behavioral disorders and psychotropic medications tintinalli chapters 288, 289, 290
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Behavioral Disordersand
Psychotropic Medications
Tintinalli Chapters 288, 289, 290
Behavioral Disorders Epidemiology
Up to 1/3 of ER Population Most recognized prevalent ED psychiatric
illnesses:• Substance abuse• Anxiety disorders• Severe cognitive impairment• Psychosis• Antisocial personality disorder• Mood disorders
Schizophrenia overrepresented due to multiple visits
Behavioral Disorders Diagnosis
Most important, is the patient a threat to himself or others?
Treat the symptoms, then focus on the major complaint
Specific diagnosis is not essential Need to be familiar with behavioral
disorders to communicate effectively with other health care professionals
Behavioral Disorders Multiaxial Diagnostic System from
DSM-IV TR – 2000 Axis I – Mental disorders Axis II – Personality/Developmental
disorders Axis III – Medical disorders Axis IV – Psychosocial and
environmental disorders Axis V – Global functioning
Behavioral Disorders Axis I Disorders – Psychiatric Syndromes
Delirium, dementia, cognitive disorders Mental disorders due to medical condition Substance induced disorders Schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders Mood, anxiety and somatoform disorders Factitious, dissociative, eating and adjustment
disorders
Behavioral Disorders Axis I Disorders
Dementia: pervasive disturbance of cognitive function with normal consciousness in several areas
Delirium: Disturbance in cognitive function with clouding of consciousness and decreased environmental awareness
• Acute onset• Rapidly alternating in severity• Hallucinations common
Substance induced• Acute Intoxication – alcohol, amphetamines• Withdrawal - alcohol
Behavioral Disorders Axis I Disorders
Disorders due to Medical Condition• Thyroid, cancer, diabetes, HIV, etc…• Schizophrenia and other Psychotic
Disorders• Deterioration in function characterized by
• Hallucinations• Delusions• Disorganized speech• Disorganized behavior• Catatonic behavior
Behavioral DisordersSchizophrenia and other Psychotic
DisordersNegative Symptoms
• Blunted affect• Emotional withdrawal• Lack of spontaneity• Anhedonia• Attention impairment
• Persecutory, Grandiose, Bizarre –delusion types • Schizophreniform disorder – schizophrenia less
than 6 months
Behavioral Disorders Mood Disorders
Major Depression• Persistent depressed mood with loss of
interest in usual activities for more than two weeks
• Female > Male• IN SAD CAGES - Mnemonic
Behavioral Disorders Axis I Disorders
Bipolar disorder• Onset 3rd to 4th decades• Mania cycling with major depression with periods of
normal behavior• Depressive episodes more frequent than manic• Complications: substance abuse, marital and job
problems, trauma, suicide – problems related to manic episodes
Dysthymic Disorder• Mild depression >2 years duration
Behavioral Disorders Axis I Disorders
Anxiety Disorders• 4-8% of population, may be higher in ED – perceived
physical complaints• Apprehension, fears and excessive worry with
autonomic features• Subtypes:
• Panic disorder• Generalized anxiety disorder• Phobic disorder • Post-traumatic stress disorder• Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Behavioral Disorders Axis I Disorders
Somatoform Disorder• Physical complaints or symptoms without any
identifiable medical explanation• Conversion disorder-loss of function after
psychological trauma• Somatization disorder-wide variety of complaints
with no apparent medical cause - caution making this diagnosis in ED
• Hypochondriasis - preoccupation with fear of serious illness despite appropriate medical evaluation
• P.G. for those who have worked at Doctors, 156 visits last year
Behavioral Disorders Axis I Disorders
Dissociative Disorder• Alteration in normal integration of identity
and consciousness• Psychogenic amnesia-loss of memory for
important personal details• Psychogenic fugue-loss of memory and
assumption of new identity
Behavioral Disorders
Axis II Disorders – Personality Disorders Lifelong pattern of behavior causing
impairment in social or occupational functioning or causing considerable distress, unrelated to periods of illness
Most are unaware of their behavior and if become aware are unlikely to change
Behavioral Disorders Axis II Disorders - Personality Disorders
Classifications – Table 288-3• Antisocial• Narcissistic• Paranoid• Obsessive-Compulsive• Dependent• Schizoid• Histrionic• Schizotypal• Borderline• Avoidant
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Psychiatric Emergencies
The acutely psychotic, suicidal or violent patient Often present when lack of behavioral health
resources - nights, weekends ED Psychiatric Assessment
• Is the patient stable or unstable?• Does the patient have a serious medical condition that
is causing the abnormal behavior?• Is the cause psychiatric or functional?• Is psychiatric consultation necessary?• Should the patient be forcibly detained for evaluation?
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Safety
Violent patient – immediate restraint Security and police are best trained Violent or potentially violent should be
disrobed and searched for weapons that can be used towards staff or the patient
Use non-threatening or non-judgmental tone – don’t make direct eye contact, submissive tone and posture
Allow room for escape – don’t let patient get between you and the door
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment History
Change in behavior – confirmed by family if possible
Medical symptoms – rule out medical cause Medical conditions Medication history – prescription & OTC Social history, alcohol, stressors – illicit drugs Family history of psychiatric illnesses Question family and friends
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Mental Status Examination
Psychiatric or medical disorder MMSE – Table 289-1
• Behavior• Affect• Language• Judgment• Orientation• Memory• Thought content• Perceptual abnormalities
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Physical Exam
Identify medical problems that may be causing behavior
Examine for evidence of trauma Caution with
• Abnormal mental status• Psychosis• Mental retardation• Elderly
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Laboratory
Urine toxicology Urine pregnancy Salicylate, APAP Blood alcohol ECG Accucheck/Electrolytes
Consultation Potential for suicidal or homicidal actions or
psychotic Don’t ignore abnormal vital signs
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Suicide
Major cause of death, especially the young Suicide Characteristics (more common in
suicide completers): older, male, lives alone or are physically ill
High risk psychiatric illnesses: Schizophrenia, substance abuse and major depression
Suicide attempts:• Drug overdose in large majority• Violent attempt (shooting, hanging, jumping) more
likely to succeed and much more likely to try again if unsuccessful
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment
Divorced Unemployed Male Non-religious Socially isolated Suicidal ideation
Physical illness Social/Family
structure loss Mental illness Suicidal attempts
• Repeated attempts• Realistic plan• Continuing
thoughts of death
•High Risk of Potential Suicide
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Disposition
Usually determined in conjunction with mental health professional
Criteria for discharge• Medically stable• Must not be intoxicated, delirious or demented• Treatment has been arranged• Precipitants to crisis have been addressed and
reduced• Must not be imminently suicidal• Lethal means of self-harm removed• Agrees to return to ED if suicidal intent recurs
Behavioral Disorders:Emergency Assessment Disposition
Criteria for Discharge• Physician believes patient will follow
through with treatment plan• Caregivers and social supports (family) in
agreement with discharge and treatment plan
If these cannot be assured, admission Contracting for safety?
Psychotropic Medications
Psychotropic Meds Be familiar with emergency indications,
side effects, adverse reactions, and common interactions
4 Classes Antipsychotics Anxiolytics Antidepressants Mood stabilizers, including anticonvulsants
Antipsychotics and anxiolytics have the most desired emergency utility
Antipsychotics (Neuroleptics) These meds are symptom specific,
not disease specific They are useful for nearly all
psychoses: Primary (a result of psychiatric illness) Secondary (substance induced or from
general medical condition)
Antipsychotics In ED, most often used to control
agitated or psychotic behavior that constitutes immediate danger to self or others
Contraindications – known allergy to the med or another drug in the same class
Antipsychotics Low potency antipsychotics
(Thorazine) are rarely used due to significant hypotension side effect – rarely indicated in ED
High potency meds (Haldol) are safe even at high doses. They have few anticholinergic and alpha-blocking effects
Haldol IV Haldol is not approved by FDA, but IV
route has less extrapyramidal side effects than IM or oral routes, onset 10-20mins
Do not give Haldol to pts with Parkinsons disease Movement disorders Anticholinergic toxicity PCP toxicity Pregnancy
Initial starting does 1-5 mg
Haldol Max effective dose of Haldol is 10mg.
Doses greater than 10mg only increases side effects and does not improve effectiveness or relief of symptoms If need for increased relaxation add Ativan
Lower the initial dose in elderly, debilitated, brain injured, or those with AIDS
Haldol To obtain rapid tranquilization, use
Haldol with Ativan (2mg) effect. Initial Haldol dose is usually 2-5 mg
IM. May repeat in 30-45 minutes. Six doses max, in 24 hours.
Antipsychotics – Side Effects Acute Distonia: Muscle spasms of
the neck, face, and back Most common side effect of
antipsychotic meds Less common: oculogyric crisis and
laryngospasm Diphenhydramine can also be used,
50-100 mg IV.
Antipsychotics – Side Effects Akathisia: a sensation of motor
restlessness with a subjective desire to move.
Can begin anytime after medication is started.
Worsened with increasing doses. Treat with beta-blockers and lower the
dose. Cogentin and Benzodiazepines also
effective
Antipsychotics – Side Effects Parkinson Syndrome
Extrapyramidal Symptoms• Bradykinesia• Resting tremor• Cogwheel rigidity• Shuffling gait• Masked facies• Drooling
• Often only one or two features are obvious
Usually begins in the first month of treatment. Treat by lowering dosage and/or using
anticholinergics
Antipsychotics – Side Effects Anticholinergic Effects: range from
mild sedation to delirium, dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, constipation, and paralytic ileus.
Treat by stopping the antipsychotic and institute supportive measures as needed.
Antipsychotics – Side Effects Cardiovascular Effects: Include QT
prolongment, orthostatic hypotension, cardiovascular collapse QT prolongation Orthostatic hypotension
• Neg. inotropic effect on heart and alpha adrengergic blockade.
Treat with IVFs and vasopressor support. Almost exclusively seen with the low
potency meds, although high doses of Haldol can cause torsades
Antipsychotics – Side Effects Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome: Idiosyncratic
reaction manifested by rigidity, fever, autonomic instability (tachycardia, diaphoresis, and BP abnormalities) and a confusion state. Flushing Fever High CPR in thousands Leukocytosis ? LF shift
Mortality rate of 20% Treat by stopping medication, IVFs, ICU
support, and possibly dantrolene and valium
Atypical Antipsychotic Agents Clozapine
Used in schizophrenia unresponsive to standard agents
Can cause: agranulocytosis, seizures, and respiratory depression
Risperdone Probably safer than Clozapine IM formulation for ED use 2nd line agent
Atypical Antipsychotic Agents Olanzapine
Similar to Risperdone 2nd line agent
Ziprasidine Profile similar to Risperdone Waiting for studies to show
effectiveness Questionable ability to titrate
Anxiolytics Short term anxiolytic therapy may be
helpful in the anxious, agitated patient during a crisis.
Useful in acute stressful situations unresponsive to reassurance.
Benzodiazepines are contraindicated in acute narrow-angle glaucoma.
Pregnancy is a relative contraindication.
Anxiolytics Rule out any serious underlying
psychiatric illness, of which anxiety is a symptom.
Benzos are very effective anxiolytics with a high therapeutic index.
Non-benzos have much lower therapeutic indices and high addictive potential Barbiturates
Anxiolytics With all Benzos, adjust dosage as necessary
Xanax Ativan Valium Versed Librium
Higher dosages may be needed in pts. with history of alcohol abuse or sedative use.
Decrease dose in those with hepatic disease or severe debilitation.
Anxiolytics Benzos potentiate other CNS
depressants, so use with extreme caution with intoxicated pts.
Careful in pts with hypercarbia because they suppress hypoxic respiratory drive.
Caution with CO2 retainers (COPD)
Anxiolytics – Side Effects Benzos side effects are usually mild
Drowsiness, decreased alertness, sedation and ataxia are the most common.
Decrease dose to treat. If severe, give flumazenil 0.2mg IV over
15-30 seconds and then 0.2 to 0.4mg q 30-60 seconds up to 3mg total. Careful of withdrawal symptoms Go very slow – 0.2 increments
Anxiolytics – Side Effects Don’t give flumazenil in chronic
benzo use. Can induce seizures.
Never prescribe more than week’s worth of benzos due to abuse potential.
Antidepressants Previously Tricyclics, now called Hetero-
cyclics (HCA’s). Indications:
Major depression Dysthymic disorder Panic disorder Agoraphobia OCD Enuresis School phobia.
Antidepressants – Side Effects HCA’s have low therapeutic indices. Most
side effects are anticholinergic or cardiotoxic Side effects can occur even at therapeutic
doses. Anticholinergic Effects: Most common,
with other meds with anticholinergic effects: low potency antipsychotics, antiparkinsonian agents, and antihistamines
Antidepressants – Side Effects Peripheral effects
Dry mouth Metallic taste Blurred vision Constipation Paralytic ileus Urinary retention Tachycardia Exacerbation of narrow angle glaucoma
Antidepressants – Side Effects Central effects
Sedation Mydriasis Agitation Delirium
Antidepressants – Side Effects Mild to moderate effects may be
managed by dose reduction, changing to a med with fewer anticholinergic properties Urecholine 10-25 mg tid.
Acute urinary retention: Urecholine 2.5-5 mg SC.
Antidepressants – Side Effects Cardiovascular Effects:
Non-specific T-wave changes Prolonged QT interval Varying degrees of AV block Atrial and ventricular dysrhythmias.
Orthostatic hypotension especially significant in the elderly, due to alpha-adrenergic blockade.
Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors Therapeutic effects due to their ability to
increase norepinephrine and serotonin in the CNS.
Indications: Atypical severe depressive episodes,
characterized by hyperphagia, hypersomnolence, reversed diurnal variation (symptoms worse at night), emotional lability, “leaden” paralysis (heavy arms or legs) and rejection hypersensitivity.
MAOIs – Side Effects Fewer side effects than HCA’s. Orthostatic hypotension, can be
severe, usually responds to supportive therapy.
CNS irritability (agitation, motor restlessness, insomnia) managed by dose reduction or addition of benzodiazepine.
MAOIs – Side Effects Autonomic side effects
Dry mouth Constipation Urinary retention Delayed ejaculation
MAOIs block oxidative deamination of tyramine. May precipitate a hypertensive crisis when certain drugs or tyramine containing foods are ingested.
MAOIs – Side Effects Tyramine containing foods:
beer wine aged cheese chopped liver sour cream yogurt pickled herring.
Symptoms include headache, HTN, cardiac dysrhythmias, restlessness, diaphoresis, mydriasis, and vomiting.
Phentolamine – antidote for malignant HTN
MAOIs Do not treat with beta blockers -
may intensify vasoconstriction and worsen HTN.
Most patients recover completely within a few hours.
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors SSRIs are the most commonly prescribed anti-
depressants Indicated for treatment of major depressive
episodes but also used for dysthymia and generalized anxiety disorders, panic disorders, and OCD.
Sertraline Paroxetine Flavoxamine Citalopram Escitalopram
SSRIs Favorable side effect profile and
relative safety in overdose. They have a high therapeutic index Lack anticholinergic and cardiac
effects like HCA’s.
SSRIs – Side Effects Most common
HA Dizziness Sexual dysfunction Nausea Diarrhea Insomnia Agitation
Less common Akathisia Apathy syndrome
SSRIs – Side Effects Discontinuation syndrome occurs especially with
agents having shorter lives, Sertraline and Paroxetine
Typically presents several days after cessation: Flu-like syndrome Nausea Vomiting Fatigue Myalgias Vertigo HA Insomnia Paresthesias
SSRIs – Side Effects Treat by reinstating SSRI therapy
and taper more gradually.
SSRIs – Serotonin Syndrome Serotonin Syndrome: occurs when
combining SSRIs with other serotonergic meds - MAOIs, HCAs, other SSRIs.
Syndrome presents as restlessness, tremor, myoclonus, hyperreflexia, seizures, and N/V/D.
Treat by stopping serotonergic agents and supportive care.
Mood Stabilizers Lithium has been mainstay of bipolar
treatment for years. Anticonvulsants (Tegretol, Depakote,
Lamictal, Topamax) are being used increasingly in management.
Mood Stabilizers - Lithium Indicated for both acute mania and
maintenance therapy in bipolar disorder.
Useful in some cases of major depression, and in some disorders characterized by episodic explosive outbursts or self-mutilation.
Lithium: Side Effects Most serious side effects are due to toxic
serum levels. Mild side effects
GI distress Dry mouth Excessive thirst Fine tremors Mild polyuria Peripheral edema
Most common during first few weeks of therapy and with therapeutic levels.
Lithium: Side Effects Chronic side effects are unrelated to
lithium levels and include Polyuria Nephrogenic diabetes insipidus Benign diffuse goiter Hypothyroidism Skin rasher Ulcerations Psoriasis Leukocytosis without left shift
Lithium: Toxicity Severity of toxicity is related to the
serum lithium level and duration of elevation.
Even in acute OD, symptoms may be delayed up to 48 hours.
Signs of toxicity include N/V, dysartheria , lethargy, and hand tremor.
Lithium: Toxicity As toxicity worsens
Ataxia Myasthenia Incoordination Hyperreflexia Muscle fasiculations Blurred vision Scotoma Coma
Lithium: Toxicity Cardiovascular symptoms:
Nonspecific T-wave changes Hypotension AV conduction defects Ventricular tachydysrhythmias Vascular collapse.
Lithium toxicity may result in permanent neurologic impairment
Anticonvulsants Work through different mechanisms
to cause neuronal relaxation. Used with rapid cycling, cyclothymic
and mixed states of bipolar illness. Other uses:
Impulsive aggression Behavioral disturbances Self-injurious behavior
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