C Naturalized populations on every continent except Antarctica
Buffalofish Ictiobus cyprinellus
W F C Technology for spawning and rearing available; possible polyculture species
Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp
Water Type
Diet Notes
Channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus
W F O Principal farm-raised species in the US; oxygen depletion major problem
Chinook Salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
C A C Coastal species; researched and cultured in New Zealand; may live in freshwater
Chum salmon Oncorhynchus keta
C A C Most cold tolerant of Pacific salmon; widest distribution; hatchery techniques developed in Japan
Coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch
C A C Grow rapidly second year when feeding on other fish; introduce into Great Lakes to feed on alewife, smelts, and sea lampreys
Common Carp Cyprinus carpio W F O Deep yellow body; member of minnow family
Crappie Pponoxis spp. W F C Member of sunfish family, centrachidae; spawn readily
Cutthroat trout Salmo clarki C F C Possible to propagate artificially; hybrid potential
Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp
Water Type
Diet Notes
Fathead minnow
Phimephales w W F O Baitfish; short-ived; seldom reach 3 in. or 3 years
Flathead catfish Pylodictic olivaris
W F C Predator species; not economical to raise on large scale
Golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas
W F C Baitfish; large member of minnow family; grows to over 8 in
Goldfish Carassius auratus
W F H Baitfish; very hardy; used as feed fish or forage fish
Grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella
W F H Slim carp feeds on aquatic plants but accepts pelleted feed when cultured; cultured in Asia
Lake Trout Salvelinus namaychus
C F C Used in hybrid crosses with Brook Trout-Splake
Largemouth Bass
Micropterus salmoides
W-C F C Large bass eat small ones; spawn in gravel nest; jaw extends beyond eye
Milkfish Chanos chanos W S-B H Very disease resistant; popular in tropical Pacific; will not spawn in captivity
Mullet, striped Mugil cephalus W-C F-B-S H Commonly cultured; tropical and semitriopical; possible polyculture
Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp
Water Type
Diet Notes
Muskellunge Esox masquinongy
C F C Some cannibalism; prefer temperatures warmer than trout but cooler than catfish
Northern pike Esox lucius C F C Wild stock usually captured for egg-taking; requires forage fish
Pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha
C A C Attempts to extend range not very successful; ranched in Alaska
Pompano Trachinotus carolinus
W S C Tolerant to relatively high water temperatures and low oxygen levels; fast growth
Rainbow trout Oncorhynchus mykiss
C F C Tolerant to relatively high water temperatures and low oxygen levels; fast growth
Red drum Sciaenops ocellata
W S – B O Popular in Cajun-style restaurants; popular sport fish; some successful culture
Smallmouth bass
Micropterus dolomieui
W F C Special equipment and techniques to collect fry
Sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka
C A C Landlocked form called kohanec; crustaceans diet; pigments flesh red
Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss
C A C Anadromous form of Rainbow trout
Common Name Scientific Name Water Temp
Water Type
Diet Notes
Striped Bass, Hybrid
Morone saxatilis x Morone chrysops
W F C Cross of female striped bass and male white bass; approved for aquaculture late 1970s
Sturgeon Acinpenseridae spp.
C F O Cultured to increase numbers; some culture for roe
Sunfish (green, bluegill, redear
Lepomis spp. W F C Spawn readily; hybridize easily; female drap
Tilapia Tilapia spp. W W F H Controlling reproduction a major problem to culture; feed on algae, detritus, and waste feed
Walleye Stizostedion vitreum vitreum
W-C F C Wild stock captured for egg-taking; requires long, slender forage fish
White catfish Ictalurus catus W F C Determined inferior to channel catfish for aquaculture; hard; stocked for fee-fishing ponds
White sucker Catostomus commersoni
C F C Forage fish; adapt to formulated feed as a supplemental diet
Yellow perch Perca flavescens
C F C Famous in the Midwest; cultured in Holland; some culture trials in US
Common Name Scientific Name Water Type
Notes
Abalone, red Haliotic rugescens S The only gastropod of significance cultured in US; largest hatchery in California; prolific spawners
Clams (hard, soft) Mercenaria mercenaris
S More culture of hard clam; not widely cultured around the world; the US has most advanced culture; two to seven years to market size depending on location
Crabs (blue) Callinectes Spidus S Primarily a fisheries product; aquaculture techniques produce soft-shelled crabs
Crawfish Procambarus clarkii P. Blandingi acutus
F About 300 species in the US; harvested from wild and cultured; found on every continent except Africa and Antarctica; six to fourteen months to reach market size
Mussels Mytilus edulis S New to US culture; easy to raise; grow faster than other shellfish
Lobster Homarus americanus
S Farming from egg to market size not profitable; minimum of five years to reach market size
Prawns Macrobrachium rosenbergii
F-B High demand; started in Hawaii
Oysters Crassostrea virginica S Culture over 100 years old in the US; larvae swim free then attach to something for rest of life
Shrimp Penaeus spp. s Widely cultured in Asia but new to the US ; great demand for shrimp
• Ornamental fish– Over 100 species– Occur in tropical – brackish water– Major industry in central Florida– Water temperature management – huge concern– Culturalists specialize in the production of colorful
varieties– Sailfin mollies, guppies, clown barbs, black tetras,
angelfish, and blue gouramies
• Bullfrogs – Most come from wild – Used for consumption– Biological research – high demand compared to
supply– Difficult to culture– Japanese and Taiwanese practice open pond
culture of bullfrogs from eggs to adults
• Alligators– Valued for meat and hide– Overhunted and habitat destruction reduced
numbers– Extensive conservation efforts restored numbers –
led to culture techniques (Texas, Georgia, South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida)
– Demand keeps prices high and production and profitable
• Eels– Gourmet food in Japan, Taiwan, and European
countries– Complicated life cycles– Spawn at sea and seed stock must be captured
from wild – migrate upstream
• Zooplankton– Copepods (small crustaceans)– Rotifers– Serve as vital food source for all fish– Primary consumers
Common Characteristics of Aquatic Species
• Greater productive potential than terrestrial (land) plants and animals
– Body temperature about same as environment• Energy used for growth
– Body density similar to habitat• Energy to overcome gravity can be used for growth
– Reduced energy required for getting food• Filter feeders – energy to growth
– Efficient feed conversion• 1lb of gain for 1.5 to 2 lbs of feed
– Rapid growth• Rate of 10%/day
– Live in multidimensional environment• Polyculture• Floating cages,
• Successful culture needs to consider– Reproductive habits
• Major requirement• Stable supply of seed• Reproductive processes need to be understood• Genetic selection and improvement
– Egg and larvae requirements• Female oyster – 500 million eggs per year• Crustaceans, crayfish – 500,000 to 1 million eggs
– Nutritional needs and feeding habits• Low on food chain – uses low cost vegetable matter – carp, tilapia,
and crawfish• High on food chain – more expensive high protein diet – shrimp, trout
and bass• All needs met by aquatic environment
– Polyculture possibilities• Depends on type of production system• Intensive systems – growth rate more a concern than efficiency of
water space and nutrients• Increases total aquatic production in volume of water
– Adaptability to crowding• Increases productivity of a space while increasing management
for space – Disease resistance
• Based on conditions at production sites– Market demand
• Desired by consumers• Price consumers can afford• Prepared, easy-to-use forms of product• Storage to reach consumer• Desired flavor
Species Spawning Frequency
Eggs per pound of Fish
Chinook salmon Once per life span 350
Coho salmon Once per life span 400
Sockeye salmon Once per life span 500
Atlantic salmon Annual-biennial 800
Trout Annual 1,000-1,200
Northern pike Annual 9,100
Walleye Annual 25,000
Striped bass Annual 100,000
Channel catfish Annual 3.750
Largemouth bass Annual 13,000
Smallmouth bass Annual 8,000
Bluegill Intermittent 50,000
Golden shiner Intermittent 75,000
Goldfish Intermittent 50,000
Common carp Intermittent 60,000
Structures and Functions of Aquatic Animals and Plants
• Animal surfaces
– Dorsal – upper surface– Ventral – lower or abdominal surface– Anterior – applies to front or head– Posterior – tail or rear of animal
• Morphology– Structure and form of fish– Herbivores • small upturned mouths – surface feeders like tilapia• Downturned mouths – bottom feeders like catfish
– Homocercal • single-lobed tail fins – slow swimmers – thrive in water
free of movement– Heterocercal • Forked tail fins – fast swimmers – thrive in flowing
water
• Body shape– Fusiform – long body tapered toward the end– Fast swimmers and need water space
• Wide and flat or ventrally compressed– Stay on bottom and require lots of bottom space for
growth• Laterally compressed– Rounded and thin from side to side– Hover in water
• Physiology– Function of body– Skeletal system• Rigid framework – body shape and protect organs• Bony or hard material and cartilage• Internal (endoskeleton) or external (exoskeleton)
– Muscular system• Provides movement for food and oxygen gathering and
eliminating wastes– Digestive system• Converts feed into form for body maintenance, growth,
and reproduction
– Digestive system• Converts feed into form for body maintenance, growth,
and reproduction• Assimilation – incorporation into the body• Mouth to anus• Vary according to diet
– Herbivores – plants– Carnivores – animals– Omnivores – both plants and animals
– Excretory system• Eliminates wastes• Kidneys, urinary ducts, urinary bladder, and urinary
opening– Respiratory system• Takes in oxygen, delivers to tissues and cells, picks up
carbon dioxide• Gills take in oxygen by diffusion
– Circulatory system• Distributes blood throughout body
– Nervous system• Supplies body with information about its environment• Impulses – electrical chemical changes• Sense organs or receptors
– Sensory system• Five senses• Relays information through nervous system• Find food, identify predators, hearing, lateral lines that
detect vibrations and motion
– Reproduction system• Creating new organisms• Gametes – male and female sex cells• Zygote – fertilized egg• Incubation – period the zygote develops into a new
organism• Some reproduce asexually
• Anatomy– Anatomy of Finfish• Bony fish with hard calcium-based endoskeletons• Form and protects organs• Bony plates or scales – scales grow with fish• Digestive systems vary – herbivores have small stomach
and long intestines – carnivores have large stomachs and short intestines• Well develop nervous systems – lateral line important to
sensory organ – maintain balance and position• External fertilization• Gills remove oxygen from water – semipermeable –
allows gases to pass through
– Anatomy of Crustaceans• Shrimp, prawns, lobsters, crabs, crawfish• Exoskeleton of chitinous material
– Polysaccharide of hexose proteins and inorganic salts– Protects and supports soft body
• Decapods (10 legs)• Molting – shedding of old exoskeleton as it grows• 3 body segments
– Head, » 2 pairs of antennae Mandibles or true jaws » two pairs of maxillae (little jaws)
– Thorax» 3 pairs of jaw feet (hold food)» Large claws – protection and food getting» Last 4 – 2 tiny pincers at tip and 2 on claws
– Abdomen » Swimmerets – egg attachment» Sixth swimmeret develops into a flipper or uropod for locomotion
– Regeneration – regrowth of limbs– Internal anatomy
• Simple circulatory, nervous, and excretory systems• Open circulatory system sinuses spaces that collect blood• Ear sacs aid in balance• Use gills to breathe• Life cycle and reproduction complex
– Duct from testes or ovaries leads to outside to deposit sperm or eggs
– Pandalids group of shrimp begin as males and after two years change to females
– Anatomy of Mollusks• Bivalve – two shells – clams and oysters• Calcareous material – hard and resembles limestone• Adductor – muscles hold shells together• Muscular, hatchet-shaped foot digging• Mantle lays over internal organs and secretes hard shell• Simple digestive and nervous system• Gills filter material from water – contains cilia• Siphon – water enters pass over gills and out another
siphon via anus• Protandrous – change sex one or more times in their lives• Hermaphroditic – have gonads for both sexes• Gastropods have only one shell (snails, abalones)
– Aquatic Plants• Make own food via photosynthesis (requires light and
chlorophyll to convert carbon dioxide and water to sugar, oxygen, and water• Use stored energy by respiring – use energy for growth
and reproduction• Algae: diatoms, desmoids, blue-green algae, euglena,
volvox, and filamentous green algae, giant kelp• Reproduce asexually by spores – some produce
gametes or sex cells• Fleshy corms of Chinese water chestnuts produce more
corms – • Propagate by cuttings
• Remove ammonia and nitrite wastes from water• Algae
– Primitive plants without true roots, stems, or leaves– Filamentous algae form floating mats or hairlike strands (moss or
pond scum)• Macrophytes
– Vascular plants with true roots, stems, and leaves– Free-floating – tiny green plants (duckweed or watermeal)– Emergent – attached to bottom, but extend out of water (water
lilies, or lotus)– Submergent – pondweed or hornwort are rooted and grow
underwater– Marginal – very shallow water (cattails and bulrushes
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