articulations - learning.hccs.edu

PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations prepared by Jason LaPres Lone Star College—North Harris

9 Articulations

An Introduction to Articulations

• Learning Outcomes • 9-1 Contrast the major categories of joints, and

explain the relationship between structure and function for each category.

• 9-2 Describe the basic structure of a synovial joint, and describe common synovial joint accessory structures and their functions.

• 9-3 Describe how the anatomical and functional properties of synovial joints permit movements of the skeleton.

• 9-4 Describe the articulations between the vertebrae of the vertebral column.

• Learning Outcomes • 9-5 Describe the structure and function of the

shoulder joint and the elbow joint.

• 9-6 Describe the structure and function of the hip joint and the knee joint.

• 9-7 Describe the effects of aging on articulations, and discuss the most common age-related clinical problems for articulations.

• 9-8 Explain the functional relationships between the skeletal system and other body systems.

• Articulations

• Body movement occurs at joints (articulations) where two bones connect

• Joint Structure

• Determines direction and distance of movement (range of motion or ROM)

• Joint strength decreases as mobility increases

9-1 Classification of Joints

• Two Methods of Classification

1. Functional classification is based on range of motion

of the joint

2. Structural classification relies on the anatomical

organization of the joint

• Functional Classifications

• Synarthrosis (immovable joint)

• Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable joint)

• Diarthrosis (freely movable joint)

• Structural Classifications

• Bony

• Fibrous

• Cartilaginous

• Synovial

Table 9-1 Functional and Structural Classifications of Articulations

• Synarthroses (Immovable Joints)

• Are very strong

• Edges of bones may touch or interlock

• Four types of synarthrotic joints

1. Suture

2. Gomphosis

3. Synchondrosis

4. Synostosis

• Suture

• Bones interlocked

• Are bound by dense fibrous connective tissue

• Are found only in skull

• Gomphosis

• Fibrous connection (periodontal ligament)

• Binds teeth to sockets

• Synchondrosis • Is a rigid cartilaginous bridge between two bones

• Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones

• Between vertebrosternal ribs and sternum

• Synostosis

• Fused bones, immovable • Metopic suture of skull

• Epiphyseal lines of long bones

• Amphiarthroses

• More movable than synarthrosis

• Stronger than freely movable joint

• Two types of amphiarthroses

1. Syndesmosis

• Bones connected by ligaments

2. Symphysis

• Bones separated by fibrocartilage

• Synovial Joints (Diarthroses)

• Also called movable joints

• At ends of long bones

• Within articular capsules

• Lined with synovial membrane

9-2 Synovial Joints

• Articular Cartilages

• Pad articulating surfaces within articular capsules

• Prevent bones from touching

• Smooth surfaces lubricated by synovial fluid

• Reduce friction

9-2 Synovial Joints

• Synovial Fluid

• Contains slippery proteoglycans secreted by fibroblasts

• Functions of synovial fluid

1. Lubrication

2. Nutrient distribution

3. Shock absorption

9-2 Synovial Joints

• Accessory Structures

• Cartilages

• Fat pads

• Ligaments

• Tendons

• Bursae

9-2 Synovial Joints

• Cartilages • Cushion the joint

• Fibrocartilage pad called a meniscus (or articular disc; plural, menisci)

• Fat Pads • Superficial to the joint capsule

• Protect articular cartilages

• Ligaments • Support, strengthen joints

• Sprain – ligaments with torn collagen fibers

9-2 Synovial Joints

• Tendons

• Attach to muscles around joint

• Help support joint

• Bursae

• Singular, bursa, a pouch

• Pockets of synovial fluid

• Cushion areas where tendons or ligaments rub

9-2 Synovial Joints

• Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints

• Prevent injury by limiting range of motion

• Collagen fibers (joint capsule, ligaments)

• Articulating surfaces and menisci

• Other bones, muscles, or fat pads

• Tendons of articulating bones

Figure 9-1a The Structure of a Synovial Joint

Synovial joint, sagittal section

Medullary cavity

Spongy bone

Periosteum

Fibrous joint capsule

Synovial membrane Articular cartilages

Joint cavity (containing synovial fluid)

Compact bone

Figure 9-1b The Structure of a Synovial Joint

Knee joint, sagittal section

Synovial membrane

Intracapsular ligament

Joint capsule

Meniscus

Quadriceps tendon

Patella

Articular cartilage

Fat pad Patellar ligament

Joint cavity Meniscus

9-2 Synovial Joints

• Injuries

• Dislocation (luxation)

• Articulating surfaces forced out of position

• Damages articular cartilage, ligaments, joint capsule

• Subluxation

• A partial dislocation

9-3 Movements

• Three Types of Dynamic Motion

1. Linear movement (gliding)

2. Angular movement

3. Rotation

• Planes (Axes) of Dynamic Motion

• Monaxial (1 axis)

• Biaxial (2 axes)

• Triaxial (3 axes)

Figure 9-2 A Simple Model of Articular Movement

Initial position Gliding movement Angular movement Circumduction Rotation

Figure 9-2a A Simple Model of Articular Movement

Initial position

Initial position of the model. The pencil is at right angles to surface.

Figure 9-2b A Simple Model of Articular Movement

Gliding movement

Possible movement 1, showing gliding, an example of linear movement. The pencil remains vertical, but tip moves away from point of origin.

Figure 9-2c A Simple Model of Articular Movement

Angular movement

Possible movement 2, showing angular movement. The pencil tip remains stationary, but shaft changes angle relative to the surface.

Figure 9-2d A Simple Model of Articular Movement

Circumduction

Possible movement 2, showing a special type of angular movement called circumduction. Pencil tip remains stationary while the shaft, held at an angle less than 90º, moves in a conical pattern to complete a circle.

Figure 9-2e A Simple Model of Articular Movement

Rotation

Possible movement 3, showing rotation. With tip at same point, the angle of the shaft remains unchanged as the shaft spins around its longitudinal axis.

9-3 Movements

• Types of Movement at Synovial Joints

• Terms describe:

• Plane or direction of motion

• Relationship between structures

9-3 Movements

• Gliding Movement

• Two surfaces slide past each other

• Between carpal or tarsal bones

9-3 Movements

• Angular Movement

• Flexion

• Angular motion

• Anterior–posterior plane

• Reduces angle between elements

• Extension

• Angular motion

• Anterior–posterior plane

• Increases angle between elements

9-3 Movements

• Hyperextension

• Angular motion

• Extension past anatomical position

Figure 9-3a Angular Movements

Flexion/extension

Extension

Flexion

Hyperextension

Hyper- extension

Flexion

Extension

9-3 Movements

• Abduction

• Angular motion

• Frontal plane

• Moves away from longitudinal axis

• Adduction

• Angular motion

• Frontal plane

• Moves toward longitudinal axis

Figure 9-3b Angular Movements

Abduction/adduction

Abduction

Adduction

Adduction Adduction

Abduction

Figure 9-3c Angular Movements

Adduction/abduction

Abduction Adduction

9-3 Movements

• Circumduction

• Circular motion without rotation

• Angular motion

Figure 9-3d Angular Movements

Circumduction

9-3 Movements

• Rotation

• Direction of rotation from anatomical position

• Relative to longitudinal axis of body

• Left or right rotation

• Medial rotation (inward rotation)

• Rotates toward axis

• Lateral rotation (outward rotation)

• Rotates away from axis

Figure 9-4a Rotational Movements Head rotation

Right rotation

Left rotation

Lateral (external) rotation Medial

(internal) rotation

9-3 Movements

• Types of Movements at Synovial Joints

• Rotation

• Pronation

• Rotates forearm, radius over ulna

• Supination

• Forearm in anatomical position

Figure 9-4b Rotational Movements

Supination Pronation

Pronation

Supination

9-3 Movements

• Special Movements

• Inversion

• Twists sole of foot medially

• Eversion

• Twists sole of foot laterally

• Dorsiflexion

• Flexion at ankle (lifting toes)

• Plantar flexion

• Extension at ankle (pointing toes)

Figure 9-5 Synovial Joints

Eversion Inversion

Plantar flexion

(ankle extension)

Dorsiflexion (ankle flexion)

9-3 Movements

• Special Movements • Opposition

• Thumb movement toward fingers or palm (grasping)

• Reposition

• Opposite of opposition

• Protraction

• Moves anteriorly

• In the horizontal plane (pushing forward)

• Retraction

• Opposite of protraction

• Moving anteriorly (pulling back)

Opposition

Protraction Retraction

9-3 Movements

• Special Movements

• Elevation

• Moves in superior direction (up)

• Depression

• Moves in inferior direction (down)

• Lateral flexion

• Bends vertebral column from side to side

Elevation Depression

Lateral flexion

9-3 Movements

• Classification of Synovial Joints by Shape

• Gliding

• Hinge

• Pivot

• Condylar

• Saddle

• Ball-and-socket

9-3 Movements

• Gliding Joints

• Flattened or slightly curved faces

• Limited motion (nonaxial)

• Hinge Joints

• Angular motion in a single plane (monaxial)

• Pivot Joints

• Rotation only (monaxial)

Gliding joint

Manubrium

Movement: slight nonaxial or multiaxial Examples: • Acromioclavicular and claviculosternal joints • Intercarpal and intertarsal joints • Vertebrocostal joints • Sacro-iliac joints

Hinge joint

Humerus

Movement: monaxial Examples: • Elbow joint • Knee joint • Ankle joint • Interphalangeal joint

Pivot joint

Movement: monaxial (rotation) Examples: • Atlanto-axial joint • Proximal radio-ulnar joint

9-3 Movements

• Condylar Joints

• Oval articular face within a depression

• Motion in two planes (biaxial)

• Saddle Joints

• Two concave, straddled (biaxial)

• Ball-and-socket Joints

• Round articular face in a depression (triaxial)

Condylar joint

Scaphoid bone

Movement: biaxial Examples: • Radiocarpal joint • Metacarpophalangeal joints 2–5 • Metatarsophalangeal joints

Saddle joint

Trapezium

Metacarpal bone of thumb

III II

Movement: biaxial Examples: • First carpometacarpal joint

Ball-and-socket joint

Humerus

Scapula

Movement: triaxial Examples: • Shoulder joint • Hip joint

9-3 Movements

• Joints

• A joint cannot be both mobile and strong

• The greater the mobility, the weaker the joint

• Mobile joints are supported by muscles and ligaments, not bone-to-bone connections

ANIMATION Representative Articulations: A Functional Classification of Synovial Joints

9-4 Intervertebral Articulations

• Intervertebral Articulations

• C2 to L5 spinal vertebrae articulate:

• At inferior and superior articular processes (gliding

joints)

• Between adjacent vertebral bodies (symphyseal joints)

• Intervertebral Discs • Pads of fibrocartilage

• Separate vertebral bodies

• Anulus fibrosus • Tough outer layer

• Attaches disc to vertebrae

• Nucleus pulposus • Elastic, gelatinous core

• Absorbs shocks

Figure 9-7 Intervertebral Articulations

Vertebral end plate

Anulus fibrosus

Nucleus pulposus

Spinal cord

Spinal nerve

Intervertebral Disc

Superior articular

Intervertebral foramen

Ligamentum flavum

Posterior longitudinal

ligament

Interspinous ligament

Supraspinous ligament

Anterior longitudinal

ligament

• Vertebral Joints

• Also called symphyseal joints

• As vertebral column moves:

• Nucleus pulposus shifts

• Disc shape conforms to motion

• Intervertebral Ligaments

• Bind vertebrae together

• Stabilize the vertebral column

• Six Intervertebral Ligaments

1. Anterior longitudinal ligament

• Connects anterior bodies

2. Posterior longitudinal ligament

• Connects posterior bodies

3. Ligamentum flavum

• Connects laminae

• Six Intervertebral Ligaments

4. Interspinous ligament

• Connects spinous processes

5. Supraspinous ligament

• Connects tips of spinous processes (C7 to sacrum)

6. Ligamentum nuchae

• Continues supraspinous ligament (C7 to skull)

• Damage to Intervertebral Discs

• Slipped disc

• Bulge in anulus fibrosus

• Invades vertebral canal

• Herniated disc

• Nucleus pulposus breaks through anulus fibrosus

• Presses on spinal cord or nerves

Figure 9-8a Damage to the Intervertebral Discs

Normal intervertebral disc

Slipped disc

A lateral view of the lumbar region of the spinal column, showing a distorted intervertebral disc (a “slipped” disc)

Figure 9-8b Damage to the Intervertebral Discs

Compressed area of spinal nerve

Nucleus pulposus of herniated disc

Spinal nerve Spinal cord Anulus fibrosus

A sectional view through a herniated disc, showing the release of the nucleus pulposus and its effect on the spinal cord and adjacent spinal nerves

• Movements of the Vertebral Column

1. Flexion

2. Extension

3. Lateral flexion

4. Rotation

9-4 Articulations of the Axial Skeleton

Articulations of the Axial Skeleton Element Joint Type of

Articulation Movement(s)

Cranial and facial bones of skull

Various Synarthroses (suture or synostosis

Maxilla/teeth and mandible/teeth

Alveolar Synarthrosis (gomphosis)

Temporal bone/mandible

Temporo-mandibular

Combined gliding joint and hinge diarthrosis

Elevation, depression, and lateral gliding

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Occipital bone/atlas

Atlanto-occipital Condylar diarthrosis

Flexion/ extension

Atlas/axis Atlanto-axial Pivot diarthrosis

Rotation

Other vertebral elements

Intervertebral (between vertebral bodies)

Amphiarthrosis (symphysis)

Slight movement

Intervertebral (between articular processes)

Gliding diarthritis

Slight rotation and flexion/ extension

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

L5/sacrum Between L5 body and sacral body

Amphiarthrosis (symphysis)

Slight movement

Between inferior articular processes of L5 and articular processes of sacrum

Gliding diarthrosis

Slight flexion/ extension

VERTEBRAL COLUMN

Sacrum/coxal bone

Sacro-iliac Gliding diarthrosis

Slight movement

Sacrum/coccyx Sacrococcygeal Gliding diarthrosis (may become fused)

Slight movement

Coccygeal bones

Synarthrosis (synostosis)

No movement

THORACIC CAGE

Bodies of T1–T12 and heads of ribs

Costovertebral Gliding diarthrosis

Slight movement

Transverse processes of T1–T10

Costovertebral Gliding diarthrosis

Slight movement

Ribs and costal cartilages

Synarthrosis (synchondrosis)

No movement

THORACIC CAGE

Sternum and first costal cartilage

Sternocostal (1st)

Synarthrosis (synchondrosis)

No movement

Sternum and costal cartilages 2–7

Sternocostal (2nd–7th)

Gliding diarthrosis

Slight movement

9-5 The Shoulder Joint

• The Shoulder Joint

• Also called the glenohumeral joint

• Allows more motion than any other joint

• Is the least stable

• Supported by skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments

• Ball-and-socket diarthrosis

• Between head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula

• Socket of the Shoulder Joint

• Glenoid labrum

• Deepens socket of glenoid cavity

• Fibrocartilage lining

• Extends past the bone

• Processes of the Shoulder Joint

• Acromion (clavicle) and coracoid process (scapula)

• Project laterally, superior to the humerus

• Help stabilize the joint

• Shoulder Ligaments

• Glenohumeral

• Coracohumeral

• Coraco-acromial

• Coracoclavicular

• Acromioclavicular

• Shoulder Separation

• Dislocation of the shoulder joint

• Shoulder Muscles (Rotator Cuff)

• Supraspinatus

• Infraspinatus

• Subscapularis

• Teres minor

• Shoulder Bursae

• Subacromial

• Subcoracoid

• Subdeltoid

• Subscapular

Figure 9-9a The Shoulder Joint

Anterior view, frontal section

Clavicle

Scapula

Acromion

Articular capsule

Subdeltoid bursa

Synovial membrane

Humerus

Tendon of supraspinatus

muscle

Acromioclavicular ligament

Coracoclavicular ligaments

Coraco-acromial ligament Coracoid process Articular cartilages

Glenoid labrum Joint cavity

Articular capsule

Figure 9-9b The Shoulder Joint

Lateral view of pectoral girdle

Acromioclavicular ligament

Coraco-acromial ligament

Tendon of supraspinatus

muscle Acromion

Scapula

Subacromial bursa

Articular capsule

Tendon of infraspinatus

muscle Teres minor

muscle

Clavicle

Coracoclavicular ligaments

Tendon of biceps brachii muscle Coracohumeral ligament (cut) Coracoid process Subcoracoid bursa Subscapular bursa Subscapularis muscle

Glenohumeral ligaments

Glenoid cavity

Glenoid labrum

9-5 The Elbow Joint

• The Elbow Joint

• A stable hinge joint

• With articulations involving humerus, radius, and ulna

9-5 The Elbow Joint

• Articulations of the Elbow

• Humero-ulnar joint

• Largest articulation

• Trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna

• Limited movement

9-5 The Elbow Joint

• Articulations of the Elbow

• Humeroradial joint

• Smaller articulation

• Capitulum of humerus and head of radius

Figure 9-10a The Right Elbow Joint Showing Stabilizing Ligaments

Lateral view

Capitulum

Humerus

Radius

Radial collateral ligament

Radial tuberosity

Antebrachial interosseous

membrane

Annular ligament (covering head and neck of radius)

9-5 The Elbow Joint

• Supporting Structures of the Elbow

• Biceps brachii muscle

• Attached to radial tuberosity

• Controls elbow motion

• Elbow Ligaments

• Radial collateral

• Annular

• Ulnar collateral

Figure 9-10b The Right Elbow Joint Showing Stabilizing Ligaments

Medial view

Antebrachial interosseous

membrane

Tendon of biceps brachii muscle

Annular ligament

Humerus

Articular capsule

Medial epicondyle

Ulnar collateral ligament

Olecranon of ulna

Radius

9-6 The Hip Joint

• The Hip Joint

• Also called coxal joint

• Strong ball-and-socket diarthrosis

• Wide range of motion

9-6 The Hip Joint

• Structures of the Hip Joint

• Head of femur fits into it

• Socket of acetabulum

• Which is extended by fibrocartilaginous acetabular

labrum

9-6 The Hip Joint

• Ligaments of the Hip Joint • Iliofemoral

• Pubofemoral

• Ischiofemoral

• Transverse acetabular

• Ligamentum teres

Figure 9-11a The Right Hip Joint

A lateral view with the femur removed

Fat pad in acetabular

Acetabulum

Iliofemoral ligament

Fibrocartilage pad

Acetabular labrum

Ligament of the femoral head

Transverse acetabular ligament (spanning acetabular notch)

Figure 9-11b The Right Hip Joint

An anterior view

Pubofemoral ligament

Greater trochanter Iliofemoral

ligament

Lesser trochanter

Figure 9-11c The Right Hip Joint

A posterior view, showing addi- tional ligaments that add strength to the capsule

Iliofemoral ligament

Ischiofemoral ligament

Greater trochanter

Lesser trochanter

Ischial tuberosity

9-6 The Knee Joint

• The Knee Joint

• A complicated hinge joint

• Transfers weight from femur to tibia

• Articulations of the knee joint

• Two femur–tibia articulations

• At medial and lateral condyles

• One between patella and patellar surface of femur

9-6 The Knee Joint

• The Articular Capsule and Joint Cavity

• Medial and lateral menisci

• Fibrocartilage pads

• At femur–tibia articulations

• Cushion and stabilize joint

• Give lateral support

9-6 The Knee Joint

• Seven Major Supporting Ligaments

1. Patellar ligament (anterior)

2. & 3. Two popliteal ligaments (posterior)

4. & 5. Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (inside

joint capsule)

6. Tibial collateral ligament (medial)

7. Fibular collateral ligament (lateral)

Figure 9-12a The Right Knee Joint

Anterior view, superficial layer

Joint capsule

Quadriceps tendon

Patellar retinaculae

Fibular collateral ligament

Patella

Patellar ligament

Tibial collateral ligament

Figure 9-12b The Right Knee Joint

Posterior view, superficial layer

Joint capsule

Popliteal ligaments Popliteus

muscle

Fibula

Cut tendon of biceps femoris muscle

Gastrocnemius muscle, lateral head

Plantaris muscle

Gastrocnemius muscle,

medial head

Figure 9-12c The Right Knee Joint

Deep anterior view, flexed

Medial condyle

Medial meniscus

Posterior cruciate ligament

Anterior cruciate ligament

Lateral meniscus

Cut tendon

Fibula

Lateral condyle

Patellar surface

Figure 9-12d The Right Knee Joint

Deep posterior view, extended

Fibular collateral ligament Lateral condyle

Lateral meniscus

Cut tendon

Fibula

Posterior cruciate ligament

Anterior cruciate ligament

Medial meniscus

Medial condyle

9-6 Articulations of the Appendicular Skeleton Articulations of the Appendicular Skeleton

Element Joint Type of Articulation

Movements

ARTICULATIONS OF THE PECTORAL GIRDLE AND UPPER LIMB

Sternum/ clavicle

Sternoclavicular Gliding diarthrosis Protraction/ retraction, elevation/ depression, slight rotation

Scapula/ clavicle

Acromioclavicular Gliding diarthrosis Slight movement

Scapula/ humerus

Shoulder, or glenohumeral

Ball-and-socket diarthrosis

Flexion/ extension, adduction/ abduction, circumduction, rotation

9-6 Articulations of the Appendicular Skeleton

Articulations of the Appendicular Skeleton Element Joint Type of

Articulation Movements

Humerus/ulna and humerus/ radius

Elbow (humero-ulnar and humeroradial)

Hinge diarthrosis Flexion/ extension

Radius/ulna Proximal radio-ulnar

Pivot diarthrosis Rotation

Distal radio-ulnar

Pivot diarthrosis Pronation/ supination

Radius/carpal bones

Radiocarpal Condylar diarthrosis

Flexion/ extension, adduction/ abduction, circumduction

Carpal bone to carpal bone

Intercarpal Gliding diarthrosis

Slight movement

Carpal bone to metacarpal bone (I)

Carpometacarpal of thumb

Saddle diarthrosis

Flexion/ extension, adduction/ abduction, circumduction, opposition

Carpal bone to metacarpal bone (II–V)

Carpometacarpal Gliding diarthrosis

Slight flexion/ extension, adduction/abduction

Metacarpal bone to phalanx

Metacarpo-phalangeal

Condylar diarthrosis

Flexion/extension, adduction/abduction, circumduction

Phalanx/phalanx Interphalangeal Hinge diarthrosis

Flexion/extension

ARTICULATIONS OF THE PELVIC GIRDLE AND LOWER LIMB

Sacrum/ilium of coxal bone

Sacro-iliac Gliding diarthrosis

Slight movement

Coxal bone/ coxal bone

Pubic symphysis

Amphiarthrosis None

Coxal bone/femur

Hip Ball-and-socket diarthrosis

Flexion/extension, adduction/abduction, circumduction, rotation

Femur/tibia Knee Complex, functions as hinge

Flexion/extension, limited rotation

Tibia/fibula Tibiofibular (proximal)

Gliding diarthrosis Slight movement

Tibiofibular (distal)

Gliding diarthrosis and amphiarthrotic syndesmosis

Slight movement

Tibia and fibula with talus

Ankle, or talocrural

Hinge diarthrosis Flexion/extension (dorsiflexion/plantar flexion)

Tarsal bone to tarsal bone

Intertarsal Gliding diarthrosis Slight movement

Tarsal bone to metatarsal bone

Tarsometatarsal Gliding diarthrosis

Slight movement

Metatarsal bone to phalanx

Metatarso-phalangeal

Condylar diarthrosis

Flexion/extension, adduction/abduction

Phalanx/phalanx Interphalangeal Hinge diarthrosis

Flexion/extension

9-7 Effects of Aging on Articulations

• Degenerative Changes • Rheumatism

• A pain and stiffness of skeletal and muscular systems

• Arthritis • All forms of rheumatism that damage articular

cartilages of synovial joints

• Osteoarthritis • Caused by wear and tear of joint surfaces, or genetic

factors affecting collagen formation

• Generally in people over age 60

• Rheumatoid Arthritis • An inflammatory condition

• Caused by infection, allergy, or autoimmune disease

• Involves the immune system

• Gouty Arthritis • Occurs when crystals (uric acid or calcium salts)

• Form within synovial fluid

• Due to metabolic disorders

• Joint Immobilization • Reduces flow of synovial fluid

• Can cause arthritis symptoms

• Treated by continuous passive motion or CPM (therapy)

• Bones and Aging • Bone mass decreases

• Bones weaken

• Increases risk of hip fracture, hip dislocation, or pelvic fracture

9-8 Integration with Other Systems

• Bone Recycling

• Living bones maintain equilibrium between:

• Bone building (osteoblasts)

• And breakdown (osteoclasts)

• Factors Affecting Bone Strength

1. Age

2. Physical stress

3. Hormone levels

4. Calcium and phosphorus uptake and excretion

5. Genetic and environmental factors

• Bones Support Body Systems

• Support and protect other systems

• Store fat, calcium, and phosphorus

• Manufacture cells for immune system

• Bones Support Body Systems

• Disorders in other body systems can cause:

• Bone tumors

• Osteoporosis

• Arthritis

• Rickets (vitamin D deficiency)

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