bahan hydrogeology
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HydrogeologyFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has
insufficient inline citations. Please help to improvethis article by introducing more precise
citations. (September 2007)
Hydrogeology (hydro- meaning water, and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area
of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the
Earth's crust, (commonly in auifers)! "he term geohydrology is often used interchangeably!
#ome make the minor distinction between a hydrologist or engineer applying themselves to
geology (geohydrology), and a geologist applying themselves to hydrology (hydrogeology)!
"ypical auifer cross$section
Contents
[hide]
1 Introduction
2 Hydrogeology in relation to other fields
!efinitions and material properties
o .1 Hydraulic head
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o .2 Porosity
o . "ater content
o .# Hydraulic conductivity
o .$ %pecific storage and specific yield
o .& 'ontaminant transport properties
.&.1 Hydrodynamic dispersion
.&.2 (olecular !iffusion
.&. )etardation by adsorption
# *overning e+uations
o #.1 !arcys -a
o #.2 *roundater flo e+uation
$ 'alculation of groundater flo
o $.1 /nalytic methods
o $.2 0umerical methods
$.2.1 *eneral properties of gridded methods
$.2.2 /pplication of finite difference models
$.2. /pplication of finite element models
$.2.# /pplication of finite volume models
$.2.$ ther methods
& %ee also
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)eferences
3 4urther reading
o 3.1 *eneral hydrogeology
o 3.2 0umerical groundater modeling
o 3. /nalytic groundater modeling
5 67ternal lin8s and sources
%edit&ntroduction
Hydrogeology is an interdisciplinary subect it can be difficult to account fully for
the chemical, physical, biological and even legal interactions
between soil, water , nature and society! "he study of the interaction between groundwater
movement and geology can be uite comple*! +roundwater does not always flow in the subsurface
down$hill following the surface topography groundwater followspressure gradients (flow from highpressure to low) often following fractures and conduits in circuitous paths! "aking into account the
interplay of the different facets of a multi$component system often reuires knowledge in several
diverse fields at both the e*perimental and theoretical levels! "he following is a more traditional
introduction to the methods and nomenclature of saturated subsurface hydrology, or simply
hydrogeology!
%edit&Hydrogeology in relation to other fields
Hydrogeology, as stated above, is a branch of the earth sciences dealing with the flow of water
through auifers and other shallow porous media (typically less than -. m or /,-.. ft below the
land surface!) "he very shallow flow of water in the subsurface (the upper 0 m or /. ft) is pertinent
to the fields of soil science, agriculture and civil engineering, as well as to hydrogeology! "he
general flow of fluids (water, hydrocarbons, geothermal fluids, etc!) in deeper formations is also a
concern of geologists, geophysicists and petroleum geologists! +roundwater is a slow$
moving, viscous fluid (with a1eynolds number less than unity) many of the empirically derived
laws of groundwater flow can be alternately derived in fluid mechanics from the special case
of #tokes flow (viscosity and pressureterms, but no inertial term)!
"he mathematical relationships used to describe the flow of water through porous media are
the diffusion and 2aplace euations, which have applications in many diverse fields! #teady
groundwater flow (2aplace euation) has been simulated using electrical, elastic and heat
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conduction analogies! "ransient groundwater flow is analogous to the diffusion of heat in a solid,
therefore some solutions to hydrological problems have been adapted from heat transfer literature!
"raditionally, the movement of groundwater has been studied separately from surface
water, climatology, and even the chemical and microbiological aspects of hydrogeology (the
processes are uncoupled)! 3s the field of hydrogeology matures, the strong interactions between
groundwater, surface water , water chemistry, soil moisture and even climate are becoming more
clear!
For e*ample4 3uifer drawdown or overdrafting and the pumping of fossil water increases the total
amount of water within the hydrosphere subect to transpiration and evaporation processes,
thereby causing accretion in water vapour and cloud cover, the primary absorbers
of infrared radiation in the earth's atmosphere! 3dding water to the system has a forcing effect on
the whole earth system! 3n accurate estimate of the climatic forcing effect due to this
hydrogeological fact is yet to be uantified!
%edit&5efinitions and material properties
Main article: Aquifer
6ne of the main tasks a hydrogeologist typically performs is the prediction of future behavior of an
auifer system, based on analysis of past and present observations! #ome hypothetical, but
characteristic uestions asked would be4
7an the auifer support another subdivision8
Will the river dry up if the farmer doubles his irrigation8
5id the chemicals from the dry cleaning facility travel through the auifer to my well and
make me sick8
Will the plume of effluent leaving my neighbor's septic system flow to my drinking water
well8
9ost of these uestions can be addressed through simulation of the hydrologic system (using
numerical models or analytic euations)! 3ccurate simulation of the auifer system reuires
knowledge of the auifer properties and boundary conditions! "herefore a common task of the
hydrogeologist is determining auifer properties using auifer tests!
n order to further characteri:e auifers and auitards some primary and derived physical
properties are introduced below! 3uifers are broadly classified as being either confined or
unconfined (water table auifers), and either saturated or unsaturated the type of auifer affects
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what properties control the flow of water in that medium (e!g!, the release of water from storage for
confined auifers is related to the storativity, while it is related to the specific yield for unconfined
auifers)!
%edit&Hydraulic head
Main article: Hydraulic head
7hanges in hydraulic head (h) are the driving force which causes water to move from one place to
another! t is composed of pressure head (ψ ) and elevation head (z )! "he head gradient is the
change in hydraulic head per length of flowpath, and appears in 5arcy's law as being proportional
to the discharge!
Hydraulic head is a directly measurable property that can take on any value (because of the
arbitrary datum involved in the z term) ψ can be measured with a pressure transducer (this value
can be negative, e!g!, suction, but is positive in saturated auifers), and z can be measured relative
to a surveyed datum (typically the top of the well casing)! 7ommonly, in wells tapping unconfined
auifers the water level in a well is used as a pro*y for hydraulic head, assuming there is no
vertical gradient of pressure! 6ften only changes in hydraulic head through time are needed, so the
constant elevation head term can be left out ( Δh = Δψ )!
3 record of hydraulic head through time at a well is a hydrograph or, the changes in hydraulic head
recorded during the pumping of a well in a test are called drawdown!
%edit&Porosity
Main article: Porosity
;orosity (n) is a directly measurable auifer property it is a fraction between . and / indicating the
amount of pore space between unconsolidated soil particles or within a fractured rock! "ypically,
the maority of groundwater (and anything dissolved in it) moves through the porosity available to
flow (sometimes called effective porosity)! Permeability is an e*pression of the connectedness of
the pores! For instance, an unfractured rock unit may have a high porosity (it has lots
of holes between its constituent grains), but a low permeability (none of the pores are connected)!
3n e*ample of this phenomenon is pumice, which, when in its unfractured state, can make a poor
auifer!
;orosity does not directly affect the distribution of hydraulic head in an auifer, but it has a very
strong effect on the migration of dissolved contaminants, since it affects groundwater flow
velocities through an inversely proportional relationship!
%edit&Water content
Main article: ater content
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Water content (! ) is also a directly measurable property it is the fraction of the total rock which is
filled with liuid water! "his is also a fraction between . and /, but it must also be less than or eual
to the total porosity!
"he water content is very important in vadose :one hydrology, where the hydraulic conductivity is a
strongly nonlinear function of water content this complicates the solution of the unsaturated
groundwater flow euation!
%edit&Hydraulic conductivity
Main article: Hydraulic conducti"ity
Hydraulic conductivity (# ) and transmissivity ($ ) are indirect auifer properties (they cannot be
measured directly)! $ is the # integrated over the vertical thickness (b) of the auifer
($=#b when # is constant over the entire thickness)! "hese properties are measures of an auifer 's
ability to transmit water ! ntrinsic permeability (% ) is a secondary medium property which does not
depend on theviscosity and density of the fluid (# and $ are specific to water) it is used more in
the petroleum industry!
%edit&Specific storage and specific yield
Main article: &pecific storage
#pecific storage (&s) and its depth$integrated euivalent, storativity (&=&sb), are indirect auifer
properties (they cannot be measured directly) they indicate the amount of groundwater released
from storage due to a unit depressuri:ation of a confined auifer! "hey are fractions between . and
/!
#pecific yield (&y ) is also a ratio between . and / (&y < porosity) and indicates the amount of water
released due to drainage from lowering the water table in an unconfined auifer! "he value for
specific yield is less than the value for porosity because some water will remain in the medium
even after drainage due to molecular forces! 6ften the porosity or effective porosity is used as an
upper bound to the specific yield! "ypically &y is orders of magnitude larger than &s!
%edit&Contaminant transport properties
6ften we are interested in how the moving groundwater water will move dissolved contaminants
around (the sub$field of contaminant hydrogeology)! "he contaminants can be man$made
(e!g!, petroleum products, nitrate or 7hromium) or naturally occurring (e!g!, arsenic, salinity)!
=esides needing to understand where the groundwater is flowing, based on the other hydrologic
properties discussed above, there are additional auifer properties which affect how dissolved
contaminants move with groundwater!
%edit&Hydrodynamic dispersion
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Hydrodynamic dispersivity (>2, >") is an empirical factor which uantifies how much contaminants
stray away from the path of the groundwater which is carrying it! #ome of the contaminants will be
?behind? or ?ahead? the mean groundwater, giving rise to a longitudinal dispersivity (> 2), and some
will be ?to the sides of? the pure advective groundwater flow, leading to a transverse dispersivity
(>")! 5ispersion in groundwater is because each water ?particle?, passing beyond a soil particle,
must choose where to go, whether left or right or up or down, so that the water ?particles? (and their
solute) are gradually spread in all directions around the mean path! "his is the ?microscopic?
mechanism, on the scale of soil particles! 9ore important, on long distances, can be the
macroscopic inhomogeneities of the auifer, which can have regions of larger or smaller
permeability, so that some water can find a preferential path in one direction, some other in a
different direction, so that the contaminant can be spread in a completely irregular way, like in a
(three$dimensional) delta of a river!
5ispersivity is actually a factor which represents our lac' of information about the system we are
simulating! "here are many small details about the auifer which are being averaged when using
amacroscopic approach (e!g!, tiny beds of gravel and clay in sand auifers), they manifest
themselves as an apparent dispersivity! =ecause of this, > is often claimed to be dependent on the
length scale of the problem @ the dispersivity found for transport through / mA of auifer is
different than that for transport through / cmA of the same auifer material! %/&
%edit&Molecular Diffusion
5iffusion is a fundamental physical phenomenon, by which Einstein e*plained =rownian motion,
which describes the random thermal movement of molecules and small particles in gases and
liuids! t is an important phenomenon for small distances (it is essential for the achievement of
thermodinamic euilibria), but, as the time necessary to cover a distance by diffusion is
proportional to the suare of the distance itself, it is ineffective for spreading a solute over
macroscopic distances! "he diffusion coefficient, 5, is typically uite small, and its effect can oftenbe considered negligible (unless groundwater flow velocities are e*tremely low, as they are in clay
auitards)!
t is important not to confuse diffusion with dispersion, as the former is a physical phenomenon and
the latter is an empirical factor which is cast into a similar form as diffusion, because we already
know how to solve that problem!
%edit&Retardation by adsorption
"he retardation factor is another very important feature that make the motion of the contaminant to
deviate from the average groundwater motion! t is analogous to the retardation
factor of chromatography! Bnlike diffusion and dispersion, which simply spread the contaminant, the
retardation factor changes its global a"erage "elocity , so that it can be much slower than that of
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water! "his is due to a chemico$physical effect4 the adsorption to the soil, which holds the
contaminant back and does not allow it to progress until the uantity corresponding to the chemical
adsorption euilibrium has been adsorbed! "his effect is particularly important for less soluble
contaminants, which thus can move even hundreds or thousands times slower than water! "he
effect of this phenomenon is that only more soluble species can cover long distances! "he
retardation factor depends on the chemical nature of both the contaminant and the auifer!
%edit&+overning euations
%edit&Darcy's La
Main article: (arcy)s la
5arcy's law is a 7onstitutive euation (empirically derived by Henri 5arcy, in /C-D) that states the
amount of groundwater discharging through a given portion of auifer is proportional to the cross$
sectional area of flow, the hydraulic head gradient, and the hydraulic conductivity!
%edit&!roundater flo e"uation
Main article: *roundater flo equation
+eometry of a partially penetrating well drainage system in an anisotropic layered auifer
"he groundwater flow euation, in its most general form, describes the movement of groundwater
in a porous medium (auifers and auitards)! t is known in mathematics as the diffusion euation,
and has many analogs in other fields! 9any solutions for groundwater flow problems were
borrowed or adapted from e*isting heat transfer solutions!
t is often derived from a physical basis using 5arcy's law and a conservation of mass for a small
control volume! "he euation is often used to predict flow towells, which have radial symmetry, so
the flow euation is commonly solved in polar or cylindrical coordinates!
"he "heis euation is one of the most commonly used and fundamental solutions to the
groundwater flow euation it can be used to predict the transient evolution of head due to the
effects of pumping one or a number of pumping wells!
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"he "hiem euation is a solution to the steady state groundwater flow euation (2aplace's
Euation) for flow to a well! Bnless there are large sources of water nearby (a river or lake), true
steady$state is rarely achieved in reality!
=oth above euations are used in auifer tests (pump tests)!
"he Hooghoudt euation is a groundwater flow euation applied to subsurface drainage by
pipes, tile drains or ditches!%& 3n alternative subsurface drainage method is drainage by wells for
which groundwater flow euations are also available!%0&
%edit&7alculation of groundwater flow
1elative groundwater travel times!
"o use the groundwater flow euation to estimate the distribution of hydraulic heads, or the
direction and rate of groundwater flow, this partial differential euation (;5E) must be solved! "he
most common means of analytically solving the diffusion euation in the hydrogeology literature
are4
2aplace, Hankel and Fourier transforms (to reduce the number of dimensions of the ;5E),
similarity transform (also called the =olt:mann transform) is commonly how the "heis
solution is derived,
separation of variables, which is more useful for non$7artesian coordinates, and
+reen's functions, which is another common method for deriving the "heis solution @
from the fundamental solution to the diffusion euation in free space!
o matter which method we use to solve the groundwater flow euation, we need both initial
conditions (heads at time (t ) G .) and boundary conditions(representing either the physical
boundaries of the domain, or an appro*imation of the domain beyond that point)! 6ften the initial
conditions are supplied to a transient simulation, by a corresponding steady$state simulation
(where the time derivative in the groundwater flow euation is set eual to .)!
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"here are two broad categories of how the (;5E) would be solved
either analytical methods, numerical methods, or something possibly in between! "ypically, analytic
methods solve the groundwater flow euation under a simplified set of conditions e+actly , while
numerical methods solve it under more general conditions to an appro+imation!
%edit&#nalytic methods
3nalytic methods typically use the structure of mathematics to arrive at a simple, elegant solution,
but the reuired derivation for all but the simplest domain geometries can be uite comple*
(involving non$standard coordinates, conformal mapping, etc!)! 3nalytic solutions typically are also
simply an euation that can give a uick answer based on a few basic parameters! "he "heis
euation is a very simple (yet still very useful) analytic solution to the groundwater flow euation,
typically used to analy:e the results of an auifer test or slug test!
%edit&$umerical methods
"he topic of numerical methods is uite large, obviously being of use to most fields
of engineering and science in general! umerical methods have been around much longer
than computers have (n the /.s 1ichardson developed some of the finite difference schemes
still in use today, but they were calculated by hand, using paper and pencil, by human
?calculators?), but they have become very important through the availability of fast and
cheap personal computers! 3 uick survey of the main numerical methods used in hydrogeology,
and some of the most basic principles is shown below and further discussed in the article
?+roundwater model?!
"here are two broad categories of numerical methods4 gridded or discreti:ed methods and non$
gridded or mesh$free methods! n the common finite difference method and finite element
method (FE9) the domain is completely gridded (?cut? into a grid or mesh of small elements)!
"he analytic element method (3E9) and the boundary integral euation method (=E9 @
sometimes also called =E9, or =oundary Element 9ethod) are only discreti:ed at boundaries or
along flow elements (line sinks, area sources, etc!), the maority of the domain is mesh$free!
%edit&!eneral properties of gridded methods
+ridded 9ethods like finite difference and finite element methods solve the groundwater flow
euation by breaking the problem area (domain) into many small elements (suares, rectangles,
triangles, blocks, tetrahedra, etc!) and solving the flow euation for each element (all material
properties are assumed constant or possibly linearly variable within an element), then linking
together all the elements using conservation of mass across the boundaries between the elements
(similar to the divergence theorem)! "his results in a system which overall appro*imates the
groundwater flow euation, but e*actly matches the boundary conditions (the head or flu* is
specified in the elements which intersect the boundaries)!
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Finite differences are a way of representing continuous differential operators using discrete
intervals ( Δ+ and Δt ), and the finite difference methods are based on these (they are derived from
a "aylor series)! For e*ample the first$order time derivative is often appro*imated using the
following forward finite difference, where the subscripts indicate a discrete time location,
"he forward finite difference appro*imation is unconditionally stable, but leads to an implicit
set of euations (that must be solved using matri* methods, e!g! 2B or 7holesky
decomposition)! "he similar backwards difference is only conditionally stable, but it is e*plicit
and can be used to ?march? forward in the time direction, solving one grid node at a time (or
possibly in parallel, since one node depends only on its immediate neighbors)! 1ather than the
finite difference method, sometimes the +alerkin FE9 appro*imation is used in space (this is
different from the type of FE9 often used instructural engineering) with finite differences still
used in time!
%edit&#pplication of finite difference models
965F26W is a well$known e*ample of a general finite difference groundwater flow model! t
is developed by the B# +eological #urvey as a modular and e*tensible simulation tool for
modeling groundwater flow! t is free software developed, documented and distributed by the
B#+#! 9any commercial products have grown up around it, providing graphical user
interfaces to its input file based interface, and typically incorporating pre$ and post$processing
of user data! 9any other models have been developed to work with 965F26W input and
output, making linked models which simulate several hydrologic processes possible (flow and
transport models, surface water and groundwater models and chemical reaction models),
because of the simple, well documented nature of 965F26W!
%edit&#pplication of finite element models
Finite Element programs are more fle*ible in design (triangular elements vs! the block
elements most finite difference models use) and there are some programs available (#B"13,
a 5 or 05 density$dependent flow model by the B#+# Hydrus, a commercial unsaturated
flow model FEF26W, a commercial modeling environment for subsurface flow, solute and
heat transport processes and 769#62 9ultiphysics (FE923=) a commercial general
modeling environment), but unless they are gaining in importance they are still not as popular
in with practicing hydrogeologists as 965F26W is! Finite element models are more popular
in university and laboratory environments, where speciali:ed models solve non$standard forms
of the flow euation (unsaturated flow, densitydependent flow, coupled heat and groundwater
flow, etc!)
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%edit&#pplication of finite volume models
"he finite volume method is a method for representing and evaluating partial differential
euations as algebraic euations %2eIeue, .. "oro, /&! #imilar to the finite difference
method, values are calculated at discrete places on a meshed geometry! ?Finite volume? refers
to the small volume surrounding each node point on a mesh! n the finite volume method,
volume integrals in a partial differential euation that contain a divergence term are converted
to surface integrals, using the divergence theorem! "hese terms are then evaluated as flu*es
at the surfaces of each finite volume! =ecause the flu* entering a given volume is identical to
that leaving the adacent volume, these methods are conservative! 3nother advantage of the
finite volume method is that it is easily formulated to allow for unstructured meshes! "he
method is used in many computational fluid dynamics packages!
P%R&L%W software package is a comprehensive mathematical model for simulation of
+round Water Flow and uclear Waste 9anagement developed by 3nalytic J 7omputational
1esearch, nc!, 371i& 371i
"he &HM software package is available free from 2os 3lamos ational 2aboratory and can
be accessed at the FEH9 Website! "his versatile porous flow simulator includes capabilities to
model multiphase, thermal, stress, and multicomponent reactive chemistry! 7urrent work using
this code includes simulation of methane hydrate formation, 76 seuestration, oil shale
e*traction, migration of both nuclear and chemical contaminants, environmental isotope
migration in the unsaturated :one, and karst formation!
%edit&%ther methods
"hese include mesh$free methods like the 3nalytic Element 9ethod (3E9) and the =oundary
Element 9ethod (=E9), which are closer to analytic solutions, but they do appro*imate the
groundwater flow euation in some way! "he =E9 and 3E9 e*actly solve the groundwater
flow euation (perfect mass balance), while appro*imating the boundary conditions! "hese
methods are more e*act and can be much more elegant solutions (like analytic methods are),
but have not seen as widespread use outside academic and research groups yet!
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