best practice guidelines for great ape tourism · occasional paper of the iucn species survival...
Post on 22-Sep-2019
3 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
Occasional Paper of the IUCN Species Survival Commission No. 38
Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourism
with contributions from Marc Ancrenaz, Chloe Cipolletta, Debby Cox, Christina Ellis, David Greer, Chloe Hodgkinson, Anne Russon and Ian Singleton
Elizabeth J. Macfie and Elizabeth A. Williamson
Series Editor: E.A. Williamson
About IUCNIUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, helps the world find pragmatic solutions to our most pressing environment and
development challenges. IUCN works on biodiversity, climate change, energy, human livelihoods and greening the world economy by supporting scientific research,
managing field projects all over the world, and bringing governments, NGOs, the UN and companies together to develop policy, laws and best practice.
IUCN is the world’s oldest and largest global environmental organization, with more than 1,000 government and NGO members and almost 11,000 volunteer experts in some 160 countries. IUCN’s work is supported by over 1,000 staff in 60 offices and hundreds of partners in public, NGO and private sectors around the world. Web: www.iucn.org
IUCN Species Survival Commission The Species Survival Commission (SSC) is the largest of IUCN’s six volunteer commissions with a global membership of 8,000 experts.
SSC advises IUCN and its members on the wide range of technical and scientific aspects of species conservation and is dedicated to securing a future for biodiversity. SSC has significant input into the international agreements dealing with biodiversity conservation. Web: www.iucn.org/themes/ssc
IUCN Species Programme The IUCN Species Programme supports the activities of the IUCN Species Survival Commission and individual Specialist Groups, as well
as implementing global species conservation initiatives. It is an integral part of the IUCN Secretariat and is managed from IUCN’s international headquarters in Gland, Switzerland. The Species Programme includes a number of technical units covering Wildlife Trade, the Red List, Freshwater Biodiversity Assessments (all located in Cambridge, UK), and the Global Biodiversity Assessment Initiative (located in Washington DC, USA).
IUCN SSC Primate Specialist GroupThe Primate Specialist Group (PSG) is concerned with the conservation of more than 630 species and subspecies of prosimians,
monkeys, and apes. Its particular tasks include carrying out conservation status assessments, the compilation of action plans, making recommendations on taxonomic issues, and publishing information on primates to inform IUCN policy as a whole. The PSG facilitates the exchange of critical information among primatologists and the professional conservation community. The PSG Chairman is Dr. Russell A. Mittermeier, the Deputy Chair is Dr. Anthony B. Rylands, and the Coordinator for the Section on Great Apes is Dr. Liz Williamson. Web: www.primate-sg.org/
with contributions from Marc Ancrenaz, Chloe Cipolletta, Debby Cox, Christina Ellis, David Greer, Chloe Hodgkinson, Anne Russon and Ian Singleton
Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourism
Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourism
Elizabeth J. Macfie and Elizabeth A. Williamson
Series Editor: E.A. Williamson
The designation of geographical entities in this book, and the presentation of the material, do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organizations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organizations.
Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
Copyright: © 2010 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial uses is authorized without prior written permission from the copyright holder(s) provided the source is fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without prior written permission of the copyright holder(s).
Citation: Elizabeth J. Macfie and Elizabeth A. Williamson (2010). Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourism. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG). 78 pp.
ISBN: 978-2-8317-1156-0
Cover photos: [Front] Western lowland gorilla, Loango National Park, Gabon. Photo © Christopher Orbell/MPI-EVAN. [Back] Sumatran orangutan, Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. Photo © Perry van Duijnhoven.
Layout by: Kim Meek, [e-mail] k.meek@me.com
Available from: http://www.primate-sg.org
Funded by: United States Fish and Wildlife Service (Great Ape Conservation Fund)
iii
Table of Contents
Section 1: Executive Summary .......................................................................................... 1
Section 2: Introduction ...................................................................................................... 2
2.1 PrimateSpecialistGroupandtheSGA...............................................................................22.1.1 Linkstootherbestpracticeguidelinesforgreatapeconservation................... 2
2.2 Purposeoftheseguidelines................................................................................................3
2.3 Targetaudience...................................................................................................................4
2.4 Greatapetourismscenarioscoveredinthisdocument.....................................................52.4.1 Wildvs.ex-captivesites.................................................................................... 5
2.5 Introductiontogreatapetourism........................................................................................72.5.1 Canwecallgreatapetourism‘sustainabletourism’or‘ecotourism’?............. 7
Section 3: Global Experience with Great Ape Tourism ........................................................ 8
3.1 Historyofgreatapetourism................................................................................................8
3.2 Lessonslearnedfromexistinggreatapetourismprogrammes........................................113.2.1 Greatapetourism—conservationtoolorconservationthreat?....................... 113.2.2 Globalinterestingreatapetourismasaconservationstrategy..................... 113.2.3 Speciesdifferencesrelevanttogreatapetourism.......................................... 123.2.4 Greatapetouristprofiles................................................................................. 123.2.5 Differenttypesofgreatapetourism................................................................ 133.2.6 Managingtouristexpectations........................................................................ 133.2.7 Replicationofsuccessstoriesisnotalwayspossibleordesirable................. 133.2.8 Insecurityaffectstourismmarkets................................................................... 133.2.9 Globaleconomyaffectstourismmarkets........................................................ 143.2.10 Habituation—aninvariablylongandriskyundertaking................................... 143.2.11 Enforcementoftourismregulationsiscritical,butoftensuboptimal.............. 153.2.12 EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentsandfeasibilitystudies............................ 163.2.13 Impactstudiesandmonitoringarecritical...................................................... 163.2.14 Greatapetourismasadevelopmenttoolforlocalcommunities.................... 173.2.15 Importanceofeconomicvaluationsandtourismdemandstudies................. 183.2.16 Importanceofmanagementevaluationsoftourismstaffconduct.................. 193.2.17 Location,location,location.............................................................................. 193.2.18 Provisioning/feedingisnotappropriateforhabituationortourism................. 193.2.19 Reducingdisease-transmissionwithN95surgicalrespiratormasks.............. 203.2.20 Theproblemoftourismwithformerly-captivegreatapes............................... 213.2.21 Conclusionsfromlessonslearned................................................................... 22
Section 4: Potential Impacts of Great Ape Tourism .......................................................... 23
4.1 Tableofpotentialbenefitsofgreatapetourism................................................................23
4.2 Tableofpotentialcostsanddisadvantagesofgreatapetourism....................................24
4.3 Discussionofkeytourismimpacts...................................................................................264.3.1 Keypositiveimpact—sustainableconservationfunding................................. 264.3.2 Keypositiveimpact—enhancedmonitoringandprotectionofapes.............. 274.3.3 Criticalnegativeimpact—diseasetransmission.............................................. 274.3.4 Criticalnegativeimpact—behaviouralchange................................................ 284.3.5 Criticalnegativeimpact—vulnerabilitytopoaching........................................ 29
4.4 Conclusionsontourismimpacts.......................................................................................29
Section 5: Guidelines for Best Practice in Great Ape Tourism ........................................... 29
General Guidelines for all Great Ape Species .........................................................................30
5.1 Guidingprinciplesforusingtourismasagreatapeconservationtool.............................305.1.1 Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration...305.1.2 Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportforconservation.............................. 305.1.3 Conservationmustbetheprimarygoalofgreatapetourism......................... 305.1.4 Conservationbenefitsmustsignificantlyoutweighrisks................................. 305.1.5 Conservationinvestmentandactionmustbeassuredinperpetuity.............. 30
iv
5.1.6 Greatapetourismmustbebasedonsoundobjectivescience...................... 315.1.7 Benefitsandprofitforlocalcommunitiesshouldbemaximised..................... 315.1.8 Profittoprivatesectorpartnersmustnotbeadrivingforce........................... 315.1.9 Comprehensiveunderstandingofimpactsmustguidetourismdevelopment...31
5.2 Assessmentphase............................................................................................................315.2.1 Stakeholderawarenessofcostsandbenefits................................................. 315.2.2 Criteriaforgreatapetourismsites.................................................................. 325.2.3 Feasibilitystudiesandimpactanalysisofpotentialsites................................ 335.2.4 Furtherassessmentsrequiredfordecisionsontourismexpansion................ 33
5.3 Planningphase..................................................................................................................345.3.1 Impactoptimisationasacorecomponentofprogrammedesign................... 345.3.2 HabituationImpactAssessment(HIA).............................................................345.3.3 Criteriaforchoiceofsiteorgroup................................................................... 345.3.4 Developingandrefininghabituationprotocols................................................ 365.3.5 Tourismdevelopmentplansforsitesjudgedappropriateandfeasible.......... 37
5.4 Developmentphase..........................................................................................................39
Guidelines during Habituation:........................................................................................395.4.1 Noprovisioning................................................................................................ 395.4.2 Adherencetohabituationprotocols................................................................ 395.4.3 Habituationtargetdistances............................................................................ 395.4.4 Habituationtoobserverswearingsurgicalmasks........................................... 395.4.5 Avoidanceofoverhabituation.......................................................................... 40
Impact Mitigation:............................................................................................................415.4.6 Healthmonitoringandveterinaryresponse..................................................... 415.4.7 Employeehealthprogrammes......................................................................... 415.4.8 Communityhealthprogrammes...................................................................... 415.4.9 Communityoutreachandinvolvementingreatapetourismactivities............ 41
Management Systems:....................................................................................................435.4.10 Tourismbookingsystems................................................................................ 435.4.11 Pricingstructures............................................................................................. 445.4.12 Marketingefforts.............................................................................................. 445.4.13 Staffingissues.................................................................................................. 455.4.14 Stafftraining..................................................................................................... 465.4.15 Emergencycontingencyplans......................................................................... 46
5.5 Implementationphase—regulations.................................................................................47
Regulations – Pre-Visit....................................................................................................475.5.1 Disseminationofregulationsviatouroperatorsandbookingagents............. 475.5.2 Immunisation................................................................................................... 47
Regulations – On Arrival..................................................................................................485.5.3 Presentationoftourismimpactsandsafetyissues......................................... 485.5.4 Guidedhealthevaluationpriortodeparture.................................................... 485.5.5 Professionalhealthevaluation......................................................................... 48
Regulations – During Visit...............................................................................................485.5.6 Maximumnumberoftouristspergroup.......................................................... 485.5.7 Onetouristvisitperday................................................................................... 495.5.8 Novisitsbypeoplewhoaresick..................................................................... 495.5.9 N95respiratormasks....................................................................................... 495.5.10 Childrenyoungerthan15yearsoldprohibitedfromvisiting........................... 505.5.11 Non-essentialpersonneltoremainatadistancefromapes........................... 505.5.12 Preventcontaminationofthehabitatwithfoodwaste.................................... 505.5.13 Minimumdistancetohabituatedgreatapes................................................... 505.5.14 One-hourtimelimit.......................................................................................... 505.5.15 Hand-washingandhygiene............................................................................. 515.5.16 Tippingpoliciesandstaffsalaries.................................................................... 515.5.17 Monitoringandenforcementofrules............................................................... 52
Regulations – Site Management.....................................................................................525.5.18 Infrastructuredesignedtominimiseimpactonapesandhabitat................... 525.5.19 Staffhousingandadministrativeinfrastructure............................................... 535.5.20 Tourismaccommodationshouldbenefitlocalcommunities........................... 53
5.6 Monitoringandevaluationphase......................................................................................535.6.1 Appliedresearch.............................................................................................. 535.6.2 Staffmonitoring............................................................................................... 545.6.3 Programmemonitoringandevaluation............................................................ 54
v
Guidelines for Specific Situations or Species .........................................................................55
5.7 Species-specificguidelines..............................................................................................555.7.1 EasternGorillas................................................................................................ 555.7.2 WesternGorillas............................................................................................... 555.7.3 Chimpanzees................................................................................................... 565.7.4 Bonobos.......................................................................................................... 565.7.5 Orangutans(SumatranandBornean).............................................................. 56
5.8 SpecialconsiderationsforsmallandCriticallyEndangeredpopulations.........................585.8.1 Risk-managementprogrammes...................................................................... 585.8.2 Optimisebeforeexpanding............................................................................. 58
Section 6: Conclusions .................................................................................................... 59
Section 7: Acknowledgements ........................................................................................ 60
Section 8: Bibliography .................................................................................................... 60
8.1 Literaturecited..................................................................................................................60
8.2 Bibliography–otherrelevantliterature.............................................................................66
Appendix I – Sample Tourist Regulations ......................................................................... 67
A. EasternGorillas................................................................................................................67
B. WesternGorillas:tracking.................................................................................................68
C. WesternGorillas:baivisits................................................................................................69
D. WesternGorillas:forestwalk/chanceobservation............................................................71
E. Chimpanzees....................................................................................................................72
F. Orangutans:wild...............................................................................................................73
G. Orangutans:ex-captivesandwild....................................................................................74
Appendix II – Information on Face Masks/N95 Respirator Masks ..................................... 76
1
Section 1: Executive Summary
Tourismisoftenproposed1)asastrategytofundconservationeffortstoprotectgreatapes1and
theirhabitats,2)asawayforlocalcommunitiestoparticipatein,andbenefitfrom,conservation
activitiesonbehalfofgreatapes,or3)asabusiness.A fewverysuccessfulsitespoint to the
considerablepotentialofconservation-basedgreatapetourism,butitwillnotbepossibletorep-
licatethissuccesseverywhere.Thenumberofsignificantriskstogreatapesthatcanarisefrom
tourism requireacautiousapproach. Ifgreatape tourism isnotbasedonsoundconservation
principlesright fromthestart, theoddsarethateconomicobjectiveswill takeprecedence, the
consequencesofwhichinalllikelihoodwouldbedamagingtothewell-beingandeventualsurvival
oftheapes,anddetrimentaltothecontinuedpreservationoftheirhabitat.Allgreatapespecies
andsubspeciesareclassifiedasEndangeredorCriticallyEndangeredonthe IUCNRedListof
ThreatenedSpecies(IUCN2010),thereforeitisimperativethatgreatapetourismadherestothe
bestpracticeguidelinesinthisdocument.
Theguidingprinciplesofbestpracticeingreatapetourismare:
• Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration.
• Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportfortheconservationofgreatapesandtheir
habitat.
• Conservationcomesfirst—itmustbe theprimarygoalatanygreatapesiteand
tourismcanbeatooltohelpfundit.
• Greatapetourismshouldonlybedevelopediftheanticipatedconservationbenefits,
asidentifiedinimpactstudies,significantlyoutweightherisks.
• Enhancedconservationinvestmentandactionatgreatapetourismsitesmustbe
sustainedinperpetuity.
• Greatapetourismmanagementmustbebasedonsoundandobjectivescience.
• Benefits and profit for communities adjacent to great ape habitat should be
maximised.
• Profittoprivatesectorpartnersandotherswhoearnincomeassociatedwithtour-
ism is also important, but should not be the driving force for great ape tourism
developmentorexpansion.
• Comprehensive understanding of potential impacts must guide tourism develop-
ment;positiveimpactsfromtourismmustbemaximisedandnegativeimpactsmust
beavoidedor,ifinevitable,betterunderstoodandmitigated.
Theultimatesuccessorfailureofgreatapetourismcanlieinvariablesthatmaynotbeobviousto
policymakerswhobasetheirdecisionsprimarilyonearningrevenueforstrugglingconservation
programmes.However,anumberofbiological,geographical,economicandglobal factorscan
affectasitesoastorenderapetourismill-advisedorunsustainable.Thiscanbedue,forexam-
ple,tothefailureofthetourismmarketforaparticularsitetoproviderevenuesufficienttocover
thedevelopmentandoperatingcosts,oritcanresultfromfailuretoprotectthetargetgreatapes
fromthelargenumberofsignificantnegativeaspectsinherentintourism.Eitherofthesefailures
willhaveseriousconsequencesforthegreatapepopulation.Onceapesarehabituatedtohuman
observers,theyareatincreasedriskfrompoachingandotherformsofconflictwithhumans.They
mustbeprotected inperpetuityeven if tourism failsor ceases for any reason.Greatape tour-
ismshouldnotbedevelopedwithout conductingcritical feasibility analyses toensure there is
sufficientpotentialforsuccess.Strictattentionmustbepaidtothedesignoftheenterprise,its
implementationandcontinualmanagementcapacityinamannerthatavoids,oratleastminimises,
1 Theseguidelinesare relevant togreatapes.Wedonotspecificallyaddress tourismdevelopmentwithlesserapes(gibbonsandsiamangs)orotherprimates.Throughoutthedocumenttheterm‘ape’refersto‘greatape’,eventhoughmanyissuescoveredarealsorelevanttolesserapes.
2
thenegative impactsoftourismonlocalcommunitiesandontheapesthemselves.Monitoring
programmestotrackcostsandimpacts,aswellasbenefits,areessentialtoinformmanagement
onhowtooptimisetourismforconservationbenefits.
Theseguidelineshavebeendevelopedforbothexistingandpotentialgreatapetourismsitesthat
wishtoimprovethedegreetowhichtheirprogrammecontributestotheconservationratherthan
theexploitationofgreatapes. InSections2–4wesummarise thehistoryand lessons learned
duringthreedecadesofgreatapetourismandassociatedimpactstudies.Thisisfollowedwith
specific best practice guidelines in Section 5 that are based on experience and impact stud-
ies.Section8providesthereaderwithreferencematerial,includingusefulliteratureandasetof
sampletouristguidelinesfromseveralapetourismsites.Thisdocumentshouldbeviewedasan
essentialpartofthetoolkitforanysitepracticingorconsideringgreatapetourismaspartofits
conservationprogramme.
Section 2: Introduction
2.1 Primate Specialist Group and the SGA
TheSectiononGreatApes(SGA)oftheIUCN/SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup(PSG)isagroupof
morethan100experts involved inresearchonandconservationofthegreatapes.Theroleof
theSGAistopromoteconservationactiononbehalfofgreatapesbasedonthebestscientific
informationavailable.TheSGAservesasaforumfordiscussionand informationexchange; its
membersestablishguidelinesforbestpracticesinresearchandconservation,formulateaction
plansandadviseontheeffectiveprotectionofgreatapepopulationsinthewild.TheSGAadvises
governmentsoneffectiveconservationstrategiesbasedoncurrentknowledgeofthepopulations
anddistributionsofthegreatapesandthemanypressuresthatthreatentheirsurvival.Asaninte-
gralaspectofthisrole,theSGAfacilitatestheexchangeofinformationamongprimatologistsand
theprofessionalconservationcommunity.
2.1.1 Linkstootherbestpracticeguidelinesforgreatapeconservation
DrawingonexpertisefromwithintheIUCNnetwork,thePSGhasproducedaseriesofbestprac-
tice guidelines for conservation practitioners, field scientists, governments, donors and devel-
opmentorganisationsinvolvedingreatapeconservation.Alltitlesintheseriesareavailablefor
downloadfromthePSGwebsite (<www.primate-sg.org/best.practices.htm>).Otherdocuments
intheseriescoverissuesthatinterrelatewithtourismWerecommendthatreadersofthetourism
guidelinesalsorefertotheseotherguidelines,astogethertheyrepresentatoolkitforbestpractice
ingreat apeconservationandmanagement.Specific interactionsbetween thedocumentsare
summarisedhereandwillbehighlightedinrelevantrecommendationsinthisdocument.
Health monitoring and disease control in great ape populations (Leendertz et al. in press):The
preventionofdiseasetransmissionisoneofthekeyissuesunderpinningbestpracticeinapetour-
ism.Thediseasebestpracticeguidelinesarethereforeakeyreferenceforthetourismguidelines,
andwillprovidethereaderwith:guidelinesfordevelopinghealthmonitoringandsurveillancepro-
grammes;detailsonmethodologyforsampling,testingandpost-mortemanalysis;andcontacts
fortheglobalnetworkofhealthprofessionalsandlaboratoriesinterestedingreatapes.Theywill
alsoprovidein-depthguidanceonthepreventionofdiseasetransmissionbetweenhumansand
greatapes,includingemployeehealthprogrammesfororganisationswhosestaffcomeintoclose
proximitywithapes.Diseaseriskisrelevantnotonlyinthetourismcontext,butinanysituation
wherehumansandapescomeintoproximity.
Human–Great Ape Conflict (Hockings and Humle 2009): Theconflictguidelinesprovideaframe-
work fordesigningand implementingactivities tomitigateconflictbetweenapesandhumans
competingforaccesstocriticalresourcessuchasfood(naturalorcultivated)andhabitat(forest
conversion).Incaseswheregreatapesarehabituatedtohumans,thereisachancethatthelevel
of conflictwill increaseasapes lose the fearof humans thatpreviously kept themaway from
humansettlementsandcrops.Communitiesmayresentthefactthattourismincomegenerated
3
fromviewingcrop-raidingapesisaccruingtoprotectedareaauthorities.Anysiteconductingor
planningapehabituationshouldrefertotheconflictguidelinestobetterrespondtosituationsthat
mayarise.
Surveys and monitoring of great ape populations (Kühl et al. 2008):Anysiteconsidering the
developmentofgreatapetourismwillneedbaselineinformationonthepopulationofapesattheir
siteandwillneedtocarryoutregularmonitoringofthepopulationduringhabituationandsubse-
quenttourismoperations.
Reducing the impact of commercial logging on great apes (Morgan and Sanz 2007): Itislesslikely
thatapetourismprogrammeswillbedevelopedinloggingsitesthaninpristinehabitats.However,
sometimberconcessionspursuingForestStewardshipCouncil(FSC)certificationmayconsider
ecotourismdevelopment,andanumberofgreatapepopulationsexistoutsideprotectedareas
in exploited or privately-owned forests subject to mixed-management objectives, which might
includetourism.Therearelinks,therefore,betweentourismandlogginginthesesites.Additionally,
anumberofrecommendationsintheloggingguidelinesmayberelevantincertaintourismdevel-
opmentcontexts,suchasiftourisminfrastructuremayrequiresomelimitedtreefelling.
Re-introduction of great apes (Beck et al. 2007):Therearemanygreatapesiteswherere-intro-
duction is a current or potential activity and, for specific guidelines on methods, the reader is
referred to the relevantguidelines.Currentexpertopinion is that tourismshouldnotbecarried
outwithex-captivegreatapesduetoinherentover-habituationthatcanleadtoafailureofreha-
bilitation,incurringrisksofinjury,diseasetransmissionandevendeathtobothhumansandapes.
Inthecurrentdocument,therefore,werecommendasbestpracticethattourismshouldnotbe
developedinex-captivesites.However,inrealityanumberofex-captivesitesdooperatetourism
anditisimportantthatthesesitesareinformedabouttourismbestpractices(see2.4.1formore
information).
2.2 Purpose of these guidelines
Greatapetourismiswidelypracticedandgenerallypromotedasatooltoconservegreatapesand
theirhabitats.Thedevelopmentoftourismisoftenproposedbydonoragencies,greataperange-
stategovernmentsandconservationagenciesasapriorityintervention,withaviewtoincreasing
revenuesandcommunityinvolvement,aswellaspromotingfinanciallyself-sustainableforestsand
protectedareas,andbringingeconomicdevelopmenttoaregionorcountry.Anumberofsites
Western lowland gorilla, Bai
Hokou, Central African Repub-
lic. Photo © Chloe Cipolletta.
4
havegainedsignificantexperienceand ‘lessons learned’ from implementinggreatape tourism
sincethe1970s(McNeilage1996;Butynski2001).Fromtheirinception,manyapetourismsites
havebeenusingbasicprecautionstominimiseriskstotheapes,andthesecannowbejustified
with the results of significant experience and scientific research. Much has been documented
aboutthecosts,risksandbenefitsofgreatapetourism,withsignificantdebateaboutitsoverall
impacts(e.g.,Williamsonet al.2001).Overtheyearsresearchandmonitoringhaveprovidedthe
datatosupportmodificationstoapetourismprogrammedesignandmanagementtominimise
negativeimpacts(Butynski1998;ButynskiandKalina1998;Homsy1999;Litchfield1997,2007).
Thepurposeofthisdocumentistoprovideitstargetaudience(definedbelow)withcurrentstand-
ardsofbestpracticeinthedesignandimplementationofapetourismasameansofpromoting
greatapeconservationandthepreservationoftheirforesthabitats.Theseguidelineswillalso:
• emphasisetheinherentrisksposedbygreatapetourism;
• reinforcethemessagethatgreatapetourismisnotapanaceaapplicabletoallsites;
and
• conclude that if the conservation focus of tourism with the associated control
mechanismsrecommendedbythisdocumentcannotbesustained,thengreatape
tourismshouldnotbeconsideredandasearchforanalternativemeansofrevenue
andpoliticalsupportforconservationandprotectionactionsshouldbeundertaken.
2.3 Target audience
Theprimarytargetaudiencefortheseguidelinesispractitionersdesigningandimplementinggreat
ape tourismactivities in thefield, aswell aspolicymakerswithinpractitioner institutions.The
guidelineswillalsoassist‘users’ofgreatapetourisminprivatesectorbusinessestobetterinform
theirclients.Conservationprofessionalsandresearchers,whomaynotimplementtourismthem-
selvesbutwhosefieldprojectsinvolvehumansapproachinggreatapesorconductingactivitiesin
apehabitat,wouldalsolikelybenefitfromlessonslearnedintheimpactanalysesandprevention
recommendations.
Viewing mountain gorillas in Rwanda. Photo © José Kalpers.
5
Primary target audience—practitioners and policy makers:
Thepractitionersofgreatapetourismwhowillbenefitfromreadingtheseguidelinesincludethose
currentlyimplementingordesigningtourismactivitiesasatooltosupportgreatapeconservation,
includingtheimplementingarmsofthefollowingtypesoforganisations:
• protectedareaauthoritieswithingreataperange-states;
• conservationagenciesandtheirfieldprojects;
• nationalandinternationalnon-governmentalorganisationswithingreataperange-
states;and
• researchers who may implement great ape tourism alongside primary research
activities.
Thepolicy makers, whosepolicieswehopewillbeinfluencedbytheseguidelines.includeallthose
responsible fordevelopingorapproving tourism-relatedpolicywithin the followingorganisation
types:
• greataperange-stategovernmentministriesordepartments;
• protectedareaauthoritiesingreataperangestates;
• conservationorganisationsactiveingreataperangestates;and
• donors (foundations,bi-andmulti-lateral)whofundormayconsider fundingpro-
grammesingreataperangestatesthatinvolvegreatapetourism.
Additional target audience—users and associates:
The ‘users’ of great ape tourism include the tens of thousands of tourists who visit great ape
tourismsitesannually,tourismindustryprofessionalsandtouroperatorassociations.Whileitwill
notbepossible to reachevery tourist through theseguidelines (and thatwould requireadiffer-
entstyleofproduct),wehavewrittenthisdocumentwithaviewtopromotinganunderstanding
amongthehigherlevel‘users’oftourismactivities,includingthetourismindustryandtouroperator
associations.Throughenhancedunderstandingbytourismindustryprofessionalsoftherisksto
greatapesandthemeansofreducingnegativeimpacts,weanticipatethatvisitorsarrivingatgreat
apetourismsiteswillbebetterpreparedandmorewillingtocomplywithregulations.Weencour-
agetheproductionofupdatedbriefingmaterialsfortourists,bothatindividualsitesashasbeen
doneforgorillas(IGCP2004;WCSFieldVeterinaryProgram2008;BRD2009),chimpanzees(JGI-
Uganda2006)andorangutans(Ancrenaz2006),orforbroadertaxonomicgroupsandgeographic
areas(Litchfield1997).Wewillpromotethedisseminationofbriefingmaterialsandbestpractice
conceptstotourismstakeholdersandlodgeoperatorsinboththeprivatesectorandcommunity
tourismenterprises.Someoftherecommendationshereincouldbeadaptedtoawidercontext
involvinglocalcommunitieslivingwithinoradjacenttogreatapehabitats.
Anumberofotherassociates workingwithgreatapes,suchasresearchers,willfindinformationin
thisdocumentofusetoguidetheiractivities.Greataperesearchersareineffectlong-termvisitors
withthesame,orhigher,potentialasothervisitorsfornegativeimpactsontheirsubjectsresulting
fromhabituationandextendedclose-rangepresence.Assuch,many of the recommendations for
tourism best practice can and should be applied or adapted to research situations.Anumber
of recommendations inthisdocumentweretrialled intheresearchcontextand, insomecases,
longer-termvisitorsareabletoapplycontrols(suchasquarantine)thatareevenmoreprotectiveto
wildapesthanispossiblewithtourists.Researchersstudyingtheimpactsoftourismwillsimilarly
findtheseguidelinesusefulandwill,wehope,beable tobroadenthescopeof impactassess-
mentstoprovidefurtherguidancetoapetourismmanagement.
2.4 Great ape tourism scenarios covered in this document
2.4.1 Wildvs.ex-captivesites
Thisdocumentisintendedforsitespracticingorconsideringtourismwithwildgreatapesintheir
naturalhabitats.Itisnotintendedtoaddresscaptivesituations.However,duetotheincreasein
thenumberofgreatapeorphansanctuaries,rescueandrehabilitationcentres(manyofwhichcarry
6
outorareconsideringre-introduction),inrealityanumberofsitesdonotfiteasilyintothewildvs.
captivecategories.Tocomplicatematters further,someof thesesitesallowtourists tovisitex-
captiveapes.Toavoidconfusion,sitecategoriesarepresentedbelowandassessedforthedegree
towhichtherecommendationsinthisdocumentshouldapply
Type of ape population visited in the site
Notes
Wildapes–noex-captivespresent
• Themainfocusofthedocument.
Wildapeswithrareoroccasionalex-captivesrescuedfrompoachingeventsandreintroduced,ortranslocated,aftershortdurationincaptivity(one-offorveryrarecases)
• Over-habituationtohumansisariskfactorthatincreaseswithlengthoftimeincaptivityandleadstoincreasedpotentialforcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtourismvisits,withassociatedriskfordiseasetransmission,injuryordeath.
• ‘Wild’tourismbestpracticerecommendationsapply,asoutlinedinthisdocument.
Fullyrehabilitatedex-captivesco-rangingwithwildapesinnaturalhabitat:• nofoodprovisioning• nocontactwithany
provisionedex-captives
• Thepresenceofpotentiallyover-habituatedex-captivesintheforestincreasestheriskofcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtouristvisits,withassociatedriskfordiseasetransmission,injury,ordeath.Anydiseasetransmittedviasuchcontactcaneasilyspreadtowildapes.
• ‘Wild’tourismbestpracticerecommendationsapply,asoutlinedinthisdocument.
Ex-captives–freerangingwithnorangeoverlaporcontactwithwildapesatpresent• notprovisioned
• Otherexpertgroupshaverecommendedthatex-captivesshouldnotbeusedfortourism.*However,iftourismiscarriedoutwiththeseindividuals,bestpracticeforwildapetourismasoutlinedinthecurrentdocumentshouldbeadheredto.
• Thepresenceofpotentiallyover-habituatedex-captiveswillincreasetheriskofcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtouristvisits,withassociatedriskofdisease,injuryanddeath.
• Adjustmentinrangingpatternsmayinsomesitesresultinfuturerangeoverlapwithwildpopulationsandanydiseasetransmittedviatouristcontactwithex-captivesmayposearisktowildapes.
Ex-captivesprovisionedawayfromtourists• free-ranging• provisioned,butnotaspartof
touristvisit• tourismawayfromfeeding
platformsorareas
• Thepresenceofpotentiallyover-habituatedex-captiveswillincreasetheriskofcontactbetweenhumansandapesduringtouristvisits,withassociatedincreasedriskfordisease,injuryordeath.
• Apesthatassociatehumanswithfoodwillbemorelikelytoinitiatecontactwithhumanstosolicitorraidbagsforfoodandthiswillincreaserisksfordiseasetransmissionorinjury.
• Atsomesites,thereispotentialoverlapwithwildapes.• Seenote*regardingexpertopinionontourismwithex-
captives.• ‘Wild’tourismbestpracticerecommendationsapply,as
outlinedinthisdocument.
Ex-captivesprovisionedatfeedingplatformwithtouristspresent:• free-ranging• provisionedduringtourist
visits• tourismatfeedingstationor
platform
• Notthepurposeofthisdocument,especiallyastheanimalsarefed,whichiscontrarytotherecommendationsinthisdocument.
• Thesesiteshavedifferentriskfactorsrelatedtodiseasetransmissionandinjuryatfeedingsitesduetofoodattractinghumansandapesintocloseproximity.
• Atsomesites,thereispotentialoverlapwithwildapes.• Eventhoughexpertopinionrecommendsthattourismshould
notbecarriedouttoex-captives(seefootnote2),iftourismis takingplace,therecommendationsinthisdocumentmaybeausefulreferenceforreducingrisksatthesesites.
Fullyfencedsanctuarysites• nopotentialcontactwithwild
apes
• Notcoveredinthedocument
*ThePanAfricanSanctuariesAlliance(PASA)doesnotendorsetourismtoex-captivegreatapesduetohigherrisktotouristsandfieldassistants(Carlsenet al.2006).Inaddition,anIUCN-sponsoredworkshoprecommendedunanimouslythatnotourismbeallowedwithrehabilitantorangutansthatareeligiblefororhavealreadyreturnedtoforestlife(RosenandByers2002).Wehaveadoptedthisrecommendationasbestpractice.
7
2.5 Introduction to great ape tourism
Tourismisoftenpromotedasatoolforconservingapesandtheirhabitatsthroughthegeneration
ofrevenuetofundconservationefforts,whilealsoprovidingeducationalopportunities,andsocial
and economic development. Tourists are increasingly desirous of adventurous activities involv-
ingtraveltoremoteinternationalwildlifeareaswheretheycanviewendangeredspeciesintheir
naturalhabitatratherthanincaptivity,andmanyareespeciallydrawntoactivitiesmarketedas
ecotourismorsustainabletourism.Greatapesfigurehighonthelistofanimalsthatmanywould
liketosee,andpeopletravelgreatdistancestovisittheminthewild.Currently,thereareanumber
ofsiteswherepeoplecanviewchimpanzees (Pan troglodytes),westerngorillas (Gorilla gorilla),
easterngorillas(Gorilla beringei),Borneanorangutans(Pongo pygmaeus)andSumatranorangu-
tans(Pongo abelii).Afewbonobo(Pan paniscus)sitesareintheinitialstagesoftourismdevelop-
ment.Manytourismprogrammesinvolvehabituationtoallowtheapproachoftouriststoaviewing
distanceof7–20metres,whichwouldbeimpossiblewithunhabituatedapes.However,thisisnot
theonlymodelfortourism,astherearesitesofferingwalksthroughnaturalhabitatduringwhich
wildapesmaybeseen,viewingofapes fromplatformsorhidesat forestclearings (e.g., ‘bais’
inCentralAfrica),orsearchingforwildunhabituatedorangutansbyboat(e.g.,Kinabatanganin
Sabah)orbyvehicle(e.g.,forestreservesinSabah).
Many tourists will be satisfied with seeing only one group of apes and may choose to visit a
particularspeciesorsubspeciesbasedonitspopularityormediacoverage(e.g.,‘DianFossey’s’
mountaingorillas),which results inadegreeofcompetition in themarket.However,othersare
interestedinvisitinganumberofdifferentsitesandinfacttheideaofaprimatewatching‘life-list’
asiscommonforbirdwatchersisbeingpromoted(Mittermeieret al.2010).Thisideacouldapply
notonlytospecies,butalsotosubspeciesandindeedtodifferentpopulationsofeachsubspecies,
assuggestedinaregionaltourismplanfortheVirungaMassif(MehtaandGuchu-Katee2005).
2.5.1 Canwecallgreatapetourism‘sustainabletourism’or‘ecotourism’?
Many great ape tourism sites would like to market themselves as ‘ecotourism’ or ‘sustainable
tourism’destinations.However,thereisdebateastowhetherthetermsshouldapplytogreatape
tourism.Thedefinitionsofthesetourismtermsarequiteprecise,althoughtheirdetailsvaryslightly:
• Minimal-impact travel to relatively-undisturbed natural areas for the express pur-
poseofexperiencingtheseareasandtheirwildlife(Boo1990).
• Responsibletraveltonaturalareasthatconservestheenvironmentandimproves
thewell-beingoflocalpeople(TIES2005).
Inprincipal,greatapetourismprojectsshouldstrivetoattainthecriteriastipulatedinthedefini-
tionsofecotourism,andshouldalsobesustainable.Inpractice,however,thishasnotalwaysbeen
thecase.Thegeneraltrendistorefertogreatapetourismas‘ecotourism’,especiallybythosein
thetourismindustryandprivatesectorandbyotherswhoseektomarkettheactivityordestination
totouristswhomakechoicesbasedontheirdesiretobe‘ecotourists’.However,Caldecott(pers.
comm.)pointsoutthatgreatapetourismhasyettoqualifyasecotourisminthatithasnotbeen
shownthattheapesandtheirhabitatremainunharmed.
EplerWood(1996)suggestedthatecotourismshould:1)avoiddamagingordestroyingtheinteg-
rityorcharacterofthenaturalorculturalenvironmentsbeingvisited;2)educatethetravelleron
theimportanceofconservation;3)providerevenuesfortheconservationofnaturalareasandthe
managementofprotectedareas;and4)bringeconomicbenefitstothelocalcommunitiesinthe
area.Mostapetourismprojectsdonotfulfilthesefourcriteria.Tourisminvolvesriskstoapesand
itmaynotbepossibletosatisfythe‘minimalimpact’(Boo1990)criteria.Whileregulationsareput
inplacetominimisetherisks,astouristnumbersincrease,itmaybecomehardertoapplythem.
“Moreandmorevisitorsactastouristsratherthanasecotouristsandeventuallydestroy
whattheycametosee”(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004)
Sincegreatapetourismisnotwithoutrisktotheapesvisited,theterm‘sustainabletourism’may
bemoreappropriate.However,ifsufficientattentionispaidtominimisingrisks,andifthedevelop-
mentoffinancially-viableapetourismcancontributetothedevelopmentofassociatedconserva-
tionactivitiesandrisk-mitigationprogrammes,asrecommendedinthisdocument (i.e.,disease
8
monitoring,employeehealthprogrammes, improved lawenforcement, enhancedmonitoringof
apes),thenetbenefittogreatapeconservationwillbepositive.
Inadditiontorisk, therearealsofinancial issues.Greatapessurvive ina fewhighlyvulnerable
foresthabitats,andthecostsofmanagementprogrammestoprotectthemareextremelyhigh.If
tourismprovidessufficientfinancialresourcestocovertheoperationalcostsofconservation,this
maybeoneofthefewmeansofsustainablyfundingtheprotectionofthesepopulations.
“Apesdesperatelyneedallies,evenifthosealliesareinitforthemoney”(Wrangham2001)
However,financialsustainabilitywillnotbepossible inallcases.The initialdevelopmentcosts
andtheassociatedinfrastructureandservicerequirementscanbeextremelyhigh,especially in
remoteforeststhathavelittleornoinfrastructure(Blom2001).Inaddition,thetourismmarketmay
notberobustenoughtoprovidesufficientincometoanincreasingnumberofnewgreatapetour-
ismsites.Itisimportanttoconsiderfinancialsustainabilityandviabilityoftheoverallprogramme
beforetourismisinitiated.
Greatapetourismmustresultinimprovedconservationoftheapesandtheirhabitat,achievable
onlyiftourismsupportsconservationactivitiesinthehabitatandstimulatessupportforconserva-
tionthroughchangesinpoliticsorconsumerbehaviour,orthroughbenefitstolocalcommunities
sufficient tooffset their lostopportunitiesconcerning resourceextractionorhabitatconversion
(SingletonandAprianto2001).Monitoringprogrammestomeasuretheperformanceandimpacts
oftourismprogrammesshouldshedlightonwhetherthesegoalsarebeingachieved.
Theproductionoftheseguidelineswillprovideanopportunityforgreatapetourismsitestodevelop
andimprovetheirprogrammesinlinewithbestpractice.Theyshouldalsobeusedfortrainingand
awareness-raisingonhowtoavoidorminimisenegativeeffects.Intime,adherencetotheIUCN
Best Practice Guidelines for Great Ape Tourismcouldbecomeabadgeofhonourthatsitesmight
wish to adopt formarketingpurposes, or that tourismcertificationauthorities couldusewhen
evaluatinggreatapetourismsites.Insummary,wewillreferonlyto‘greatapetourism’;wewillnot
callit‘ecotourism’.
Section 3: Global Experience with Great Ape Tourism
3.1 History of great ape tourism
Tourismhasbeendevelopedatanumberofgreatapesitesallovertheworld.Throughdifferent
periodsinitshistoryandwithdifferentmethods,previousexperienceintourismdevelopmentand
management provides lessons learned to improve future tourism and to achieve conservation
objectives.
Eastern Gorillas:Mountaingorillatourismisamongsttheworld’sbest-knownwildlifeexperiences.
Mountaingorillashavebeenvisitedbytouristssince1955,althoughintheearlyyearsvisitswere
largelyunregulatedandpoorlymanaged(ButynskiandKalina1998).Habituationspecificallyfor
tourismbeganwitheasternlowlandgorillas(Gorilla beringei graueri)inKahuzi-BiegaNationalPark,
DRC,inthe1970s,andwithmountaingorillas(Gorilla beringei beringei)intheVolcanoesNational
Park,Rwanda, in1979.Programmes focusedonmountaingorillas in theDRC followed in the
1980s, then inUganda in the1990s.Tourismwas initiated toprovideeconomicalternatives to
convertinglargeareasofforestforotheruses,suchascattlepastureandagriculture(Weberand
Vedder2001).
WhileDRCsufferedfrompoliticalinstabilitythroughoutthe1990s,tourisminUgandaandRwanda
hasgonefromstrengthtostrength,providingpersuasivefinancialargumentsforcontinuedpreser-
vationofgorillahabitat,withtouristdemandprovingsurprisinglyresistanttobothpriceincreases
andpoliticalevents.Mountaingorillatourismprovidessignificantrevenuetotheprotectedarea
authoritiesandgovernments,resultingin improvedsurveillanceandincreasedprotectionofthe
gorillas (Harcourt 1986; Weber 1993; Macfie 2007a). Mountain gorilla tourism in Rwanda has
achieved global recognition, informing and inspiring the global ecotourism movement, and at
thesametimeprovidingfinancialsupportfortheconservationofgorillahabitat,andstimulating
9
politicalwill toprotectgorillas inperpetuity (WilliamsonandFawcett2008),withaproveneco-
nomicvalueexceedingthatofalternativeextractivelanduses(HatfieldandMalleret-King2006).
Western Gorillas:Tourismprogrammesfocusedonwesterngorillaswere initiated in the1990s
andareoftwodifferenttypes.Fivesitesnowofferviewingofunhabituatedgorillasfromfixedplat-
formsatlargeswampyclearingsor‘bais’(BoumbaBek,LobékéandNkiinCameroon,Langoué
inGabonandMbeliBaiintheRepublicofCongo),butonlytwositesoffertrackingofhabituated
westerngorillas(BaiHokouinCentralAfricanRepublicandMondikain theRepublicofCongo).
Theslowdevelopmentofwesterngorillatourismmaybeattributedtoanumberoffactors.Western
gorillasarewidelyacknowledgedtobedifficulttohabituatetohumanpresence,therebylimiting
tourismpotential.Thismaybeduetotheirdenserhabitats,infrequentvocalisations,largerhome
rangesandlongerdayranges(TutinandFernandez1991;Doran-Sheehyet al.2007),exacerbated
by previous exposure to hunting, and factors leading to less visible trail sign (Williamson and
Fawcett2008).AtourismprogrammeatLossi,intheRepublicofCongo,succeededwithhabitu-
ation(Aveling1999;Bermejo2004),butthisgorillapopulationwasdecimatedbytheEbolavirus
(Bermejoet al.2006).However,habituationhasbeenachievedatBaiHokouandMondika,whereit
isnowpossiblefortrackerstofollowgorillasdaily.Anotherfactorinwesterngorillatourismisthat
thetouristexperiencemaybeimpededbypoorvisibilityinthedensetropicalforeststhatmakeup
muchoftheirhabitat.LangouéandMbeliBaiuseplatformsforviewingat‘bais’asitisnotpossible
tofollowgorillasintotheforest.Inadditiontofactorsrelatedtothenatureofthegorillasortheir
habitat,westerngorillatourismprogrammeshavealsosufferedfrompoorinfrastructureandhigh
travelcostsrelativetootherdestinationsinAfricathathavepoliticalstabilityandadiversityoftour-
istattractions(WilkieandCarpenter1999).However,factorsthathaveledtotheslowdevelopment
ofwesterngorillatourismhavealsoprovidedopportunitiestodeveloptourisminwhichapesare
notthesolefocus,butareoneofanumberofattractions.Thisinitselfmayensurebettercontrol
overtourismdevelopmentandimprovedapeconservation.
Chimpanzees: Somechimpanzeeresearchsites(notablyGombeStreamandMahaleMountains
NationalParksinTanzania)havebeenreceivingvisitorsforover30yearsandsincethe1990s,a
numberofothersitesinEastAfrica(e.g.,KibaleandQueenElizabethNationalParksinUganda,
NyungweNationalParkinRwanda)haveofferedguidednaturewalksduringwhichvisitorshave
thepossibilityofviewingchimpanzeesfeedinginfruitingtrees.Overtheyears,tourismatthese
siteshasexpandedandthenegativeimpactsofincreasingtouristnumbersandproximitytochim-
panzees have been mitigated by stringent booking systems and tight controls on tourist con-
duct,includingthewearingofsurgicalmaskstoreducediseasetransmission(e.g.,Purcell2002;
Hanamuraet al.2006;TANAPAandFZS2007).Morerecently,anumberofsitesinbothEastand
Central Africa have been offering visits to chimpanzee groups habituated specifically for tour-
ism.Asanexample,inNyungweNationalParkhabituationeffortsarefocusedonthreegroupsof
chimpanzeesandonbringingtourismmanagementandoperationsinlinewithRwanda’smountain
gorillatourismprogramme(Hurst2007,2008a,b).SitesinCentralAfricathatofferforest-walkswith
achanceofviewingunhabituatedorsemi-habituatedchimpanzeesincludeLobékéinCameroon,
LoangoinGabon,TaïinCôted’IvoireandGolainSierraLeone.
Bonobos:Currently,nositesoffertourismwithbonobos,whichareendemictotheDemocratic
RepublicofCongo(DRC).BonobotourismisplannedatLacTumba/Malebo(WWF2008),andtwo
researchsitesintheLomakoYokokalaFaunalReserve(Dupain2007),whicharealsodeveloping
communityincome-earningactivitiesassociatedwithvisitingresearchers2.NotonlyisDRCemerg-
ingfromoveradecadeofconflict,butalsobonobositesareextremelyremote,sobonobotourism
willlikelycatertosmallnumbersofhardyenthusiastsorhigh-end(wealthy)tourists.Aswithany
otheraperesearchsites,westronglyrecommendthatbonoboresearchersconsulttheseguide-
linesandbeawareofthepotentialriskstheyposetoapesandofpossiblemitigationmeasures.
2 SomeresearchsitesinDRCandCameroonusetheterm‘scientifictourism’todescribetheirincome-earn-ingactivities,includingpaymentsforaccommodationandtechnicalservices,suchasfieldassistants,trackersandguides(Dupainpers.comm.;Taggpers.comm.).
10
Bornean and Sumatran Orangutans:Orangutan tourismwas launched inSepilok,Malaysia, in
the1960s,althoughithasfocusedonrehabilitantorangutansatornearrehabilitationcentres.This
beganasastrategytoprotectwildorangutanpopulationsandreflectedthedifficultiesofobserv-
ingtheleastsocialofthegreatapesinthecanopy.
Orangutanrehabilitationprojectshaveusedtourismtogenerateincometofinanceotherconserva-
tionactivities,whileprovidinglegalsanctuaryforconfiscatedorphansandwithhopesofadvanc-
ingconservationeducation(Frey1975;AvelingandMitchell1982;Rijksen1982).Tworehabilitation
centresthatbeganoperationsinthe1970s(SepilokinSabah,Malaysia,andBohorokinSumatra,
Indonesia)werethefirsttoaccepttouristsandhaveremainedthemost involvedinrehabilitant-
orangutan-basedtourism(althoughBohorokhasbeenclosedasarehabilitationcentreandhas
notreceivedanymoreorangutanssince1995).Thesesiteshaveexperiencedheavytouristinflux:
Bohorokreachedupto35,000visitors inoneyear,althoughnumbersdroppedbelow5,000fol-
lowingaflashfloodin2003thatdestroyedthetourisminfrastructure(RijksenandMeijaard1999;
SingletonandAprianto2001;Dellatore2007).In2006,Sepilokreceived97,000visitors,including
over55,000foreignnationals(Ambu2007).Whileannualrevenueshavebeensignificant(estimated
atbetweenUS$43,000andUS$240,000byRijksenandMeijaard1999),theproblemsarisingfrom
suchheavyvisitationhavebeenwelldocumented(Cochrane1998;SingletonandAprianto2001;
RosenandByers2002;Low2004;Singletonet al.2004;Dellatore2007).Theproblemsconsistof
thedifficultyofcontrollinglargenumbersofvisitors,proximitytoorangutans,illegalfeedingand
unregulatedtourism,allofwhichleadtoreducedorangutansurvivalandover-developmentinthe
localarea(SingletonandAprianto2001).Thesesitesconducttourismatfeedingplatformsnear
therehabilitationcentresorintheadjacentforest.Sometimesguidescallorangutanstoapproach
visitorsandprovidefoodrewards—adangerouspracticethatincreasesdiseaserisksandaggres-
sion,andcan leadto injuryofboth touristsandorangutans (Russon,SusiloandRussell2004;
Dellatore2007).Consequently,expertsrecommendthatnotourismbeallowedwithrehabilitant
orangutansthatareeligiblefororalreadyreturnedtoforestlife(RosenandByers2002).Despite
theIndonesiangovernment’sinvolvementinregulating,ifnothalting,tourismatrehabilitationcen-
tres,somecontinuetooperatetourismunofficially.Arecentanalysisoforangutantourismfound
that57%oftoursvisitedrehabilitantsexclusivelyand97%includedrehabilitants(Russon,Susilo
andRussell2004).Orangutantourismfocusedonrehabilitants,especiallywhenvisitedinunnatu-
ralcontextssuchascagesandfeedingplatformsandbyextremelylargenumbersofvisitors,does
notmeetmanyofthecriteriathatdefineecotourismandassuchshouldnotbepromotedaseco-
tourismorconsideredbestpractice.
Rehabilitant orangutans, Tan-
jung Puting National Park,
Central Kalimantan, Indonesian
Borneo. Photo © Anne Russon.
11
Commercialtourstovisitwildorangutanshavebeenoperatingsincethemid-1980s,butareless
commonthanrehabilitanttours.Theytendtobemoreexpensiveandrequiremoretimeinoran-
gutanhabitat(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).Giventheremotenessofsitestypicallyinvolved
andthedifficultiesoffinding,habituatingandobservingwildorangutans,supportfromresearch-
ers,wildlifeornatureconservationagenciesandgovernmentauthoritiesiscriticaltodeveloping
thesetours.Theonlysitesthattouristsvisitregularlywiththeintentionofviewingwildorangutans
areKinabatanganinSabah,Malaysia(Ancrenaz2006)and,toalesserextent,theDanumValleyin
SabahandTanjungPutinginCentralKalimantan,Indonesia,whereafewtouristswalkintheforest
lookingforwildorangutansbutmostseerehabilitants.InKinabatangan,tourismtakestheformof
dawnorduskrivercruiseswithopportunitiestoviewwildorangutansfromaboat,orforestwalks
tovisithabituatedorangutans(Ancrenaz2006).In2008,theKinabatanganprogramme,whichis
operatedandownedbylocalcommunitymembers,receivedUS$95,000from249touristsof14
nationalities(Ancrenazpers.comm.).Therevenueandattentiongeneratedbytourismisprobably
oneofthereasonsthatKinabatanganretainsitsstatusasaconservationarea,demonstratingthe
potentialforviabletourismprogrammesbasedona‘wildernessexperience’andthepossibilityof
viewingwildorangutanswhileexploringtheirhabitat.
3.2 Lessons learned from existing great ape tourism programmes
3.2.1 Greatapetourism—conservationtoolorconservationthreat?
Ape tourism isoftenpromotedasa tool toenhance theconservationstatusandprotectionof
greatapesandtoserveasaprimarydrawtoattractvisitorstoanareaorcountry,therebyenhanc-
ing theprotectionofall speciessharing theirhabitat (Adamsand Infield2003;Litchfield2007).
Nationaltourismprogrammescentredontheopportunitytoviewgreatapeshavelaunchedafew
rangestates,suchasRwandaandUganda,intopremiertouristdestinationsandhaveprovided
significantfundingforconservationactivities,aswellasaccruingtourism-associatedrevenueto
localandnationaleconomies.However,thesesuccessesmaynotbereplicableatothersitesfor
anumberofreasons,andthetourismmarketmaynotbeabletosupportthenumberofsitescur-
rentlyproposingtodevelopgreatapetourism.
Policymakersoftenviewgreatapetourismasarichsourceofrevenue,whichmayruncounterto
theprincipleofkeepingtouristnumberssmallinlinewith‘ecotourism’andnaturetourismdefini-
tions(Macfie2007a).Animportantlessonliesintheprevalenceofbusinessinterestsdrivingpolicy
decisionsandthreateningtheconservationsuccessoftourismprojectsglobally(Kruger2005).In
thedevelopmentofanygreatapetourismactivity,conservationprinciplesmusttakeprecedence
overprofit toprivatesector stakeholdersandothergroups thatearn tourism revenue.Whilea
successful tourismprogrammewillprovidenumerousopportunities for incomegeneration,and
privatesectorengagement inserviceprovision is important (Maddison2004), theprimeaimof
developingandoperatingthisrevenue-generatingmechanismshouldbetosupportthecostsof
greatapeconservationandtoaddresstheneedsofcommunitieslivingadjacenttoapehabitats.If
theprioritiesareallowedtoinvert,withincreasingprofitsfortheprivatesectorbecomingthedriv-
ingforceforgreatapetourism,theprogrammewillhavegonecompletelyoffcourse.
Anumberofnegativeimpactsoftourismaffectnotonlytheapes,butalsolocalcommunitiesand
theenvironment(seeSection4fordiscussionoftheimpactsofgreatapetourism).Therefore,great
apetourismcannotbean idealsolutiontoaddresstheneedforsustainableconservationfund-
ingatallsites.Itmustbeapproachedcautiouslyandshouldonlybeinstigatedinareasthatcan
developandmaintainthestandardsrequiredtoattractaviablesegmentofthemarket,andthat
havethecommitmenttoprinciplesofconservationtoadequatelycontroltourismandmitigateits
negativeimpacts.Onlyifalltheseprerequisitesaremetcantherisksassociatedwithgreatape
tourismbepreventedsothatitdoesnotitselfbecomeaconservationthreat.
3.2.2 Globalinterestingreatapetourismasaconservationstrategy
Anumberofglobalinitiativeshaveadoptedorendorsedgreatapetourismasaconservationstrat-
egy,includingtheGreatApesSurvivalPartnership(GRASP),aUNEP/UNESCOinitiativetosave
greatapesfromextinction.TheKinshasaDeclaration,signedatthefirstGRASPintergovernmental
meetingin2005,promoteseconomicbenefitfromgreatapeecotourismasareasonforensuring
12
theirsurvival(UNEP-GRASP2005),andanumberofgreataperangestatesthatsigneduptothis
declarationarecurrently looking todevelop tourism.Theseeffortsarebeingactivelypromoted
bygovernmentofficials and technical advisors,whoareunderstandably interested in sourcing
sustainableincomefortheirprotectedareaandconservationprogrammes.Similarly,awiderange
ofconservationanddevelopmentdonorsshowinterestintourisminitiatives,sincetheyrepresent
amodelforsustainabilitythatcouldallowconservationareastobeweanedoffdonorfunding.It
isunlikelythattheglobaltourismmarketcansupportanever-growingnumberoftourismsites;
nevertheless,globalinterestbyconservationgroups,donorsandtouristsisanassettotourism
developmentasaconservationstrategyatsitesthatdemonstratebestpractice.
3.2.3 Speciesdifferencesrelevanttogreatapetourism
Thereareanumberofbiosocialandecologicaldifferencesamongthegreatapetaxaandsocio-
politicaldifferencesbetweentheirrangestateswhichcanaffectgreatapetourismasiscurrently
practiced.Itisimpossible,therefore,torecommendasinglemodelofgreatapetourismasbest
practice. Species-specific characteristics and habitat features will greatly affect what can be
achieved in a particular area. Consequently, these guidelines propose common best practices
applicabletoalltaxaandsitestogetherwithnotesonvariationsthatwouldapplyinspecificsitu-
ations(Section5),andpresentexamplesoftourismregulationsfromarangeofsites(AppendixI).
3.2.4 Greatapetouristprofiles
Theprofileofvisitorsattractedtodifferenttourismsitesvarieswitheaseofaccess,physicalfitness
requirements,typesoftourismofferedandinfrastructure.Thesefactorsalsodeterminehowmuch
touristsarewillingtopayfortheexperience(Chafe2004;BushandFawcett2008),howlongthey
stayinthearea,othertouristactivitiestheywillbeinterestedin,accommodationstandards,com-
munityprogrammestheyarewillingtosupport,andconservationawarenessprogrammesthatthe
siteshouldconduct.Theprofileoftouriststoaparticularsitemayalsochangeovertime(Duffus
andDearden1990).Earlyvisitorsaretypicallyknowledgeableandcarefultohavelowimpact,but
astourismbecomesestablished,morevisitorsarrivewhoarelessknowledgeableorconcerned.
Anyparticularsitewillthereforeneedtoevaluatehowitfitsintothemarket,anddesignitstour-
ismandassociatedprogrammesaccordingly,payingattentiontogeneralbestpracticeaswellas
guidelinesspecifictolocalfactors.
Itisalsoimportantthateachsitemaintainsaflexibleapproachtomarketing,pricingandservice
provision,sothatitmayreachouttoothersectorsofthetourismmarketwhenunexpectedsitua-
tions,suchaslackofsecurity,arise,whichmayalterthetypeoftouristwillingtovisitthecountry
orsite(seeSection3.2.8).Thiswillenhancethecontinuityofconservationfundingfromtourism.
Aerial view of Congo Basin
forest. Photo © Liz Williamson.
13
3.2.5 Differenttypesofgreatapetourism
Existinggreatapetourismsitesvaryintheexperiencetheyoffer,rangingfromessentiallyguaran-
teedviewing,whentouristsareabletoviewhabituatedapesthataretrackeddaily,viewingunha-
bituatedorsemi-habituatedapesfromaplatform,toforestwalksorrivercruises,duringwhich
unhabituatedapesmayormaynotbeencounteredbychance.
3.2.6 Managingtouristexpectations
Whendesigningandmarketinggreatapetourismprogrammes,itisimportanttoassesstheexpe-
riencetobeofferedtovisitors.Anyguaranteeofviewingwillheightenthetourists’expectations
andputpressureonfieldstafftomeetthem,evenattheriskoffailingtoadheretorulesandregu-
lations.Theexpectationsforaparticularsitewilldependonthetypeoftourist,thehabitat,the
particularspeciesorsubspeciesbeingvisited3andtheparticularactivityoffered.Activitiesmust
bemarketedappropriatelysothatvisitorsarenotdisappointed,andsothattheyunderstandthey
arecontributingtolower-impacttourismbystayingfurtherawayfromtheanimals,viewingfroma
platform,andnotclearingvegetationtoimprovetheirview(GreerandCipolletta2006).Forexam-
ple,mostwildorangutantoursmarketopportunitiestolookforwildorangutans,butfewpromise
seeingthem(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).
3.2.7 Replicationofsuccessstoriesisnotalwayspossibleordesirable
Thesuccessofmountaingorillatourismhas,overtheyears,stimulatedaflurryofprojectshoping
toreplicatethesesuccesseswithothergreatapesandespeciallywithwesterngorillas(e.g.,Gami
1999;Lanjouw1999a,b;DjohandvanderWal2001;Focken2002).Westerngorillatourismpro-
grammeswilllikelybelesssuccessfulforanumberofreasons,andshouldnotbepromotedpurely
foreconomicbenefits,duetoconcernsaboutfinancialviability(WilkieandCarpenter1999;Blom
2000,2001,2004;Wilkie,CarpenterandZhang2001;Williamsonet al.2002).However,ifsustain-
able long-termfinancial supporthasbeencommittedandsignificantconservationbenefitsare
expected,thentourismcouldbejustified(GreerandCipolletta2006).Expertshavealsodebated
whetherCriticallyEndangeredtaxa,suchastheCrossRivergorilla(Gorilla gorilladiehli),should
behabituated foranypurpose,whether tourismor research.Theseguidelinesarenotprescrip-
tive;ifthenetconservationoutcome,aspredictedbysuitablydesignedandconductedfeasibility
andimpactanalyses,isbeneficialtoaCriticallyEndangeredpopulation,tourismmaybeaviable
tool.Highlyfragmentedpopulationsthatarealreadyunderpressuremaynotbeabletowithstand
theimpactsoftourism,despitetheaspirationsofstakeholderswhoseetourismasameansof
development.
3.2.8 Insecurityaffectstourismmarkets
Manygreatapesliveincountriesthathavesufferedfromcivilwar(e.g.,Côted’Ivoire,Liberiaand
SierraLeoneinAfrica;theAcehProvinceofSumatrainIndonesia).Greatapetourismsites,espe-
ciallythosecateringprimarilytothemorerisk-averseluxurytourismmarket,willfindoccupancy
ratesplummetingfollowinghigh-profileincidentsinwhichtouristsareeithertargets(e.g.,Bwindi
in1999)orunintendedvictims,asintheBalibombingsin2002and2005,whichcanresultina
perceptionofregionalinsecurity.Duetotheficklenatureoftheluxurytouristmarket,itisimportant
nottoexcludeaverageorlower-budgettravellers,asthesevisitorswillreturnmorequicklytosites
thatmayhaveacquirednotorietyfor insecurityorcrime.However,onamorepositivenote, ifa
particularsitealreadyhasahighreputation,tourismmayreboundrelativelyquicklyafternegative
events,asevidencedbythespeedwithwhichtourismrecoveredinRwandaafterthegenocide,
andevenduringrebelactivityintheDRC.
3 Forexample,chimpanzeesaremoremobilethangorillasandorangutans,requiringgreaterphysicalexer-tionforthevisitortokeepup,whilephotographicopportunitieswillbelimitedbytheapes’location(intrees,ontheground,orindensevegetation).Thereforemanagingexpectationsmusttakeintoaccountthespecificconditionsofthesite.
14
3.2.9 Globaleconomyaffectstourismmarkets
Whilenotspecifictogreatapetourism,globaleconomicswillaffecttheviabilityoftourismpro-
grammes.Occupancyratescanfallfollowingeconomicinstability,aswasseeninfallingbookings
andincreasingcancellationsatmanyinternationaldestinationsfollowingthe2008-09globaleco-
nomiccrisis(UNWTO2009).Thetypesoftouristthattendtovisitaparticularsitewilldetermine
thatsite’svulnerabilitytoeconomicfluctuations.Asitethatreliesonlower-budgetbackpackers
andadventuretouristsmaybelessaffectedasthesepeopledonotusuallyusetheirlifesavings
tofundtheirtrips.Thishighlightsthevalueofofferingservicesandactivitiesthatappealtoawide
varietyoftourists,astherisksofmarketfluctuationswillbebuffered.
3.2.10 Habituation—aninvariablylongandriskyundertaking
Greatapetaxadifferwidelyintheeffortrequiredtohabituatethem:mountaingorillagroupshave
beenhabituatedinaslittleasoneyear,buttakeonaveragetwoyears;westernlowlandgorillas
andchimpanzeeswillallowhumanstoapproachtoreasonableviewingdistances(10–20metres)
aftertwotofiveyearsofconsistentfollows(WilliamsonandFeistner2003;GreerandCipolletta
2006).Theeaseofhabituationdependsonthespecies/subspecies’characteristics,thenatureof
theirpreviousexperiencewithhumansandstructureoftheirhabitat(TutinandFernandez1991;
vanKrunkelsvenet al.1999).Visibilityinlowlandforestispoorandgreatapesareusuallyobscured
evenwithin10metresofanobserver,whilstsuddencontactsaredifficulttoavoidindenseforest
andmayhinderhabituationbyfrighteningtheanimalsorcausingphysicaldangertoapesandvisi-
torsalike(Williamson1988).However,itisimportanttonoteexperienceswithmountaingorillas,
wherelowvegetationanduneventopographyprovideidealconditionsforobservation,occasion-
allyfromtheoppositesideofaravine;orwitheasternchimpanzeesthatcanbeobservedacross
avalleywithbinoculars.
Habituationoforangutansisalsoachallengingendeavourduetotheircrypticandsemi-solitary
nature.Wildorangutansareelusiveandoftendifficulttolocateintheforest.Habituationinvolves
followingloneindividuals,requiringskilledanddedicatedstafftodonest-to-nestfollows.When
first encountered, most orangutans display agonism by kiss-squeaking or long calls (flanged
males),andbreakingandthrowingbranches.Someorangutanshideinthecanopywithoutmoving
forhoursorevendays,aslongaspeopleremainnearby,whileothersfleerapidlyalongtheground
or from tree to tree. In Kinabatangan, habituation can take only 10–14 days (but this may be
due to lownatural fearofhumans resulting fromtheabsenceofhunting in thearea,Ancrenaz
Care should be taken to prevent
access to tourist infrastructure
by habituated apes! Photo ©
Uwe Kribus.
15
pers. comm.) and Sumatran orangutans have been habituated in as few as 3 days (Singleton,
pers.comm.).Nevertheless,someorangutansseemresistanttohabituationandtheseindividuals
shouldnotbepursued(Ancrenazpers.comm.).
Habituationcarriesanumberofrisksforbothgreatapesandhumans(WilliamsonandFeistner
2003;Goldsmith2004,2005a).Oneknownnegativeimpactisstress,whichcanbebothinferred
frombehaviouralreactions(e.g.,orangutansstayingintheirnestsfordaystoavoidhumans)and
confirmedwithcorticosteroidmonitoring (CzekalaandRobbins2001;Nizeyi2005).Stresscan
havemanyconsequences,includingdeleteriousimpactsonreproductivesuccessandonhealth,
such as reduced immunity to illness, and may cause aberrant behaviour. Whether from stress
or fromotherbehavioural reactions tohumanpresence,habituationmayresult in temporaryor
longer-termalterationstonormalrangingpatternssuchashome-rangeuseandday-rangelength
(Goldsmith2005b;McFarland2007). If thispushestheanimalsoutofprotectedareasand into
contactwithadjacentareasusedbyhumans,thepotentialforincreasedhuman-greatapeconflict
andexposuretohumandiseaseswillrise(Macfie2007a;HockingsandHumle2009).Ifapesasso-
ciatehumansettlementswithfood,thiswillalsoresultinbehaviouralchangeandrangealteration.
Riskstohumansconductinghabituationeffortscanbepredictedfromthereactionsoftheapes
underhabituation.Whilehabituationisdesignedtoslowlyreducethedistancesatwhichhuman
observersaretoleratedwithoutaggressionorfearfulreactions,initsearlystagessomeindividuals
mayattackthoseworkingtohabituatethem,resultingininjuryandexposingbothtohigherrisks
ofdiseasetransmission.Bestpracticesforthehabituationofgreatapesareneededtoguideape
researchortourismsites.
Nonetheless,itisimportanttobalancetherisksagainstthepositivesideeffectsthathabituation
canhaveontheabilityoffieldstafftomonitorandprotectgreatapes.Withtourismprogrammes,
the fact thatguidesandtrackers followapegroupseveryday facilitateshealthmonitoringand
surveillanceofillegalactivities,allowingforpromptattentiontoanypoachingorencroachmentin
thearea,andveterinaryinterventions,suchassnareremovals.
ReportsfromtheVirungaspresentthepercentageofimmaturegorillasinthepopulationasanindi-
catorofreproductivehealthandtoassesshabituationimpact.Long-termrecordsshowthatthe
percentageofimmaturemountaingorillashasbeenhigherinhabituatedvs.unhabituatedgorillas
(WeberandVedder1983;Kalperset al.2003).Thismaybeconfoundedbytheselectionoflarge,
reproductivegroupsfortourismorresearch,orby improvedlawenforcement inthehabituated
groups’homeranges,butasaconsistentfindingover20yearsofconservationefforts,atleast
suggeststhathabituationdoesnotautomaticallyleadtoreproductivefailureinagroup.
3.2.11 Enforcementoftourismregulationsiscritical,butoftensuboptimal
Sitesofferinggreatape tourismoperateunderanumberofbookingsystems, rulesandregula-
tionsdesignedtoprotecttheirtargetspeciesfromthenegativeimpactsoftourism.However,at
somesitestheserulesandregulationsareignoredmuchifnotallofthetime(Sandbrook2006;
SandbrookandSemple2006;Dellatore2007;Whittier2009).Atanumberofsiteswitheasyaccess
andahighchanceofviewingapes,tourismmanagementthatatfirstenforcedstrictadherence
to tight controls has relaxed over time, suggesting that continued reinforcement of the ration-
alebehindtourismrulesandregulations isneeded.Controls failbecauseconservation isoften
not thefirstpriorityofkeyactors,suchasbookingclerks, tracker-guides,or the tourists them-
selves,whoseprioritiesmayruncountertoconservation,eitherthroughignoranceorselfishness.
Problemsincludepressurefromprivatesectoroperatorsonharriedbookingclerks,whichresults
inoverbooking;trackersandguideswhorelaxorignoreregulationstoobtainbettertips,tourists
whodonotunderstandorcareabouttherisksandputpressureontheirguidestogetcloser,and
evenunscrupulousstafforcommunitymembersoperatingadditionalvisitstohabituatedapesto
earnextraincomewithoutdepositingthetrackingfeeswiththeappropriateinstitution.Allofthese
examplesincreasethepotentialfornegativeimpactsontheapeswithoutprovidinganyconserva-
tionbenefits.Continuous improvementandenforcementof rules, regulationsandsystems that
supportapetourismasaconservation-basedactivityarethereforecritical,asisawareness-raising
amongtouristsandtourismprofessionalspriortotheirarrival.Withoutimprovedenforcementof
16
therulesandregulationsdesignedtoprotectapesfrompotentialrisk,apetourismwillnotbea
viableorevenanacceptablecomponentoftheconservationtoolkit.
3.2.12 EnvironmentalImpactAssessmentsandfeasibilitystudies
Aswithanyproposeddevelopmentthathasthepotentialtoimpactwildlifeandnaturalprocesses,
feasibility and impact assessments are critical in theplanningphaseof anygreat ape tourism
project. Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) are mandated by many range-state environ-
mentalmanagementauthoritiesand,iftailoredtotheparticularcontext,willallowstakeholdersto
evaluateanumberofimpacts.Wheneverhabituationisbeingconsidered,itisextremelyimportant
toconductafullcost-benefitanalysis,astherearemanyadvantagesanddisadvantagestohabitu-
ation,bothforthegreatapesthemselves,aswellasfortheinstitutionsthatwillmanageitsout-
comes.TheInternationalGorillaConservationProgramme(IGCP)hasdevelopedastandardised
tooltoguidethisanalysisbyaskingalltheappropriatequestions,sourcingallthenecessarydata,
andundergoingabalancedreviewtomakeinformedrecommendations.Thisprocesshasbeen
dubbed the ‘Habituation ImpactAssessment’orHIA (Macfie2007a).A recentstudy inNigeria
lookedatthefeasibilityofdevelopingCrossRivergorillatourism(Macfie2007b).Conductingsuch
studiesandanalysescanbeexpensivebut the investment is favourablecomparedto thehigh
costsofdevelopingtourismatasitethatturnsouttobeunviable,andthecostinconservation
termsofcarryingoutanactivitythatcauseshardshiptotheveryspeciesitwasdesignedtoprotect.
3.2.13 Impactstudiesandmonitoringarecritical
Thenon-extractivenatureofviewingwildanimals intheirnaturalenvironmentoftenleadstoan
assumptionof sustainability, yet theseprogrammesaregenerallyestablished in fragileenviron-
ments,openingthemuptoamassmarketinwhichwildlifeisrepeatedlyandactivelysoughtout
(JacobsonandFigueroaLopez1994;Tapper2006).Littleisknownofthetrueimpactsoftourism
ongreatapes,theirphysicalenvironment,orotherresidentwildlife,andevenless isquantified.
Difficultiesarecompoundedbyalackofbaselinedata,problemsofseparatingouttheeffectsof
tourismfromotherimpactssuchasnaturalenvironmentalchange,andthelengthoftimeforsome
effectstobecomeapparent(Briassoulis1991).
Giventheseconstraints,impactstudiesconductedduring35yearsofgreatapetourismprovide
valuabledatatoinformtherecommendationsforbestpracticeinmanaginggreatapetourism:
Western lowland gorilla, Loango
National Park, Gabon. Photo ©
Josephine Head/MPI-EVAN.
17
• Studiesassessingthebehaviouralimpactsanddiseaserisksincurredbymountain
gorillatourismhaveledtomorerestrictiverules,suchasanincreaseintheminimum
viewingdistancefrom5to7metres(Homsy1999),andtheimportanceoflimiting
thedurationoftouristvisits(Fawcett2004;Muyambi2005).
• Chimpanzeeresearchandtourismprojectshavedocumentedknownhumanpatho-
genscausingmortalityinwildchimpanzees(WallisandLee1999;Leendertzet al.
2006;KaurandSingh2008;Köndgenet al.2008)andhaveproventhatthewearing
ofsurgicalmasksisbothfeasible(TANAPAandFZS2007)andeffectiveindisease
prevention(Boesch2008;Lukasik-BraumandSpelman2008).
• Evaluation of three decades of orangutan tourism has provided opportunities to
documentandimprovemanagementpractices(Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).
Recent research (Dellatore2007)hasshown that thebehaviouroforangutans is
significantlyalteredbytourisminBukitLawang,whichincludesbothwildandex-
captiveorangutans.Themainchangesrecordedincluderestrictedranging(staying
inareasofhightourismuse),alteredactivitybudgets(lessforaging),increasedinci-
denceofaggressiontowardspeople,andhighinfantmortality.Ofparticularconcern
isthepracticeoffeedingorangutanstoeitherenticethemtoapproachtouristsorto
appeasethemwhentheyapproachandattempttostealfood.Thisstudyconcluded
thatbehaviouralhealthandreproductivesuccessarepoorandthattourismmustbe
restructuredtobettermanageandprotecttheorangutanpopulation.
• The implementation of programmes monitoring the movements, behaviour and
healthstatusofgreatapesaffectedbytourismisvitaltodetectandmitigateknown
and emerging impacts (e.g., Kaur and Singh 2008) and to inform the design of
impactmitigationmeasuressuchasemployeehealthmonitoring(Aliet al.2004).
• Bio-monitoringactivitiescontributetomoreeffectiveandsafertourismprogrammes.
For example, part of the success of the mountain gorilla tourism programme is
due toextensiveknowledgeofgorilladiet,daily-traveldistanceand rangingpat-
ternsthatmakeitpossibletopredictgroupmovementsandlocatethegorillaswith
relativeease.Predictabilityofdaily-activity rhythms isalso important for thetour-
ismprogrammeandvisits are timed tocoincidewithgorillas’ restperiodswhen
possible,facilitatingexcellentobservationconditionsforthevisitors(Plumptreand
Williamson2001).
• Onegapinthestudyofgreatapetourismtodateisthelackofmonitoringofnega-
tiveimpactsonthehabitat,especiallyincaseswhererelativelysmallareasofforest
areusedintensively.Itisalsopossiblethatprotectionandlawenforcementefforts
carriedouttosupporttourismmayresultinpositiveimpactsonforesthabitat,and
theseshouldbemonitoredanddocumented.
3.2.14 Greatapetourismasadevelopmenttoolforlocalcommunities
Benefitsfromgreatapetourismthataccrueatthelocallevelcanbeconsiderable.Revenue-sharing
schemeshavebeensuccessfullyestablishedatanumberoftourismsites(Ancrenazet al.2007;
ArchabaldandNaughton-Treves2001).Around themountaingorilla tourismhubofBuhoma in
BwindiImpenetrableNationalPark(BINP)inUganda,thevalueoftourismrevenuereachinglocal
peopleismorethanfourtimesthevalueofallotherrevenuesourcescombined(Sandbrook2008;
Blomley et al.2010).Directemploymentasaguideortrackerisamuch-valuedbenefitinareas
whereformalemploymentopportunitiesarescarce:TheBaiHokouprojecthiresover60BaAka
pygmiesonarotationalsystem(Hodgkinson2009),whilstmountaingorillaconservationorgani-
sationsareestimatedtoemployaround150people(MGVP2004).Indirectbenefitsmayalsobe
stimulated,suchaslocally-ownedenterprises,orrevenue-sharingschemesthatfundinfrastruc-
turesuchasschoolsandhospitals(Sandbrook2006).Tourismcanalsogiveresidentsasenseof
prideandownership—importantfactorswhichcontributedtoparkstaffremainingattheirposts
duringperiodsofextremeinsecurityintheVirungas(PlumptreandWilliamson2001).
Yetcautionshouldbeexercisedbeforeassumingthat thesebenefitswillbothcompensatepro-
gramme-related costs and lead to altered behaviour towards conservation efforts. Adams and
18
Infield (2003) concluded that a revenue-sharing scheme around the Mgahinga Gorilla National
Park inUgandadidnotpromotepro-conservationattitudes,afindingrepeatedinotherstudies
(Hodgkinson2009).Blomleyet al.(2010)reportedapositiverelationshipbetweencommunityatti-
tudesandcommunitydevelopmentprogrammesaroundthesameUgandanparks,althoughthis
impactwasconcentratedinthetourismhubsandwasnotwidespread.However,themostcom-
monlyreportedcausebehindanobservedreductioninthelevelofillegalactivitieswasincreased
law-enforcementeffort, indicating the importantandcomplementary role that lawenforcement
playsinachievingconservationoutcomes.
Wheresignificantbenefitsaregenerated,seriousconsiderationmustbegiventotheirdistribution,
to avoid disbursing benefits in a manner unconnected with conservation objectives, thus limit-
ingtheireffectivenessincontributingtocostreparationorpovertyreduction.Aclearexampleis
accesstoemploymentopportunities,usuallydictatedbyeducationlevel,gender,ageanddomi-
nationbylocalelites(Sandbrook2006).Thesechallengesareexacerbatedbythesheerscaleof
povertyandhighhumanpopulationdensitiesaroundsomegreatapetourismsites.Forexample,
whiletheSabyinyoLodgeinRwandageneratedover$100,000for localcommunities in itsfirst
yearofoperations,whenviewedinlightofthenumbersofpeoplelivinginthearea,thistranslated
toonly$10perperson(Mwinepers.comm.).Blomleyet al. (2010)reportthatwhiletheBwindi
tourismprogrammeappearstohavebeeneffectiveatdeliveringbothindividualandcollectiveben-
efits,andmakingthelinkbetweenthesebenefitsandthepresenceofgorillas,ithasfailedtoreach
thepoorestmembersofthecommunity.Furthermore,benefitsmaynotbeviewedasadequate
compensationiftheyareprovidedinaformwhichisinappropriateorthatindividualsfailtovalue.
Insummary,ifgreatapetourismistobeeffectiveasadevelopmenttool,thereneedstobevery
carefulconsiderationofboththecostsandbenefitsbeingaccrued,andhowtheyaredistributed
amonglocalresidents,whoaretoooftendisenfranchisedandlivinginextremepoverty.Tourism
programmesshouldemphasiseactiveparticipationofthepoorestmembersoflocalcommunities.
3.2.15 Importanceofeconomicvaluationsandtourismdemandstudies
Whendevelopingormonitoringgreatapetourismitistempting,especiallyforgovernmentsand
theprivate sector, to regard theeconomicbenefitsas the raison d’être for theseprogrammes.
However,itisimportantthatincomefromgreatapetourismisnotseenastheultimateobjective,
butasanadditionalbenefitofthisconservationtool.
Bonobo, Lui Kotale, Salonga
National Park, DRC. Photo ©
Caroline Deimel/MPI-EVAN.
19
Somecountrieshaveexpandedtheirtourismprogrammesbyincreasingthenumbersoftourists
visitingeachgroupofapesand/orincreasingthenumberofapegroupsvisitedbytourists,which
exacerbatestheriskstotheapesandtheirhabitats.However,researchshowsthatmanytourists
wouldbewillingtopayhigherfeesforanexperiencethatismoreexclusiveandappearslessintru-
sive,withsmallergroupsoftourists(BushandFawcett2008).
Inaddition,anumberofstudieshavepointedoutthefallacyintheassumptionthattourismrev-
enuesstayin-countryand/ortrickledowntobenefitthelocalpeoplewhobearthecostsofliving
near toapehabitats.While tourismrevenuesdo fund theparkauthorities, themostsignificant
revenuesaccrue internationally (Cochrane1998;Moyini2000;HatfieldandMalleret-King2006;
Sandbrook2008).Tourismdevelopmentactivitiesshouldthereforeaddressmeansofmaximising
therevenuethatisretainedin-country,andespeciallylocally.
Studiesoftourismeconomicsareusefultodemonstrateissuesoftheviabilityofapetourism,which
isthoughttobeunviableatmanysites(Font,CochraneandTapper2004;WilkieandCarpenter
1999;Baboulene2008).AcasestudyofDzanga-Sanghaconcludedthattourismwasunlikelyto
covermanagementcostsortoplayasignificantroleinthelong-termfinancingoftheprotected
area(Blom2000).However,tourismisasignificantsourceofemployment inthatregionandis
increasinglyimportanttothelocaleconomy,involvinglocalpeopleinsustainableeconomicdevel-
opmentactivities.Tourismrevenuehasalsocontributedtogreateracceptanceoftheconservation
projectbylocalpopulationsandsubsequentlyhasimprovedcompliancewithconservationregula-
tions.Therefore,itisimportanttoconsiderhowapetourismrevenuesareaccruedanddisbursed,
andtoadjusttheperceptionthatapetourismexistsprimarilytogenerateincomeforrangestate
governmentsandparkauthorities.
3.2.16 Importanceofmanagementevaluationsoftourismstaffconduct
Apetourismsitesmightbewelldesignedandstrivetowardsbestpractice,withstrictrulesand
regulationsdeveloped,disseminatedandprominentlydisplayed.Nonetheless,itiscommonthat
evenafterpresentingtheregulationsdirectly to tourists,staff thenmanagea touristvisit invio-
lationofoneormore regulations,mostcommonlyconcerning theminimumdistance rule (e.g.,
SandbrookandSemple2006).Thismaybesimplyduetothedifficultyofmanagingtourists,or
unpredictablemovementsbytheapes,butinmanycasesitisduetotheabsenceofsupervision,
monitoringandenforcement,andattimesexacerbatedbythedesiretogeneratelargertips.Ifstaff
areregularlymonitoredandevaluatedontheirconductofatouristvisit,andresultsarediscussed
openlybytheevaluator,staffwillimprovetheirtourismmanagement.
3.2.17 Location,location,location
Touristsseekinggreatapetourismopportunitiesmaybedrawntoaparticularsitebyitseaseof
access,orpreciselytheopposite;locationisthereforekey.Proximitytowell-establishedwildlife
tourismcircuits,suchasthesavannahsafarisinEastAfrica,mayboostoccupancyratesforape
tourismsites.ThismayhelptoexplainwhytourisminCentralAfricahasbeenslowertodevelop
eveninthebetter-establishedandrelativelyaccessiblesites,despitetheirabundantandcharis-
maticwildlife.Conversely,forsometouriststheopportunitytogetawayfromtheusualcircuitsis
appealing,andtheywillconsidertheextraeffortrequiredtogettonewsitesinremotelocations
worthwhile.
3.2.18 Provisioning/feedingisnotappropriateforhabituationortourism
Intheearlyyearsofprimateresearchanumberofsitesusedfoodtofacilitatehabituation.Over
time,anumberofriskfactorsdevelopedwithprovisioning,includingbehaviouralalteration,aggres-
sionbetweengroupmembers,aggressiontowardsobserversleadingtoinjury,reduceddistance
orcontactthatincreasesdiseaserisks,andparasitecontaminationoffeedingsites(Wrangham
1974;WallisandLee1999;BertolaniandBoesch2008).Aperesearchsitesdiscontinuedprovi-
sioningbecauseoftheserisks,butitiscontinuedatsomeex-captiveorangutansites,wherethe
parkauthorities feedorangutansatdesignatedplatformsand insomecases localguidesflout
therulesbyfeedingorangutansinother,unregulatedlocationswheretheyenticeorangutansto
approachwithfood,puttingbothorangutansandtouristsindanger(Dellatore2007).Thepotential
fornegativeimpactsontheapes,orforlitigationincasesoftouristinjury,suggestthatprovisioning
20
shouldbestopped,evenwhencarriedoutbygovernmentbodies.Ifunregulatedfeedingoccurs,
monitoringandenforcement,combinedwitheducation,arecriticaltohaltingthisdangerousactiv-
ity.Itwouldalsobeadvisabletoreducethefeedingofex-captivesatplatformstotheminimum
necessaryfortheirsurvivalandmonitoring,andtheseplatformsshouldnotbeusedasatourist
attraction.Oncefeedingisnolongerasurvivalrequirement,itshouldbediscontinued.
3.2.19 Reducingdisease-transmissionwithN95surgicalrespiratormasks
Thewearingofsurgical facemasksbypeoplecoming intoproximitywithapes in researchand
tourismprojectshasbeenmuchdebated,sinceoneofthebiggestrisksofhuman–apedisease
transmissioncomesintheformofair-bornepathogens(Cranfield2006).Respiratorydiseaseis
themostprevalentcauseofmortalityinsomeapepopulations(WallisandLee1999;Nutteret al.
2005;Hanamuraet al.2007;Kauret al.2008;Whittier,NutterandStoskopf2009).In1999,IGCP’s
assessmentofthemountaingorillatourismrules(Homsy1999)recommendedincreasingthemin-
imum-viewingdistancefrom5to7metres,onthebasisofresearchondistancesthatrespiratory
dropletsandaerosolisedparticlescantravel.However,duetoconcernsaboutmaskmanagement
andcompliance,thedecisiontousemaskswaspostponed,pendingfurtherevidenceofthelink
betweendiseasetransmissionandhumanpresence.
When reviewingmaskeffectiveness, it is important to remember thatmuchof the literatureon
facemasksassessesprotectionofthewearerfrominfection,butinthecaseoftourismapoten-
tially-infectious person is wearing the mask and our concern is to keep infectious particles in,
notout.Thereareanumberofprosandconsassociatedwiththeuseofmasks.Positivefactors
includethatunderidealconditionsmasksareaneffectivebarriertoexhaledpathogens.Although
maskeffectivenesslessensovertimeorinlessthanidealconditions,thereductioninlargeparticle
aerosolisationisstillfarmoreeffectivethanwearingnothing.Argumentsagainsttheuseofmasks
includethefactthatapesmustbehabituatedtovisitorswearingthem.Touristsalsomustbeedu-
catedtoensurecompliance,especiallyasanydiscomfortassociatedwiththemaskcouldreduce
compliance.Undercoolersituations,suchasathighaltitude,poorlyfittingmasksmaycausefog-
gingofglassesandinterferewithphotographyandbinocularuse4.Theburdenofensuringmask
supply isalsoaconcern,asmasksvary ineffectiveness,andmasksofappropriatequalityare
essentialtotheprotectiveproperties.Wastemanagementisalsoanissue,asmasksdroppedin
theforestwouldbecomefomitescarryingconcentratedpotentially-infectiousparticleswithsignifi-
cantdiseaserisk.
Anumberofhigh-profilediseaseoutbreaks inapepopulationshavebeen reported (Wallisand
Lee1999;Ferber2000;Leendertzet al.2004;Hanamuraet al.2007;Hosaka2008;Köndgenet
al.2008),aswellasdatashowingthat, intherightwindconditions,contaminateddropletscan
traveluptothreetimestherecommended7metreminimumdistance(Cranfield2006).Reports
frommultiplesitesconfirmthattherulesestablishedtoprotectapesfromdiseasetransmission
arenotenforcedadequatelyorconsistentlyandthatsafedistancesarenotmaintained(Sandbrook
andSemple2006;Dellatore2007;NakamuraandNishida2009).Consequently,thereisincreasing
advocacyfortheuseoffacemasksbygreataperesearchers,touristsandstaff,inadditiontoother
diseasepreventionmeasures.Thispracticeiscurrentlymorecommonatresearchsites,especially
thosethathaveexperiencedfataldiseaseoutbreaksintheirstudypopulation(e.g.,TaïNational
Park,Côted’Ivoire);however,useofmasksisalsoontheriseattourismsites(e.g.,chimpanzee
tourisminMahaleMountainsNationalPark,Hanamuraet al.2006;mountaingorillatourisminthe
DRCandRwanda,Hurst2008c;MGVP2008,2009).
Masksvaryinqualityandefficiency.Themaindifferencesbetweenamaskandarespiratorarethat
masksfitrelativelylooselyandprotectthewearerfromlargeaerosolparticletransmissionwhereas
respiratorshaveasealingsurfaceandfittightlyoverthenoseandmouth—theyaredesignedto
preventbothsmallandlargeparticleaerosoltransmission(CDC2004;CDC2006).N95respirators
areofbetterqualityandhaveabetterfitandsealthanbasicsurgicalmasks,therebyproviding
4 MGVP(2008)testedN95‘duck-bill’shapedrespirators,whichprovidemorebreathingroom,andfoundthattheyaremorecomfortable,notashotanddonotcauseeyeglassestofogupasoften.
21
improvedpreventionofaerosolisedparticletransmission.ThebettersealofanN95maskmaypro-
videsomerelieffromfoggingofcameralensesorbinoculars,butconverselythesealmayreduce
comfortandcomplianceiftouristsfeelitismoredifficulttobreathe.Facialhairisalsoaproblem,
astheseal isnolongerensured.Guidanceonfittingandwearingofmasksmustbepresented
beforeapproachingagroupofapes,whenthetouristswillberushing.Masksareonlyeffectiveif
theyarewornproperly.
Werecommendthatmulti-layered,surgical-qualityN95(orhigher5)respiratorsbewornwhenever
touristsorstaffapproachapestoadistanceof10metresorless,thatthesemustbeproperlyused
anddisposedof,andthatwearingamaskmustnotbeconsideredjustificationforweakeningother
diseasepreventionrules.IfN95masksarenotavailable,papersurgicalmasksmaybeused.N95
respiratormaskscostapproximatelyUS$0.40eachplusthecostofshipping.Thisissmallcom-
paredtotheoverallcostofgreatapetourismoperations,althoughthereliabilityofsupplychains
hastobeassured.Issuesofcomplianceandeffectivenesswillbecriticalinthemanagementof
masksaspartofadiseasepreventionprogramme.Compliance,comfort,touristacceptanceand
maskdisposalshouldallbemonitoredandtheresultsusedtoinformandimproveregulationsand
procedures.FormoreinformationonN95respiratorsseeAppendixII.
3.2.20 Theproblemoftourismwithformerly-captivegreatapes
Tourismtoviewex-captivegreatapes,whilenotthemainfocusofthisdocument,takesplaceata
numberofsites.Ex-captiveandwildapes,especiallyorangutans,interactatsomesites,sothere
maynotbeaclearwildvs.captivedistinction(seetableinSection2.4.1).Duetotheparticularrisks
posedbyoverhabituation,specialistsrecommendthattourismbediscontinuedwithrehabilitants
eligibleforrelease,oralreadyreleasedtofreeforestlife,andinforestswhererehabilitantsrange
(RosenandByers2002).SimilarlythePanAfricanSanctuaryAlliance(PASA)doesnotendorse
tourismwithex-captivesduetothehighriskstotouristsandfieldstaff(Carlsenet al.2006).
5 Respiratorsthatfilterouthigherpercentagesofaerosolisedparticlesarealsoacceptable(N99orN100),butmoreexpensive.
Tourists wearing N95 surgical
masks, Virunga National Park,
DRC. Photo © Virunga National
Park.
22
Despite the Indonesian government’s agreement to halt tourism with ex-captives, it still takes
placeatanumberoforangutansites(e.g.,severalsitesinTanjungPutingNationalParkandaround
NyaruMentenginCentralKalimantan,BohorokinSumatra).Tourismtoex-captiveorangutansis
oftenpoorlycontrolled,whichjeopardisesbothorangutanconservationandtheeducationration-
aleofsuchvisits,and reduces the likelihoodofsuccessful rehabilitation (RijksenandMeijaard
1999;Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).Recentanalysessuggestthatexistingsitesmustprohibit
the feedingof free-rangingrehabilitantorangutansbytouristguides,andenforcementmustbe
ensuredbypatrolstopreventillegalfeedingandenticingoforangutansontotouristtrails(Dellatore
2007).Formaleducationprogrammestargetinglocaltourguides,rangers,andtouroperators,as
wellasthetourists(local,nationalandinternational)shouldpromoteawarenessofthedangersof
feedingfree-rangingorangutans,especiallyex-captives.Thiswillservetoregulatehumanbehav-
iourintheforest(Dellatore2007).
3.2.21 Conclusionsfromlessonslearned
Giventhehighcostofdevelopingtourismandtheassociatedinfrastructure,alongwiththeneed
toensureprotectionofhabituatedapesinperpetuity,theestablishmentofnewapetourismsites
shouldneverbeundertaken lightly. In addition, themanagement requirements todevelopand
effectivelyimplementtourismarelabour-intensiveandneedmajorcommitmentsintermsoffinan-
cialandhumanresources.Addedtotheequationisconsiderationofthemultitudeofimpactsof
greatapetourism.Itisimperative,therefore,thatanypotentialapetourismprojectbesubjectto
afull,objectiveanalysisof itsfeasibility, impactandsustainability, includingamulti-stakeholder
review,beforefundingiscommittedandbeforepromisesaremadetolocalcommunitiesastothe
arrivaloftourismanditsassociateddevelopment.Onlysitesthathaveagoodchanceofsuccess,
asjudgedbyindependentfeasibilityandimpactanalyses,andthatdemonstratethecommitment
necessarytoexertmaximumcontrolandimpactmitigationinlinewiththesebestpracticeguide-
lines,shouldbedeveloped.
Volcanoes National Park,
Rwanda. Photo © Lynn Barrie
and Frances Broussard
23
Benefits Assumptions Notes
Monitoring:Regularvisitationenhancesmonitoring.
• Fundingformonitoringprogrammesissecured.
• Monitoringplanmustbeinplacebeforehabituationbegins.
Veterinary surveillance and care: Habituationandregularvisitsfacilitatehealthmonitoring,resultinginquickerdiagnosisandrapidintervention.
• Fundingforveterinarysurveillanceandresponseteamissecured.
• Humanexpertiseandlaboratoryfacilitiesareinplaceandaccessible.
• Finalisehealthmonitoring,treatmentanddiseaseoutbreakcontingencyplansbeforehabituationbegins.
Law enforcement:Knownhomeranges,habituationandincreasedobserverpresenceimproveprotectionofapegroupsorindividualsbylaw-enforcementteams.
• Securityintheregionallowslaw-enforcementmonitoring.
• Finance,logisticsandstaffareinplacetosupport/implementenforcement.
• Increaseenforcementpresenceinareabeforehabituation.
Revenue generation:Potentialsourceoftourismrevenuefortheprotectedarea,throughfeesforapeviewing,trackingandassociatedactivities(e.g.naturewalks,accommodation).
• Local,regional,internationalsecuritysituationallowstourism.
• Financialsystemsareinplacetoensuresufficientrevenueremainswithapehabitatmanagementtocoverconservationcosts.
• Touristsareinterestedandwillingtovisitandtakeuppermits.
• Tourismiswellmanaged.
• Financialanalysisofpotentialrevenuetobegeneratedthroughgreatapetourismactivitiesisessentialtoimpactassessment.
Community benefits:Potentialsourceofmonetaryandnon-monetarybenefitsforcommunities.
• Methodstoensurerevenuestreamstocommunitiesinplace.
• Projectdesignedsothatcommunitiesareinvolvedatallstagesofprojectdevelopment.
• Developorexpandbenefit-sharingsystemstoabsorbrevenue.
• Buildcapacitytoensurethatcommunitiesplayanactiveroleinbenefitsharing.
Benefits to private sector: Tourismrevenuesaccruingthroughmultipliereffectstoprivatesectorintourismandserviceindustries—state,national,regional,international.
• Touristsareinterestedandwillingtovisit,takeuppermitsandvisitotherattractions.
• Privatesectortourismindustrywellmanaged,withtrainingensured.
• Marketingtoenhancerevenuestreamsthatspin-offfromtourismpermits.
National economic benefits: Increasedgovernmentearningsfromtaxes,visasandotherincomeassociatedwithtourism.
• Effectivenationalfinancesystems.• Transparency.
Community participation and support:Increasedparticipationbyandsupportfromlocalcommunitiesforprotectedareas,forestmanagementandapeconservationasaresultofcommunitybenefitstreams.
• Methodsareinplacetoensurecommunityparticipationintourismdevelopmentandtomaximisetourismbenefitstreamsflowingtocommunities,throughrevenuesharingandotherspin-offs.
• Promoteandfacilitateactiveengagementinhabitatconservationandtourismbylocalcommunities.
• Ensuresupportforcommunitycapacitytoruntheseprojects.
• Ensuretourismbenefitsareunderstoodaslinkedtoprotectingforestandapes’existence.
Research and learning:Potentialforincreasingknowledgebaseaboutapes.
• Researchandranger-basedmonitoringprovidedataforcentraliseddatabasesandinformationsystems.
• Researchopportunitiesmaybemorelimitedintourismgroups.
Political goodwill, local and national pride and image: Apesandhabitatvaluedasameanstoenhancedevelopmentandlocaland/ornationalimage.
• Politicalvalueoftourismrevenueoutweighsperceivedvalueoflandconversionawayfromconservation.
• Decisionnottohabituatemayresultinlossofpoliticalgoodwilland/orlossofsupporttoprotectedareaorforest.
Regional cooperation: Regionaltourisminitiativescanstimulatefurtherregionalcollaborationonapeconservationactions.
• Politicalwillandtransboundaryrelationssupportiveofregionalcooperation.
International awareness and support: Donorsinterestedinfinancialself-sustainability.Internationally-recognisedprogrammewillenhancelong-termcommitmentbygovernment.
• Tourismiswell-managedandseenassustainablesourceofrevenue.
• Documenttourismimpactstudiesanddistributetointernationalorganisations.
• Internationaltouristsoftenreturnhomeaslong-termsupporters.
Enhanced conservation of apes and their habitat as a result of all the above.
Section 4: Potential Impacts of Great Ape Tourism
Thelargenumberofimpactsofgreatapetourism,bothpositiveandnegative,aresummarisedin
thetablesbelow.
4.1 Table of potential benefits of great ape tourism
24
4.2 Table of potential costs and disadvantages of great ape tourism
Disadvantages Mitigation measures Notes and Action Points
Poaching:Habituatedapesaremorevulnerabletopoachingandconflictifnotadequatelyprotected,duetotheirlossoffearofhumans.
• Oncehabituated,apesmustalwaysbeprotectedthroughdailymonitoringandpatrolsintheirrange.
• Protectionforhabituatedorpreviouslyhabituatedgroupsbyrangersurveillancepatrols–inperpetuity.
• Assumption—managementcontinuityandsecurity.
• Discussionrequiredonpotentialforde-habituation,ifany.
• Asorangutansaremoresolitary,itisnotpossibletomonitoreveryhabituatedindividualdaily.Orangutansitesmuststrivetowardsazero-poachinggoaltoprotecthabituatedorangutans.
Disease – 1:Habituatingmakesapesmorevulnerabletotheintroductionofdiseaseduringhabituationprocess.
• Diseasepreventionactivitiesforapes.• Stricthabituation-teamprotocols.• Mitigation,ifpossible,tobediscussed
furtherwithveterinaryadvisors.
• Veterinaryadviceonminimisingstressanddiseaseriskduringhabituation.
Disease – 2 a:Habituationallowscloseapproachofhumanstoapes,thereforeincreasesriskofdiseasetransmissionthroughongoingdiseaseexposure.
• Strictenforcementofrulesandregulationsontouristandresearchvisitstoapes.
• Trainingandcontinualevaluation.• Regularreviewofprotocolsinlightof
newresearch.• Educationoftouristspriortovisit.
• Designandimplementvisitevaluationstoassesscompliance.
• Developveterinaryresponseandoutbreakcontingencyplan.
• Distributeanddiscussdisease-riskdocument(orsynthesis)totourism-developmentteamandstakeholders.
• Continualanalysisofapemorbidityandmortalitydata.
Cost implications – 1:Financialimplicationsofthecostsofhabituationarehigh—timeframeofyears.b
• Financialsupportforhabituationprocessmustbeguaranteedbeforelaunch.
• Ensureadequatefundingbeforehabituationlaunch.
Cost implications – 2: Operatingcosts(staff,equipmentandinfrastructure)arehighfortourismactivitiesandforprotectionandmonitoringofhabituatedgroupsinperpetuity.
• Tourismdevelopmentstakeholdersneedtoensurethatthereisalong-termfinancialplantocovercostsevenifthereisaslumpinthetourismmarket.
• Carryouteconomicandmarketsurveystoanalysesustainabilitybeforedevelopingtourismplan.
• Developemergencysupportplantocoveroperationsinperiodsofunstabletourismmarket.
Diversion of management attention: Tourismmaytakeresourcesawayfromcoreconservationfocus.
• Reinforceconservationasprimarygoalinstrategicplansandtourismdevelopmentplans.
• Sourcetourismdevelopmentfundsfromadditional/newsources.
• Recruitadditionalpersonnel.
In-migration: Successfultourismdevelopmentmayencouragegrowthofhumancommunitiesaroundapehabitat.
• Local/districtdevelopmentplansshouldlimituncontrolledgrowth
• EIAprocessshouldaddresspotentialforover-developmentandpopulationincrease.
Range alteration: Habituatedapesmayaltertheirrange.Thiscouldresultingroupsorindividualsrangingoutsideprotectedareasintoareaswithheightenedpoachingpressure,orintoproximitywithhumaninfrastructure,resultinginincreasedrisksofdisease,poaching,injuryandconflictwithhumans.
• Dailymonitoringofallindividualsisessential,bothwhileunderhabituationandafterhabituationduringtourismoperations.Thismonitoringmustcontinueinperpetuity.
• Lawenforcementpatrolsinentirehomerangeofhabituatedindividuals/groups.
• Monitoringofgroupsorindividualsunderhabituationiscriticaltojudgetheextenttowhichrangeadjustmentmaytakeplaceasaresultofhabituationprocess.
Human-great ape conflict – 1: Potentialforincreasedconflictwithhumansandlivestockifapesleaveprotectedhabitats(eveniftheyrangedoutsideprotectedareasbeforehabituation)oriftheyoverlapwithhumanactivities(forexampleinmultiple-usezones).
• Sensitisation.• Revenuesharing.• Human–greatapeconflictmitigation
programmes.• Community/livestockhealthoutreach.• Assessmentofhomerangeduringgroup
choice.
• Additionalresearchneededonwhetherhabituationleadstoincreaseincrop-raidingbehaviour.
Human-great ape conflict – 2: Conflictheightenediftourismisconductedwithapesthatcrop-raidonprivateland.
• Exploreideaof‘entry’feeiftourismvisitsmightbeconductedoncommunityland/farms.
Over-habituation:Long-termhabituationmayleadtoover-habituationc,withpotentialformorecontactwithhumans,injurytohumansandapes,andincreaseddiseaseriskthroughproximity.
• Researchreducingover-habituation.• Enforcerules!• Deterapproachofapes.• Reviewguidelinesforhumanbehaviour
whenclosetoapes.
• Continuedassessmentandresearchintotheeffectsoflong-termhabituation.
25
Disadvantages Mitigation measures Notes and Action Points
Stress – 1:Habituationisastressfulprocessforapes—initialstressduringhabituationmaypotentiallyleadtoincreasedvulnerabilitytodisease,aswellasreducedreproductiverates.
• Developanduse‘bestpractices’forhabituationtominimisestress.
• Developandimplementresearchprotocolforstressmonitoringduringhabituation.
• Developbestpracticeguidelinesforgreatapehabituation.
• Ifnewhabituationundertaken,designmonitoringprogrammetoassessstressfactors.
Stress – 2:Chronicstressdfollowinghabituationduringoperationoftourism.Stressfulsituationswouldincludenaturalbehaviours(e.g.,fightingandinteractions)andhumaninteractions.
• Strictadherencetoreviewedregulationstominimisechronicstress.
• Reviewtourismmanagementtominimisestressinducers.
• Developstress-monitoringplan.
Behaviour change and social disruption: researchhasrevealedsignificantimpactsoftourismonapebehaviour.
• Designvisit/visitorregulationsinlightofbehaviouralchangesobserved.
• Strictadherencetoregulations.
• Synthesiseandpresentresearchresultstostaffanddecision-makers.
• Tourismmanagementreviewtoreduceimpactonbehaviour.
• Ongoingresearch/monitoringofhabituatedgroups.
Reduced reproductive success: behaviouralimpact,stress,diseaseandimmunosuppressionmayallleadtoreproductivefailure,withimpactsonpopulationsizeovertime.
• Researchonhabituationimpactonreproductivebehavioure,maternalcareandinfantmortality.
International condemnation: Lackofsupportifperceptionisofexcessivetourism.
• Carryoutafeasibilitystudyandimpactreviewbeforeanynewtourismhabituationisinitiated.
• Circulatefeasibilitystudyreportifhabituationisrecommended.
• Fundingforfeasibility/impactstudiesshouldbeincludedintourismdevelopmentinitialscopingplan.
Habitat impact:Negativeimpactoftrackingactivitiesonhabitat—vegetationandotheranimalspecies.
• Conducttrackingwithonlyessentialcuttingoftrails.
• Limitnumberoftouristsinagroup.• Limitnumberofgroupsinanarea.
• Developprotocolfortrackersandguidestominimiseimpactsonhabitat.
Pollution and habitat impact of tourism infrastructure and activities.
• ConductEIApriortodevelopmentoftourisminfrastructure.
• Additionalregulationstominimisewasteassociatedwithtourism.
Military escorts for tourists, if required, increase all impacts
• Developcodeofconductformilitaryescortstominimiseimpact.
Uncontrolled development: Tourism,ifnotcontrolledwithconservationobjectives,maystimulateconstructionofunplanned,unsightlylodgesandcampswithnegativeenvironmentalimpacts.
• Zoningplanstobedevelopedtocontrolinfrastructureintouristarea.
• Marketsurveyswillprovidepotentialdeveloperswithoccupancyestimatestoinformplans.
Knock-on effect to other ape sites: Developmentofapetourismatonesitewillleadtorequests/raisedexpectationsfortourismtobedevelopedatothersites.
• Manageexpectationsinnearbysites.• Conductmarketsurveystoanalyse
potentialmarketforapetourisminanysiteunderconsideration.
• Failedexpectationsmayresultinbacklashagainstconservationofapesandhabitat.
Negative impact on local people: Lackofbenefitscompoundedbyrisingcrimeandcosts,socialorculturalimpacts,etc.
• Developandimplementplanstooptimisecommunityimpacts.
• Communityimpactswillaffectattitudestowardsconservation.
Negative impact on apes and habitat as a result of all the above.
aNotethebalancebetweendiseaseriskandveterinarycare:Habituationallowsforincreasedveterinarycare/diseasemonitoringandenhancedop-portunityformedicalcare.Leavingunhabituatedgroupsresultsinreduceddiseaseexposurebutless/noopportunityforveterinarysupport.bHabituationforsomespeciesorsubspeciestakes2yearsormore,andtourismdevelopmentshouldoperateona5-yeartimeplan.cProlongedexposureandoverhabituationmayestablishahierarchybetweenhumansandapes,resultinginapotentialforinjury.dAcutestressvs.chronicstress—inchronicstress,evenwhennolongeracutelystressed,researchinmountaingorillashasshownthatstresshormonelevelsremainhigherthanpre-exposure(Nizeyi2005).eDatafromBwindigorillasshowaslight(non-significant)reductioningrowthofhabituatedgroupsvs.unhabituatedgroups(Robbinspers.comm.).Conversely,duringrepeatedcensusesintheVirungas,theproportionofimmaturemountaingorillashasbeenhigherinhabituatedthanunhabitu-atedgroups.Notethatthismaybeconfoundedbyselectionofgroupswithmorefemalesandjuvenilesfortourism/research,and/orthefactthatthesegroupsarebetterprotected.
26
4.3 Discussion of key tourism impacts
Asshowninthetablesabove,thereareanumberofbenefitsandadvantagesofgreatapetour-
ism,aswellasalonglistofpotentialrisksanddisadvantages.Prominentamongstthebenefits
is the potential for some sites to earn significant revenues and to promote local, national and
internationalgoodwill,whichtogethermayprovidesignificantsupportforconservationeffortsin
apehabitats(Harcourt2001).However,thismustbeweighedagainstanumberofcosts,amongst
whichthepotential fordiseasetransmission,behaviouralchangeandhuman-greatapeconflict
standoutassignificantchallengestotheoften-voicedopinionthatgreatapetourismshouldbe
widelydeveloped.
4.3.1 Keypositiveimpact—sustainableconservationfunding
Greatapetourismhasthepotentialtogeneratesignificantrevenues,notonlyforsitemanagement
authorities,butalsoforlocalcommunities,localandnationalgovernmentsandtheprivatesector.
Oncethecostsofdevelopingtourismhavebeenmetthroughgrants,loansorotherinvestments,
asuccessfulape tourismsitewillcoveroperationalcostsaswellas thecostsofconservation
managementofthesite.Tourismcanalsoproduceenoughrevenuetosupportwiderconservation
efforts.Greatapetourismhasthepotential,therefore,toprovidesustainableconservationfunding.
However,whenconsideringtheeconomicbenefitsoftourism,whichmaybesignificantatsome
sites,itisimportantforplannersanddecisionmakerstofactorinthehighcostofdevelopingand
operating tourism programmes. The costs of developing ape tourism as a conservation activ-
ity includesignificantexpendituresduringhabituation,whichcantaketwoyearsor longer,and
duringwhichnoincomecanbeexpected.Atthesametime,fundingmustbesourcedtocover
theestablishmentofappropriateinfrastructurefortourismoperations,aswellasstaffrecruitment
andtraining.Itisalsoessentialthatacontingencyplanisinplacetofundcontinuedoperations
ofkeyprotectionandmonitoringactivitiesattimeswhentourismlevelsmaybelow,duringboth
predictable lowseasonsand incaseofunforeseenevents,suchassecurity issuesandglobal
economictrendsthatimpacttourism.Oncegreatapesarehabituated,theymustbeprotectedin
perpetuityandthisisexpensive.Certainlynotallsiteswillbeabletomeetthesecoststhrough
tourismincomealone,asmanyfactorsdeterminetheabilitytoattractandmaintainasectorofthe
limitedglobalmarketforapetourism.Thusthereisalimittothenumberofsitesinanyonecountry
orregionandforanyonespeciesorsubspeciesthatwillbeviable;thereforenationalandregional
planning,communicationandcollaborationarerequiredtoensurethattourismisnotdevelopedat
sitesthatultimatelyproveunviable.
Sumatran orangutan, Gunung Leuser National Park, Indonesia. Photo © Perry van Duijnhoven
27
4.3.2 Keypositiveimpact—enhancedmonitoringandprotectionofapes
Certainlywhenapesarehabituatedandfollowedregularly,foreithertourismorresearchpurposes,
thelevelofprotectionandlaw-enforcementeffortintheirhomerangeisgreatlyenhanced,asisthe
potentialforveterinarianstointervenetomanagediseaseandhuman-causedinjuries.Additionally,
tourismenhanceslocal,nationalandinternationalawarenessoftheneedtoconservegreatapes
andthethreatstheyface,leadingtoincreasedfinancialandpoliticalsupportfortheirprotection.
4.3.3 Criticalnegativeimpact—diseasetransmission
AmongthenumerousimpactsofapetourismoutlinedinTables4.1and4.2,allofwhichrequire
attention,twostandoutnotonlyashavingpotentiallydisastrousconsequencesbutalsobecause
theyaretoalargeextentpreventablethroughstrictadherencetobestpracticeasdescribedinthis
document.Thesearediseasetransmissionandbehaviourchange.
Thepotential fordisease transmission isanothersignificant riskassociatedwith tourism.Great
apes are susceptible to human-borne diseases due to our close phylogenetic history and are
particularlyvulnerabletodiseasestowhichtheyhavehadnopreviousexposureandthushaveno
naturalresistance(Ferber2000;Walliset al.2000;Woodfordet al.2002;Garber2008).Habituation
producesstressinapesandstressmayincreasesusceptibilitytodiseases,includingthosecarried
byhumans,whethertourists,parkrangers,researchersorlocalresidents.Thediseasesofgreatest
concernarethosethatareeasilytransmittedwithoutdirectorprolongedcontact(Leendertzet al.
inpress).Anumberofsiteshaveexperienceddiseaseoutbreaks,somewithmultipleapefatali-
ties,thatwereeithersuspectedorproventobeassociatedwithhumans(Macfie1991;McNeilage
1996;Homsy1999;WallisandLee1999;Woodfordet al.2002;KaurandSingh2008).
Therisksofdiseasetransmissionhavedrivencautioninthedesignofrulesandregulationscontrol-
lingtourismmanagementandtheconductofvisits,includinglimitsontouristnumbers,timespent
withapesandviewingdistances(Hastingset al.1991;Macfie1991,1996;Kortlandt1996;Wallis
andLee1999;Mudakikwa2001).Althoughanumberofexpertshavewarnedofdisease risks
(Homsy1999;Walliset al.2000)andprovidedindirectevidenceofdiseasetransmission(Lonsdorf
et al.2006;Hanamuraet al.2007;Hosaka2008),until recentlyevidenceofdirect transmission
towildapeswaslimitedtobacterialandparasiticinfections(Graczyket al.2002;Goldberget al.
2007;Rwegoet al.2008).
However,newresearchprovidesmoreconvincingevidenceofvirustransmissionbetweenhumans
andwildapes (Kauret al.2008;Köndgenet al.2008),addingconsiderableweight to theargu-
mentsforstrictprotocolsguidingtheuseofapesfortourismandresearch.Whilediseasemay
beintroducedintothehabitatbyadjacentcommunities,refugees,militaryandsoon,touristsand
researcherspresentaparticularconcernduetotheirclose,relativelyprolongedcontactwithgreat
apes,andmoralresponsibility.Touristsalsorepresentthegreatestnumberofnewcontactsfora
groupofapes,rangingfromsixnewvisitorsperdaytomanymoreatsitesnotyetimplementing
strictlimits.Fieldstaffandresearchersmustadheretobestpracticeandfollowstrictemployee
healthmonitoringprotocols.Internationaltouristscomefromdiverseandoftendistantcountries,
haveusuallybeenincloseconfineswithothertravellers(e.g.,onaeroplanesandothertransport),
andtheresultingexposuretopathogensmaybeexacerbatedbythestressoftravel(Wilson1995;
OstroffandKozarsky1998;Adamset al.2001).Astourismcanresultinpersistentpsychological
stressandincreasedsusceptibilitytodiseaseingreatapes(Hudson1992;HoferandEast1994;
Meder1994),diseasetransmissionriskswillbeexacerbatedbyclosecontactswithinfectedtour-
ists(SandbrookandSemple2006).However,fewtouristscanbegivensystematichealthchecks,
therefore,itiswithgoodmanagementthatwehaveanopportunitytominimiserisks.Mostgreat
apetourismsitesrequestthattouristsself-reportanyclinicalsignsofillnessanddefertheirvisit,
nonethelesstouristsmanifestingsymptomshavebeenknowntovisithabituatedapes(Ostroffand
Kozarsky1998;AdamsandInfield2003;Sandbrook2006;Muehlenbeinet al.,2008),therebycar-
ryingdiseasepathogensintotheapes’environment.
Diseaseprocessesaffectingapes,butnotoriginatingwithtourists,canalsoaffecttourism.Atragic
exampleofthisisthedevastatingimpactofEbola,whichkilled95%ofknownindividualgorillasin
outbreaksinGabonandRepublicofCongo(Walshet al.2003;Caillaudet al.2006),includingtwo
groupsatLossithathadbeenhabituatedfortourism(Bermejoet al.2006).Ebolahasalsokilled
28
habituatedchimpanzeesintheTaïNationalPark(Formentyet al.1999).Ebolaisamonganumber
ofdiseasesthataretransmittedfromapestohumans,althoughmostarenotasdeadly.Thisrein-
forces,however,thepointthatdiseasecanmoveinbothdirectionsandtouristsvisitinggreatapes
haveavestedinterestinfollowingdisease-preventionprotocols.
Healthexpertscanprovideadviceondiseasepatternsandoutbreaks,toinformapetourismman-
agement.Forexample, investigation intoa recentcaseofMarburgvirus inUganda (ahaemor-
rhagic disease similar to Ebola, thought to be carried by bats and highly lethal to great apes)
concludedthatabatcavewasthelikelysourceofinfectionofaDutchtourist(Timenet al.2009).
Sevendayslatersheviewedmountaingorillasfromadistanceofafewmetres.Thisgivescause
forconcernaboutanyapetours that includebatcaves—cavevisitsshouldbescheduledafter
viewinggreatapesoravoidedaltogetherincountrieswithahistoryofMarburg,duetothepublic
healthrisk(Timenet al. 2009).
Diseaserisksunderpinmanyoftherulesandregulationscontrollinggreatapetourismandindeed
areconsideredoneofthethreegreatestthreatstothelong-termsurvivalofgreatapes(alongwith
poachingandhabitatloss).Attentiontodiseasecontroliscriticaltoanytourismprogrammeand,
asakeycompaniontothisdocument,thereaderisstronglyencouragedtoreadtheIUCNBest
Practice Guidelines for Health Monitoring and Disease Control in Great Apes(Leendertzet al.in
press).
4.3.4 Criticalnegativeimpact—behaviouralchange
Habituation tohumans isknowntoaffectgreatapebehaviourandbestressful,andcanresult
indisplaysofaggressiontowardshumans,alteredactivitybudgetsandchangesinrangingpat-
terns(GrieserJohns1996;Cipolletta2003;WilliamsonandFeistner2003;Blomet al.2004;Nizeyi
2005;Goldsmithet al. 2006;Doran-Sheehyet al.2007;BertolaniandBoesch2008;Klailovaet
al. 2010).Aberrantbehaviour is anotherpotential side effect of stress.Only a handful of stud-
ieshaveassessedbehaviouralchangeinthepresenceoftourists:westerngorillasshowhigher
ratesofaggression,withdominantmalesspendingsignificantly less timesleepingand resting
(HodgkinsonandCipolletta2009),whilemountaingorillasdisplayalteredactivitypatterns,includ-
ingmoretimespentmovingandincreasedmonitoring(Fawcett2004;Muyambi2005).Orangutans
inBukitLawangspend less time foraging, travellingandsocialising in thepresenceof tourists
(Dellatore2007),althoughthesechangescouldbecausedbyguidesattractingorangutanswith
food—apracticejudgedinappropriateinthesebestpracticeguidelines.Tourismcanalsohavean
Mountain gorillas, Virunga
National Park, DRC. Photo ©
Russ Mittermeier/CI.
29
indirectnegativeimpactonsocialinteractions,ashabituatedapesmayhavereducedopportuni-
tiestointeractwithunhabituatedindividuals(Ancrenazpers.comm.;Williamsonpers.obs.).
There is clearly a need to minimise impacts on behaviour, not only for the primary reasons of
preservingthehealthandwelfareof theapes,butalsobecausetouristsarepayingtoobserve
naturalbehaviourandthisshouldnotbeinfluencedbytourismitself.Thelong-termimplications
oftheseimpactsarenotyetknown.Theprecautionaryprinciplesuggests,however,thatevenin
theabsenceofdirectproofofnegativebehaviouralimpactweshouldenhancetourismcontroland
adaptivelymanagetourismactivitiestoavoidbehaviouralchange.Thefactthatstresscontributes
torangealterationwillinevitablyaffecttourismlogistics,ashasbeenobservedwithtransbound-
arymountaingorillagroups,andshouldbeanadded incentive toensureenforcementof rules
designedtominimisesuchimpacts.
4.3.5 Criticalnegativeimpact—vulnerabilitytopoaching
Oncegreatapeshavebeenhabituatedfortourismorresearchtheyaremorevulnerabletoapproach
byhumansingeneral,whomaygetclosebeforetriggeringaflightresponse.Thisexposeshabitu-
atedapestoincreasedrisksofcapture,injuryordeath,deliberateoraccidental,atthehandsof
poachersorsoldiers.Theapes’vulnerabilityduringperiodsof insecuritywasdemonstratedby
theslaughterofhabituatedgorillasinKahuzi-BiegaNationalPark(Yamagiwa1999)andVirunga
NationalPark(Kalperset al.2003),includingthehighprofilegorilla‘executions’in2007(Williamson
andFawcett2008).Consequentlyhabituatedapesmustbemonitoredeveryday,andprotectedby
teamsconductinglaw-enforcementpatrols.GovernmentsandNGOsmustfulfiltheirresponsibility
toprotecthabituatedgroupsandtheirhabitatbyimplementingwell-structuredlawenforcement
and monitoring programmes, although such activities may be compromised during periods of
insecurity.Thepresenceoflaw-enforcementteamsnotonlydetersillegalactivities,butalsoena-
blesmanagementandveterinaryteamstorespondimmediatelyshouldanyillegalactivitiestake
place.Commitmenttodailymonitoringisanessentialrequirementforanyandallhabituatedapes
andmustbecarriedoutinperpetuity,asde-habituationmaynotbeachievable.
4.4 Conclusions on tourism impacts
Toaddressthelargenumberofnegativeimpactsoftourism,especiallythosehighlightedabove,
it is imperative that great ape tourism management and associated rules and regulations are
designedwith impactmitigation inmind,and that theycanwithstand thepressureofgrowing
demands for increased revenueand increaseddevelopmentof tourist ‘opportunities’. It isalso
essentialthattrainingoftourismfieldpersonnel,enforcementofregulations,anddisseminationof
thecontentandrationalefortheserecommendations,aregivenhighestprioritybyorganisations
developingandoperatinggreatapetourism.Keyaudiencesarenotjustthetouristsandthestaff
ofthetourismenterprises,butalsodecision-makersintheprotectedareaauthoritiesandrelevant
ministries. In addition, services that protect habituated apes from illegal activities and disease
mustbe fundedand implemented.Thisdocumentshouldprovideauseful resource, layingout
thekeyconceptsformitigatingnegativeimpactswhileatthesametimeoptimisingthepositive
impactsofgreatapetourism.
Section 5: Guidelines for Best Practice in Great Ape Tourism
Atthispointinthedocument,thereaderwillbeawareofthelessonslearnedthroughglobalexpe-
riencewithgreatapetourism(Section3)andthelargenumberofpotentialimpactsofgreatape
tourism (Section4).This informationshould fosteranunderstandingandwillingness toaccept
andimplementtheguidelinesformulatedhereinSection5,whichrepresentbestpracticeinthe
designandmanagementoftourism.Theserecommendationsarebasedontheguidingprinciple
thatgreatapetourismmustbenefitgreatapeconservation.Allpotential impacts,bothpositive
andnegative,mustbeunderstood,evaluated,andconsideredintheplanningandmanagement
oftourisminitiativessuchthatpositiveimpactsareexploitedandmaximisedtotheirhighestlevel,
whilenegativeimpactsareminimisedor,betterstill,avoidedaltogether.
30
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ALL GREAT APE SPECIES
5.1 Guiding principles for using tourism as a great ape conservation tool
5.1.1 Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration
Tourismcancontributetogreatapeconservationbutwillnotbeviableatallsites.Sitesmustmeet
thecriterialistedinSections5.2and5.3,ortheyarenotappropriateforgreatapetourism.Sites
thatfailtogeneratetherevenueanticipatedmaysufferabacklashagainsttheconservationeffort,
socareshouldbetakentoavoidraisingfalseexpectationsamongpoliticians,managersandlocal
communities.
5.1.2 Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportforconservation
Greatapetourismmayenhancethefinancial,aestheticandculturalvalueofapesandtheirhabi-
tatsasperceivedbylocalcommunities,policy-makersandpoliticalleadersinthegreataperange
states,therebypromotinglong-termsupportforconservationofapesandtheirhabitats(Harcourt
2001).
5.1.3 Conservationmustbetheprimarygoalofgreatapetourism
Conservationmustbegivenpriorityovereconomicandpoliticalconcernsatallgreatapetourism
sites.Anysitethatundertakesgreatapetourismmustplacecontinuedandenhancedemphasison
protection, lawenforcement,environmentalawareness-raisingandotherconservationactivities.
Theeffortandresourcesrequiredtodevelopandoperatetourismshouldnotdivertresourcesand
attentionawayfromtheconservationfocus.
5.1.4 Conservation benefits must significantlyoutweighrisks
Great ape tourism development proposals should
undergo full feasibility and impact assessments,
andshouldnotbeimplementedunlessthebenefits
anticipated outweigh the potential risks. Tourism
and its associated impact mitigation measures
must significantly improve the conservation out-
comecomparedtoano-tourismscenario.Onlypro-
grammesthatwillenhanceconservationeffortsand
improve protection of the ape population should
go ahead. While this is a general guideline for all
greatapes,itiscrucialforCriticallyEndangeredand
smallpopulationsduetotheirprecariousconserva-
tionstatus.
5.1.5 Conservation investment and action mustbeassuredinperpetuity
Anti-poaching activities must be launched in par-
allel with habituation efforts, especially in Central
Africawherepoachingofgreatapesfor food isat
itshighestlevels.Oncehabituated,greatapesand
their home ranges must be protected and moni-
toreddailyby lawenforcementteamswithon-call
veterinaryexpertise.Theseactivitiesarenecessary
notonlyforconservation,butalsotosupporttour-
ism development and management, and must be
continuedinperpetuity.Financialcontingencyplans
forperiodsoflowtourismshouldbeinplacebefore
tourismisdeveloped.
Gorilla model at headquarters of Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda. Photo ©
Martha Robbins/MPI-EVAN.
31
5.1.6 Greatapetourismmustbebasedonsoundobjectivescience
Greatape tourismcanbecontroversial, andnotall conservationistsagree that it isanaccept-
ableactivity.Todefendgreatapetourismasasustainablecomponentofaconservationstrategy,
conservationmust takepriorityovereconomicandpolitical interests (Section5.1.3),decisions
affectingtourismmustberesults-ledandbasedonsoundandobjectivescience,andregulations
governingvisitsmustbescientifically-formulatedand rigorouslyenforced (Butynski andKalina
1998).
5.1.7 Benefitsandprofitforlocalcommunitiesshouldbemaximised
Forgreatapetourismtoproperlymeetthecriteriaforsustainabletourism,itmustmaximiseboth
directandindirectbenefitstoadjacentcommunitiesthatbearthecostsofconservation,including
opportunitycosts(Grosspietsch2007).Whileconservationmusttakepriorityoverotherinterests,
tourismshouldstrivetocontributetopovertyreductionwhereverpossibleand,attheveryleast,
shoulddonoharmtolocalcommunities(SGLCP2009).Directbenefitsincludelocalrecruitment
oftourismstaffandsharingapercentageoftourismrevenuewithadjacentcommunities.Indirect
benefitsincludemarketingandsupportforservicesthatearnadditionalincomeforcommunities
(suchastourisminfrastructurewhichispartiallyorwhollycommunity-ownedandoperated).Care
shouldbetakentoensurethatbenefitsarenotfocusedonasmallsectionofacommunitybutare
accessibletothemajority.Fullconsultationsshouldbeconductedtoensurethatbenefitsarepro-
videdinamannerbothrecognisedandvaluedbylocalresidents.Guidanceoninvolvingcommuni-
tiesintourismactivitiesisavailable(e.g.,Gutierrezet al. 2005;Ancrenazet al.2007;Rajaratnamet
al.2008),asarelessonslearnedthroughthedevelopmentandimplementationofrevenue-sharing
andothercommunityprogrammescentredongreatapetourism(ArchabaldandNaughton-Treves
2001;AdamsandInfield2003;Blomleyet al.2010).
5.1.8 Profittoprivatesectorpartnersmustnotbeadrivingforce
Inthedevelopmentofanygreatapetourismactivity,conservationprinciplesmusttakeprecedence
overprofitgenerationforprivatesectorstakeholders.Whileasuccessfultourismprogrammewill
provideopportunitiesforincometoaccrueatvariouslevels,theprimaryaimofdevelopingand
operatingthisrevenue-generatingmechanismistosupportthecostofconservationefforts.The
needsofcommunitieslivinginoradjacenttoapehabitatsmustalsobeaddressed;however, if
theprioritiesbecomeinverted,withprofittotheprivatesectorbecomingthedrivingforcebehind
greatapetourism,thenstakeholdersmustanalysehowtheprioritiescouldhavegoneastrayand
howtorebalancethem.
5.1.9 Comprehensiveunderstandingofimpactsmustguidetourismdevelopment
Greatapetourismhasanumberofadvantagesanddisadvantages,allofwhichmustbeclearly
understoodbyeveryone involved in theplanningand implementation.These issuesshouldbe
keptinmindatallstagesofthedesign,developmentandmanagementofgreatapetourism.The
guidelinesinthisdocumentarefoundedontheprincipleofoptimisingimpactsforconservation.
Anysitethatcannotsustain impact-optimisingactivities,financiallyor institutionally,shouldnot
initiateagreatapetourismprogramme.
5.2 Assessment phase
Allproposedgreatapetourismactivitiesmustbeevaluatedastotheirsuitability,feasibilityand
impacts.Onlyifasiteisjudgedappropriateatthisstageshouldplanninggoahead.
5.2.1 Stakeholderawarenessofcostsandbenefits
Prior to developing a tourism site, all stakeholders in the decision-making and design phases
shouldbeguidedthroughadiscussionthatallowsforconsiderationoffullspectrumofadvantages
anddisadvantagestomakesurethattheirdecisionsarewellinformed.Thiswillhelptoensurethat
iftourismdevelopmentgoesahead,thereissupportfor,andcommitmentto,thetimeandfunding
requiredtoimplementactivities,andthatcontrolsareinplacetomaximisebenefitsandmitigate
negativeimpacts,ascoveredinSections3and4.
32
5.2.2 Criteriaforgreatapetourismsites
Thefollowingcriteriamustbemetforgreatapetourismtobeconsideredasaconservationstrategy:
a. Presenceof a sufficientnumberof apes6,with rangingpatterns thatwill allow for
reasonable year-round or predictable seasonal viewing. In the absence of site-
specificresearchtoinformthiscriterion,surveysshouldbecarriedouttoassessthe
densityanddistributionofapespresent.7
b. Fundingalreadycommitted tocover tourismdevelopmentalongwith the required
impact-optimisingactivitiesandlong-termobligations(includingthecostsofgreat
apehealthmonitoring,treatmentofdisease,andemployeehealthprogrammes).
c. Bothsiteandprogrammeconformtonationallegalandregulatoryrequirements(e.g.,
EIA,zoning)forallactivitiesandassociatedinfrastructure.
d. Tourismmarketforthisapetaxon,country,locationandsoon,issufficienttosupport
the recurrentcostsofconservationactivitiesand tourismoperations,asanalysed
throughabusinessplanincorporatingfinancialmodelsofincomeandexpenditure.
e. Preliminary analysis suggests that the addition of this site fits within the tourism
carryingcapacityfortheparticulartaxonorregion.
f. Physicalhabitat (forest/vegetationstructure, topography,waterways)allowfor low-
impactandsafeaccesstoviewapes,eitheronfootorfromboats,asappropriateto
thesite.
g. Research suggests that habituation to the appropriate viewing distance will be
possible(notlessthan7–10metres,withorwithoutmasksrespectively).
h. Awarenessofkeyconservationissuesorthreatsthatposearisktohabituatedapes
andthattourismcouldhelptoaddress(e.g.,poaching,human-greatapeconflict).
i. Abilityofthesite’smanagementtoabsorbtheaddedresponsibilityofoperatingand
maintaininga tourism initiative (additionalstaffing, infrastructure, lawenforcement,
and control measures to optimise booking systems and prevent unauthorised
tourism).
j. Credible indications that effective management will be put in place to maintain
conservation priorities over the long term, to address and mitigate all recognised
negative impacts, and that acceptable education and economic benefits will be
deliveredtolocalcommunities.
k. Presenceof,orabilitytodevelopthroughcapacity-buildingprogrammes,sufficient
humanresourcesintermsofskilledguides,wardensandimpact-monitoringstaff.
l. Understandingofwhether andhow tourismcouldaffect existing levelsof human-
greatapeconflict,eitherpositivelyornegatively.8
m. Awareness of disease in both humans and livestock that might be transmitted to
apesthroughtheactivitiesofstaffand/ortourists.9
n. Knowledgeofsocioeconomicandpoliticalcontextthatmighteithersupportorpose
arisktogreatapetourism(e.g.,Plumptreet al.2004).
o. Abilitytoprovideappropriateinfrastructurerequiredfortouriststoaccessandstayat
ornearthesite,includingroad,riverorairtransport,hotels,lodgesandcampgrounds.
6 A‘sufficient’numberofapeswouldbedeterminedbyfactorsspecfictothetaxonandsiteunderreview.7 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for Surveys and Monitoring of Great Ape Populations (Kühlet al.2008).8 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict Between Humans and Great Apes, (HockingsandHumle2009).9 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for Health Monitoring and Disease Control(Leendertzetal.inpress).
33
p. Abilitytocontrolthedevelopmentoftourism-relatedinfrastructureintheareathrough
zoningorotherregulation,topreventover-developmentinoradjacenttogreatape
habitat.
q. Willingnessofnationalauthoritiesandinstitutionstodevelopandimproveservices
that would support and stimulate tourism programmes, including immigration,
security,touroperatornetworks,marketingandtouristinformation,andinfrastructure
(e.g.,airports,domesticflights,roadsandhotels).
r. Knowledgeofexistingorpotentialapere-introductionprogrammes,andawareness
of how these would affect tourism development10. Note that we endorse the
recommendation of other expert groups that tourism programmes should not be
developedwithex-captiveapesbecauseofthepotentialdangerstobothapesand
tourists.
McNeely (1992) included ‘guaranteedwildlifeviewing’asageneralcriterion fornature tourism;
however,inthisdocumentwerecommendthatgreatapetourismsitesdonotofferviewingguaran-
teesduetothedifficultyofobservingwildapesandthepossibilityofincreasedbehaviouralimpact
anddiseaserisksifdistanceandotherprotectivemeasuresareviolatedtosatisfyaguarantee.
5.2.3 Feasibilitystudiesandimpactanalysisofpotentialsites
The optimum method of deciding whether ape tourism is an acceptable and appropriate con-
servation strategy, and meets all criteria in Section 5.2.2, is to subject the proposed site and
programmetoafullfeasibilitystudyandimpact(cost/benefit)analysis.Greatapesshouldnotbe
habituatedorexposedtotherisksassociatedwithtourismatasitethathasbeenjudgedunviable,
unsustainable,or inappropriateforanyreason.AfeasibilityandimpactstudyshouldfollowEIA
models,examiningbiological,physical,social,political,behavioural,disease,economic,market,
infrastructure,policyandinstitutionalfactorsrelevanttotheproposedsiteandtourismactivities
(Section3.2.12).Impactassessmentsmusttakeintoaccounttheresultsofpreviousimpactstud-
iesandongoingresearch,andrequirestakeholdercommitmenttoabidebytheconclusionsofthe
study,eveniftheprogrammeorsiteisultimatelyfoundtobeinappropriateorunviableforgreat
apetourism.Fundingforthistypeofanalysisshouldbebuiltintoprogrammedesignbudgets.
5.2.4 Furtherassessmentsrequiredfordecisionsontourismexpansion
Onceagreatapetourismsitehasbeenestablishedandisoperatingsuccessfully,therewillbe
agrowingawarenessorperception—eitherrealorinflated—ofthefinancialbenefitsaccruingto
institutions,businessesandindividuals.Asaresult,apetourismsites,eventhosenotatoptimum
ormaximumoccupancy,willeventuallycomeunderpressurefromvarioussourcestoexpandthe
numberoftouristsallowedpervisitorvisitsperday.Thedemandmaybeforanincreaseinthe
maximumnumberofpeopleallowedtoviewalreadyhabituatedgroups,oritmayrequesthabitua-
tionofadditionalgroupsinthesamearea,orinnewareas,orinsomecasesmayinvolveallowing
touriststoviewgroupsstudiedbyresearchers.
Anydecisionstoexpandoperationsshouldbemadewithcaution,asmanyofthenegativeimpacts
ontheapesincreasewitheveryadditionalvisitor(Homsy1999;Macfie2005).Theoptionofexpos-
ingadditionalapestohabituationandtourismshouldbesubjecttoarigorousimpactandfeasibil-
ityanalysis,similartothefeasibilitystudyrequiredforanewsite.Theintentionofsuchanalyses
istoreducetheimpactsontheapesandhabitat,tosuggestmitigationmeasures,andtoguide
choiceofgroupifadecisionismadetoproceed.Themotivationforexpansionshouldbeanalysed
to judgewhetheralternativeactions,suchasenhancedbookingsystems,mightaddressstake-
holderrequirementswithoutincreasingtouristnumbersorthenumberofapesvisited.Additionally,
thetourismprogrammeatitscurrentlevelshouldbeevaluatedforsignsofweakness,forexample,
suboptimaltourismmanagementandcontrol.Itwouldbeunwisetoexpandandsubjectadditional
apestotherisksofpoormanagementbeforeaddressingthecurrentsystembyimprovingbooking
10 SeeBest Practice Guidelines for the Re-introduction of Great Apes(Becket al.2007).
34
and tourismcontrolmeasures.Amethodology for this typeofanalysishasbeendeveloped to
guidetourismandresearchhabituationdecisionsformountaingorillasintheVirunga/Bwindiland-
scape(Macfie2007a).TheHabituationImpactAssessment(HIA)includesprocessesanddecision
treesthatarerelevant,orcouldbeadapted,toothersitesandgreatapetaxa.
5.3 Planning phase
Onceasiteisjudgedappropriateforgreatapetourism,thefollowingrecommendationswillensure
bestpracticeinprogrammedesign.
5.3.1 Impactoptimisationasacorecomponentofprogrammedesign
Beyondbuildingawarenessoftourismimpacts,asdiscussedabove,itisessentialthatactivities
andcontrolstomaximisetheconservationbenefitsoftourismandminimisenegativeimpactsare
builtintotheprogrammefromtheoutset.Acost-benefitanalysismustconsiderthefinancialimpli-
cationsofoperatingalltherequiredimpact-optimisingactivitiesproposedinthisdocument(such
as enhanced law-enforcement monitoring, disease surveillance and treatment, and employee
healthprogrammes).Impactoptimisationmustbeplannedandfunded,tosetthestagesuchthat
atourismprogrammecanbeviableandrootedinpreservation,notexploitation,oftheapes.
5.3.2 HabituationImpactAssessment(HIA)
Asacomponentofanimpactanalysisandfeasibilitystudy,ananalysisoffactorsspecificallyasso-
ciatedwithhabituationofaparticulargroupofapesshouldbeconducted.AnHabituationImpact
Assessmentshouldanalysethepotentialimpactsofhabituatingagroupofapes,suggestpossible
alternatives, recommend specific sites for tourism development, and provide guidance on the
impact-mitigationmeasurestoputinplacealongsidetourismactivities(Macfie2007a).
5.3.3 Criteriaforchoiceofsiteorgroup
Followingafeasibilitystudyand/oranHIA,ifgreatapehabituationandtourismdevelopmentare
toproceed,itisvitalthatappropriatechoicesaremadeconcerningwhichindividuals,groupsor
communitiesofgreatapeswillbeviewedbytourists.Themostimportantcriteriatoconsiderin
choosingagrouporcommunityarethefollowing:
a. For African apes – size and composition of group or community:
• Minimum size of group or community: For tourism operations where visitors
approachgroupsofhabituatedchimpanzees,bonobosorgorillastodistances
of7–10metres(withorwithoutmasksrespectively),thetotalnumberofpeople
Chimpanzee, Kibale National
Park, Uganda. Photo © Alain
Houle.
35
includingguidesandtrackers,shouldnotbegreaterthanthenumberofapes
>1yearold in thegroup.During theirvulnerablefirstyear, infantapesarenot
countedingroup-sizecriteria.Foratourismprogrammedesignedfor4tourists
+2staff(seeSection5.5.6),atargetgroupofapesshouldcompriseatleast6
individualsaged>1year.
• Maximum size of group or community:Atsiteswithmultipleapegroupsorcom-
munitiestochoosebetween,thelargestgroupsandthosewithhighgrowthrates
shouldnotbeexposedtotourism.Thesegroupsrepresentalargerpercentage
ofthepopulationandthereforepresentagreaterriskifaseriousorfataldisease
were introduced.Atsiteswith fewgroups tochoose from,decisionsmustbe
basedonfactorsrelatedtoconservationimpact.
• Composition of group or community: ‘Ideal’ groupcompositionwill bedeter-
minedbyspecies-specificbehaviouralanddemographicfactors,suchastypical
immigration/emigrationpatterns,andintra-groupaggressionandcohesiveness.
Agroupthatappears likely todisintegrateshouldberuledoutasacandidate
forhabituation.However,onceagrouphasbeenhabituated,it(andanysplinter
groups)mustbeprotectedinperpetuity,eveniftourismisdiscontinued.
b. For semi-solitary Asian great apes – behavioural and demographic criteria:
• Group size:Orangutantourismoperationsaregenerallybasedonviewingindi-
vidualsintreesfromthegroundorfromboats,thereforegroupsizeguidelines
donotapply.
• Social structure:Orangutansocialstructureshouldbeconsideredwhenchoos-
ingsites:Orangutanindividualsaremembersofloosely-organisedcommunities;
femalesandtheirdependentoffspringaremembersof‘kinclusters’withoverlap-
pinghomeranges(Singletonet al.2009).
• Gender and age:Adultmaleorangutans travel longdistancesandmay leave
theircorerangeformonthsatatime,duringwhichtheywillbe‘lost’totourism.
Adultfemaleshavesmallerhomeranges,arethereforeeasiertofindand,make
moreappropriatecandidatesforhabituation.Stress,however,mayaffectbreed-
ingsuccessandthedecisiontohabituatebreedingfemalesshouldbemadewith
caution.Femaleswithyounginfantswhoshowdistressshouldnotbefollowed.
• Individual sensitivity to habituation and viewing activities:Orangutans show
strong individual differences in their reactions to being followed by humans.
Somehabituaterelativelyeasilywhileothersdonot.Individualsshowingobvious
signsofstress(hidingbehaviour,fleeing,kiss-squeaking)after10daysofregular
contactshouldnotbepursuedfurther.
c. Percent of population exposed to tourism: Expert advice will dictate the maximum
percent of a given population to be subject to the risks of tourism; some groups or
individualsshouldbeleftundisturbed.Somestakeholdershaveproposedanabsolute
maximumof50%groupsandindividualsinsmallpopulations(e.g.,Bwindi),wherethe
protectiveeffectsoftourismmaybalancetherisks.However,50%ofalargepopulation
could not be supported by the tourism market. Given wide variations in great ape
populationsize,preciserecommendationswillbesite-specific.
d. Trends in group size: Agroupthatisgrowinginsizeislikelytobeabetterchoicefor
tourismthanonethat isshrinkingforanyreason.Thefinancial implicationsofhalting
tourismifanhabituatedgroupbecomestoosmallincludenotonlythecostsoftourism
developmentbutalsothecostsofprotectingthegroupindefinitely.Thecontinuationof
tourismmightbe justified if theassociated law-enforcementandmonitoringactivities
couldreverseadownwardtrend.
36
e. Home-range location and ranging patterns: The location and sizeof an individual’s,
group’sorcommunity’shomerangeiscriticaltothefeasibilityoftourismforthereasons
givenbelow:
• Accessibility: Depending on how the tourism programme will operate (daily
returnhikeorboattripvs.amobilecamping/trackingexperience),theabilityto
reachandobserveatargetgroupwithinthedurationofastandardvisitwillaffect
thechoiceofgroup.
• Access to and from tourism infrastructure:Factorssuchasproximitytoexisting
orplanned tourism infrastructure (trails,bookingoffices,visitorcentre,accom-
modation)shouldenterintogroupselection.
• Seasonal and annual or supra-annual reliability: Seasonal and annual varia-
tionsinrangingpatternswillaffecthowtourismismanaged,suchthatdeparture
pointsandaccommodationrequirementsmayvarythroughtheyear.
• Risks of human-great ape conflict: Habituating apes that range into commu-
nityareaswouldexacerbateexistingconflictswithhumans,andthesewouldbe
heightened if income were generated by crop-raiding apes. Therefore groups
knowntohavesuchtendenciesshouldnotbehabituated.
• Ranging in areas subject to illegal activities: If a group ranges into an area
thatexperienceshighlevelsofillegalactivities,theenhancedmonitoringandlaw
enforcementthatcomewithtourismmaydiminishtherisksofpoachingorinjury.
However,ifhuntingisaknownthreat,habituationtohumanswillputtheapesat
greaterrisk;insuchcases,habituationshouldproceedonlyifeffectiveprotection
canbeassured.
• Beneficiaries:Groupchoicemaybe influencedby factors relating towhowill
benefit—from local employment or provision of tourism services, to revenue-
sharingmechanisms.Thedistributionofbenefitsoverawidearea,ortoanew
location,shouldbeconsidered.
• Zoning and other policy issues:Policyissuesmaydictateorpreventtourismin
certainareas,therebyrulingoutgroupsthatrangethere.
• International boundaries: Unless regional agreements are in place, apes that
range across international or other significant geo-political boundaries should
notbechosenfortourism,duetotherisksof‘losing’them,orotheradministra-
tivecomplications.
f. Home-range overlap and ape density: Agrouporcommunitywhose rangehas less
overlapwithadjacentgroups,orisinanareaofrelativelylowdensity,wouldbeatlower
risk from some negative impacts of tourism, such as the introduction of infectious
disease.
N.B.Whenviewingfromhidesorplatforms(westernlowlandgorillas)orfromboatsor
vehicles(orangutans),manyoftheabovefactorsarenotrelevant.
5.3.4 Developingandrefininghabituationprotocols
Habituationisdefinedastheacceptancebywildanimalsofahumanobserverasaneutralele-
mentintheirenvironment.Theprocessofhabituationdependsonthespeciesunderconsidera-
tion,itssocialorganisation,density,previousexperiencewithhumans,andstructureofthehabitat
(WilliamsonandFeistner2003).Whilehabituationoforangutanstypicallytakesfromafewweeks
toaseveralmonths,habituationofAfricanapesgenerallyrequires2to5years.
Mostgreatapetaxahavebeensuccessfullyhabituatedforresearchortourism,resultinginasig-
nificantaccumulationofknowledgeandexperience.Thoseleadingnewhabituationeffortsshould
familiarisethemselveswithlessonslearned,andtailortheirtechniquestothetargetpopulationor
site.Habituationprotocolsshouldaddresstechnicalandlogisticalissuestoenhancehabituation
whileminimisingimpactsonbehaviour,healthandhabitat.Protocolsshouldprovideadviceonthe
size,compositionandconductofhabituationteams,andtheteam’sapproachshouldbeguided
37
byknowledgeoftheapes’feedingecologyandrangingpatterns.Proximity,postureandbehaviour
ofhabituatorsshouldbemodifiedinresponsetoalarmanddisplaybehaviours.Ingeneralthepre-
ferredapproachistoaimforadistanceatwhichtheapesareawareoftheteam’spresencewithout
pushingthemintoflightmode.Anyflightorincreasedfrequencyofalarmoraggressivebehaviours
shouldcausetheteamtoretreat,andmaintainagreaterdistanceuntilthesebehavioursreducein
frequency.Thisdistanceshouldbemaintainedforapre-determinedlengthoftimeeachday,with
incrementalattemptsonsuccessivedays,weeksandmonths togradually reducethedistance
withoutinducingaflightresponseortriggeringaggressionandalarmbehaviours.Asbestpractice
isdesignedtominimisebehaviouralimpactsanddiseaserisks,habituationshouldneverproceed
todistancescloser than theminimumdistanceapproved for tourism (seeSection5.5.13),and
physicalcontactshouldneverbeinstigatedbyanhabituator.
How a group is approached is one of the most important elements of successful habituation.
Certainbehavioursshouldbeavoided,suchasmakingloudnoises,suddengesturesorsurrepti-
tiousmovements.Typicalreactionstoobserverpresenceincludeflight,avoidance,curiosity,dis-
playandignore,andoccasionallyattack.Thekeytohabituationistomaximiseregularpositive
interactions, when the animals’ first reaction is neither fear nor alarm. Systematic records are
necessarytoassessprogresstowardshabituationandshouldincludeinformationondurationof
contact,distance,reactionsandactivitybudgets(WilliamsonandFeistner2003;Ancrenazpers.
comm.).
5.3.5 Tourismdevelopmentplansforsitesjudgedappropriateandfeasible
Onceasitehaspassedthroughalltheassessmentsdetailedaboveandbeenjudgedsuitablefor
greatapetourism,afulldevelopmentplanshouldbeprepared,documentingtheactionsneeded
toimplementtourism.Plansshouldsummariseallsiteandimpactassessmentrecommendations,
addressingeachtoensurecompliance,andaddressthedevelopmentandimplementationguide-
linesdetailedonpage38(seeSections5.4and5.5).
Chimpanzee, Nyungwe National Park, Rwanda. Photo © Julian Easton.
38
Contents of a Typical Tourism Development Plan:
a. Objectives
b. Guidingprinciplesandpolicies
c. Siteassessmentandimpactstudyresults
d. Sitedescription
e. Habituationprotocols
f. Apetourismlimits
• Numberofgroups/individuals
• Percentageofpopulation
g. Siteaccess
• Roadandtrailaccess
• Boatandairaccessiffeasible
h. Infrastructureplans
• Localzoningplans
• Accommodationplans
~ Accommodationpolicies
~ Lodge/hotel/tentedcamps
~ Huts,chalets,campsites
• Trails
• Offices
• Visitoreducationcentre
• Gatesandrangerposts
i. Staffingrequirements
• Managementstaff
~ Wardens
~ Financestaff
~ Bookingstaff
• Fieldstaff
~ Trackers
~ Touristguides
~ Hospitalitystaff
~ Visitorinformationstaff
• Recruitmentplans
• Trainingplans
• Policiesonexternalstaff(e.g.,externalguides)
j. Equipment
• Communications
• Fieldequipment
• FirstAid
k. Apemonitoringandhealthprotocols
l. Bookingsystemsandpricingstructure
m. Guidesandguideservices
n. Visitorinformation
o. Publicity,marketing,etc.
p. Transport,emergencies
q. Visitorregulations
r. Veterinarycover
s. Diversificationoftouristactivities
t. Communityconservationprogramme
• Revenuesharingtobenefitlocalcommunities
• Otherbenefit-sharingprogrammes
• Awarenessandoutreach
• CommunityImpactmonitoringplan
u. Regionalcooperation(ifapplicable)
v. Impactmitigationplan
w. Finances:
• Budgetandfundingplanfortourismdevelop-
mentcosts
• Operationsbudget
• Tourismincomemodels
• Communityincomemodels
• Incomemodelsforotherstakeholders
x. Emergency/ContingencyPlans:
• Securityplan
• Diseaseoutbreakresponseplan
• Fundingplanfortourismclosure
• Human-apeconflictmitigation
Tourist lodge, Bwindi Impen-
etrable National Park, Uganda.
Photo © Liz Macfie.
39
5.4 Development phase
Guidelines during Habituation:
5.4.1 Noprovisioning
Inthepast,provisioningwithfoodwasusedtokick-starthabituationatafewchimpanzeeresearch
sites.Feedingisstillpracticedtodraworangutanstotouristaccessibleareaswiththeapprovalof
conservationauthoritiesand,althoughnotauthorised,isoccasionallyusedtoenticeorangutansto
approachtourists.Lessonslearnedfromthesesitessuggestthatthispracticeheightensaggres-
sionbothbetweenapesandtowardsobservers,andsuchclosecontactorinjuryincreasesthe
risksofdiseasetransmission(WallisandLee1999).Diseaserisksalsoincreasewithprovisioning
asfooditemscanactasvehicles(‘fomites’)forinfectiousagentstoentertheapepopulation.In
addition,provisioning facilitatesparasitecontamination, if apesare repeatedly fed in thesame
areas.Therefore,provisioningisnolongerpracticedatgreataperesearchsitesandshouldnotbe
usedingreatapetourism.Tourismsiteswherefeedinghasoccurredinthepastshouldhaltthis
activityandstepupenforcement,togetherwithrisk-awarenesstrainingforanystaff,touristguides
andtouristswhothinkthatfeedingapesisacceptable.
5.4.2 Adherencetohabituationprotocols
AsdescribedinSection5.3.4,habituationofgreatapesshouldfollowprotocolsfoundedonexpe-
rience. This will be an iterative learning process—lessons learned should be incorporated into
protocolrevisionsandmadeavailabletootherprojects.
5.4.3 Habituationtargetdistances
Thehabituationtargetdistanceforapesthatwillbeviewedbytouristsonfootshouldbe10metres.
IfobserverswillbeprovidedwithN95masks,thenthetargetdistancemaybereducedto7metres.
5.4.4 Habituationtoobserverswearingsurgicalmasks
Sincewerecommendasbestpracticethatobservers(tourists,staff,researchers)whoarelikelyto
approachapestolessthan10metresshouldbewearingN95surgicalrespiratormasks,habitu-
ationteamsshoulddothesametoallowapestobecomeaccustomedtothemasks.Inaddition,
habituatorsthemselvesposediseaserisksiftheapeslackpriorexposuretohumanpathogens,so
wearingmaskswouldbeanaddedprecaution.
Chimpanzee, Nouabalé-Ndoki
National Park, Republic of
Congo. Photo © Ian Nichols.
40
5.4.5 Avoidanceofoverhabituation
Excessivehabituationisindicatedbyunacceptablycloseproximity,physicalcontactandaggres-
siontowardshumans,withincreasedrisksofinjury,diseaseandevendeath.Overhabituationcan
resultinapesapproachingtourists,initiatingcontactandinsomecasesattemptingtoobtainfood,
allofwhichcanbedangerousforbothhumansandapes.Mountaingorillaandorangutantourists
oftenreportbeingapproachedor touchedbyapes,andstaffmust try toprevent these interac-
tions.Extremelossoffearofhumanscanleadtoapesrangingandevennestingincommunity
areas,andtoincreasedcrop-raiding.Inafewcases,localpeoplehavebeenphysicallyattacked
bywildgreatapes(HockingsandHumle2009),andtouristshavebeenattackedbyrehabilitant
orangutans(SingletonandAprianto2001;Dellatore2007).Insummary,overhabituationmustbe
preventedatall costs, feedingshouldnotbeallowed,andhabituationeffortsshouldnevergo
beyondpredeterminedlevelsspecifiedinthetourismdevelopmentplan.Anyattemptsbyapesto
approachcloserthantheminimumdistanceortotouchhumanobserversshouldbediscouraged
withmeansappropriatetothecontext,andthehabituationteammustmoveawaytomaintaintheir
distance.
Young eastern lowland gorilla,
Kahuzi-Biega National Park,
DRC. Photo © John Martin/CI.
41
Impact Mitigation:
5.4.6 Healthmonitoringandveterinaryresponse
Allgreatape tourismsitesshouldparticipate in,andbenefit from, long-termhealthmonitoring
programmes.Awealthofreferencematerialonconservationmedicineandtreatmentprotocolsis
available(e.g.,Cranfield,GaffikinandCameron2001;Deem,KareshandWeisman2001;Kriefet
al.2005;Cranfield2008)andissummarisedinLeendertzet al.(inpress).
Ape tourism operations should include veterinary response teams, either on-site or available
to respondtoemergencies.These teamsshouldhaveclearlydefinedrolesandresponsibilities,
includingdiagnosticandtreatmentprotocols.Itisimportanttoestablishguidelinesonthedegree
ofinterventionappropriatefordifferentsituations:totreatdiseasesandinjuriesthatareprovenor
suspectedtobehuman-caused,butperhapsnotthoseconsideredtobenatural(unlessthereisa
risktothepopulation,orwhentreatmentisjudgedappropriateforhumanereasons,DecisionTree
WritingGroup2006).
5.4.7 Employeehealthprogrammes
Greatapetourismprojectsshouldprovidehealthscreeningandtreatmentforallfieldstaff,espe-
ciallystaffthatarelikelytocomeintocloseproximitywithhabituatedapes.Provisionofhealthcare
helpstoaddressabasicneedoflocalstaff,whileatthesametimeenablingscreening,prevention
andtreatmentofcommondiseasesthatposearisktogreatapes.TheMountainGorillaVeterinary
Programme (MGVP)operatesemployeehealthprogrammes in threecountriesandservesasa
resource forotherswishing todevelopsimilarservices (NutterandWhittier2001;MGVP2002;
Aliet al.2004;EmployeeHealthGroup2004).Whendesigningsuchprogrammes,itisessential
toassessstaff livingconditionsand toconsiderextending theprogrammetocover immediate
householdmembers,althoughthiswouldincreasecosts.Commoncomponentsincludevaccina-
tionagainstpreventablediseases,diagnostictests,routinechestx-raysortuberculosistests,first
aidprovisionandtraining,andhealtheducation.
5.4.8 Communityhealthprogrammes
Healthoutreachtomonitordiseaseandimprovehygieneinlocalvillagesisanimportantadjunctat
greatapeprojects.Fieldstaffandtouristsoftenspendtimeincommunityareasbeforetheyenter
apehabitat(Guerreraet al.2003).Therefore,devotingattentiontocommunityhealthwillprovide
additionalprotectiontotheapes,whileatthesametimeprovidinganeededservicetoneighbour-
ingcommunities.
5.4.9 Communityoutreachandinvolvementingreatapetourismactivities
Inlocationswhereapesliveincloseproximitytohumancommunities,itisimportanttofindways
toinvolvelocalpeopleintourismactivities.Thiswillbeameansofgainingtheirsupport,whichis
keytothelong-termsuccessoftourism(Ancrenazet al.2007;Rajaratnamet al.2008).
Environmental Education:
Thesuccessofapetourismwillbegreatlyenhancedbywell-designedenvironmentaleducation
and awareness activities, both to promote understanding and acceptance of the conservation
programmeanditsassociatedtourism,aswellastostimulatethedevelopmentofvalue-added
communityincomegenerationlinkedtotourism.Thedesignofeducationprogrammeswillnotbe
detailedhere,asthereisawealthofreferencematerialavailable.Sufficeittosaythateducation
shouldnotstopwithsimplyrelayingfacts,butgofurther,toexplorethecomplexitiesofconser-
vationandtoexplainthevalueofwildlifeandtheirhabitats.Awarenessprogrammesshouldbe
developedbyprofessionaleducatorsinpartnershipwithcommunitymemberstoidentifyappropri-
atecampaignmessages(WallisandLonsdorf2010),andshouldthemselvesundergocost-benefit
assessmentas theymustnotcompromisegreatapeconservation throughexcessivevisitation
(SingletonandAprianto2001).
42
Revenue Sharing:
Oneexcellentmeansofstimulatingcommunitysupportforconservationisviaasystemforsharing
aproportionoftourismrevenuewiththeadjacentcommunitiesthatcarrymostoftheburdenof
livingclosetoapehabitat.Revenuesharingencouragessustainableconservationbycontributing
totheimprovementofthelivingconditionsofneighbouringcommunities.Thiscanbeachieved
through:
• Conservation impacts:toreduceillegalactivities;toensuresustainableconserva-
tion;andtoincreasecommunityresponsibilityforconservation
• Livelihoods impacts: to improve livelihoods by supporting projects that contrib-
utetopovertyalleviation;tocompensateforlossofaccesstoapehabitatand/or
cropdamage;toprovidealternativestoresourcesinapehabitat;andtoencourage
community-basedtourism
• Relationship impacts (between tourism project and local population): to build
trust;to increaseownership;toreduceconflicts;to increaseparticipation;andto
empowercommunities
Thepositiveeffectsofrevenuesharingcanbeincreasedbyensuringthefollowing:
• Programmeidentity—fundsmustbeseentobe linkedtocontinuedconservation
ofapehabitat.
• Partnershipswithlocalgovernment—thekeyplayerinlocaldevelopmentandpov-
ertyalleviation.
• Communityparticipationinthedesign,implementationandmonitoringofrevenue
sharing.
• Revenues shared complement and supplement, rather than substitute for, other
funding.
• Transparencyandaccountability.
Adheringtotheseguidingprincipleswill leadtospecificprogrammecomponents, includingthe
amountstobeshared (typicallyapercentageofgrossrevenue)andthebeneficiary targetarea
(typicallythecommunitiesthathaveanimpactonapehabitatand/orareasinwhichcrop-raiding
orotherhuman-wildlifeconflictsoccur).Aboveall,revenue-sharingprogrammesshouldprovide
benefitstogroups(entirecommunitiesifpossible)ratherthanindividuals,andshouldtargetsec-
torsrepresentingthe‘poorestofthepoor’andotherdisadvantagedgroups,astheyarepriorities
forpovertyalleviation,aswellasbeingthemostlikelytoexploitnaturalresourcesinapehabitat,
whetherlegallyorillegally.
Supporting Community-Owned and Operated Tourist Services and Products:
Thefeasibilityofsupportinglocally-ownedcompaniesorassociationsthatwillbecomeinvolved
with,or takechargeof,greatape tourismorassociatedservicesmustbeassessedandgiven
priority.Indeed,iflocalcommunitiesbearthecostsoflivingclosetoprotectedareasandwildlife,
itseems logical togive themasenseofownershipwheneconomic incentivescanensuefrom
greatapetourism.Communityinvolvementmightbeintheprovisionofguidingservices,transport,
accommodationandfood,orthesaleoflocalproductstotourists.Examplesofsuccessfulcom-
munity-ownedenterprisesincludeRed Ape Encounters,acompanywhichoffersorangutanview-
ingintheKinabatangan(Rajaratnamet al.2008),andtheNkuringoConservationandDevelopment
Foundation,whichco-ownsanareaofmountaingorillahabitatattheBINPboundaryinUganda
onwhichacommunity-owned luxurytourist lodge isco-managedwithaprivate-sectorpartner.
Lessonslearnedunderscorethatcaremustbetakentofostergoodrelationswithprivatesector
operatorstoavoidtheperceptionofamonopolybeneficiary.Whileaprotectedareaauthoritymay
alreadyviewthecommunityasapriority,itmustalsopromoteawarenessofthisprincipleamong
theprivatesector,whichmightotherwiseexercisepoliticalorfinancialcloutthatcouldjeopardise
thecommunity’sbenefits(Kazooba2008;Tentena2010).
43
Other Community Conservation and Benefit-Sharing Programmes:
Anumberofothercommunityprogrammescanbemutuallybeneficialtogreatapetourism.As
conservationandpovertyalleviationcanbecomplementarygoals,acomprehensiveprogramme
thatinvolvesandbenefitsadjacentcommunitieswillhaveagreaterchanceofsuccess.Thismay
includetargetedlocalrecruitment,participationinbusinessenterpriseslinkedtotourism,agricul-
turalextension,micro-creditschemes,andcontrolledaccesstoforestresources(if localregula-
tionsallow).
A Conservation Basis for All Community-Development Programmes:
Aswithallcommunity-developmentprogrammeslinkedtoconservation,managersshouldaimto
maximisebenefitstoneighbouringcommunitieswithoutencouraging immigration,whichwould
exacerbatedevelopmentissuesandhavenegativeconsequencesforconservation.
Management Systems:
5.4.10 Tourismbookingsystems
Greatapetourismbookingsystemsshouldadheretothefollowingprinciplestomaximisebenefits
toconservationandtostakeholders:
• Robust and foolproof:Asbestpracticeingreatapetourismrequiresstrictapplica-
tionofrulesandregulations,bookingsystemsmustberobustenoughtoprevent
over-booking,whichcouldleadtoconflictatdeparturepointsandpressureonstaff
tobreaktherules.Systemsforbookingsheldwithaninitialdeposituntiladeadline
forfullpayment,orlossofdepositifnotconfirmed,shouldbeclearlyspelledoutso
thatallvisitors,whetherbookingdirectlyorthroughatourismagency,canaccessa
fairandequitablesystemforobtainingpermits.
• Internet-based bookings: Internet-based systems will foster improved bookings
and occupancy rates as long as they are professionally designed and managed,
andallowtouristsasafeandsecuremethodtoreserveandpayforpermits.Small
projects,orthosejustenteringthemarket,maynothavethecapacitytomaintainan
electronicbookingsystem,butastheiroperationsgrowtherewillbeadvantagesto
movingawayfromtraditionalmeans(post,telephone,radio)towardsanelectronic
systemthatpreventsover-booking.
• Tourist diversity:Bookingsystemsshouldbedevelopedtoaccommodatethespec-
trumoftourists,fromhigh-endclientsbookingthroughtouroperatorswhohandle
permits,accommodation,transportandguiding,tolow-budgettouristsorganising
theirownlogistics.Low-budgettourismtendstobenefitlocalenterprisesandtobe
morereliableduringtimesofinsecurityorothermarketdepressors,whereashigh-
endtourismexpendituresareoftenhigher,butaccrueatnational/internationallevels
ratherthanlocally.Inaddition,localcitizensshouldbeencouragedtoexperience
theirownheritagethroughafavourablepricingstructure.
• Local and national tourism providers: Whilethereareoftenexpectationsthatgreat
apetourismwillmakeeveryonerich,theseareunlikelytobefulfilled.Tourismbusi-
nesseswithstrong regionalor international linkageshaveanunfairadvantage in
thetourismmarket.Thereforebookingsystemsshouldallowsmalleroperatorsto
acquireashareofpermits if theywish to tap into themarket for linkedservices,
suchasaccommodation,transportandtransfers.
• Informative:Communicationswiththosewishingtobookapetourismpermitsmust
clearlyexplaintherationalebehindrulesandregulations,especiallythosethatrestrict
bookingssuchaslimitsonvisitornumbersandtheminimumvisitorageof15years.
• Seasonality: Programmedesignshouldincludeevaluationofseasonalmarketingor
low-seasonrates(e.g.,NishidaandMwinuka2005)toalleviatepressureduringhigh
seasonsthatmightleadtoviolationoftourismrules.However,itisalsoimportant
toconsiderthatlowseasonscanallowforrestorreduced-exposureofhabituated
apestothestressorsandrisksoftourism.
44
• Stand-by systems:Atsiteswithmultiplegroupsofapesavailablefortourism,book-
ingsystemsthatallowpermitsforonegrouptobeheldbackas‘stand-by’only(not
bookedinadvance)canresolvetheproblemofagroupbeingunavailableonapar-
ticularday(havingrangedtoofaroraveterinaryinterventionrequired),oraccidental
overbooking.
5.4.11 Pricingstructures
Appropriate pricing is vital to maximising revenue and should follow the guiding principle that
conservationistheprimarygoalofgreatapetourism.Whenestablishingapricingstructure,itis
importanttoconsiderthefollowing:
• Unique experience: Feeschargedforgreatapetourismmustreflecttheexclusive
natureofapeviewingandshouldnotbeunder-valued.Marketsurveysshowthat
peoplearewillingtopaylargefeesforthisprivilege(e.g.,$500totrackmountain
gorillas,BushandFawcett2008).
• Conservation impact:Theoveralltourismcost-benefitratioisgreatestwhensmall
numbers of tourists pay high prices. Low prices could lead to excessive visitor
demandthatwouldultimatelyjeopardiseconservationobjectives.
• Type of tourism:Feesshouldalsoreflectthenatureoftourismonoffer(trackingwith
essentiallyguaranteedviewingatcloseproximityvs.observationatabaivs.forest
walkwithachancetoseeapesvs.riverexcursion).Inaddition,sitesorcountries
trying to recover from a tourism slump could consider a temporary reduction in
charges.
• Tiered pricing structures:Pricingshouldprovideincentivestolocalvisitors,aswell
as citizens and residents of range states. These visitors will improve occupancy
rates,especiallyinlowseasonsortourismmarketslumps,andwillenhancelocal
andnationalawarenessofapeconservationissues.
• Pricing structures guided by occupancy rates:Asanape tourismsitegrows in
popularity,itmaybecomefullybookedatcertaintimesofyear.Thiscouldresultin
pressurefromtourists,touroperators,andevenconservationauthoritiesandgov-
ernmentministries,toincreasevisitornumbers,eitherbyallowingmoretouristsper
grouporperday,orthroughadditionalhabituationefforts.However,thefirstcourse
ofactionshouldbetoraisethepermitpricesothatadditionalconservationfunding
issourcedwithoutincreasingtheriskscausedbyexpandingtourism.
• Market studies and visitor surveys:Itisimportanttopriceactivitiesappropriately,
particularlyatnewsites,anddecisionsshouldbeinformedbymarketsurveystar-
getingsectorsofthetouristmarketthatasitehopestoattract.Asoperationsgrow,
visitorsurveysandadditionalevaluationsshouldguidepricingreviews.
5.4.12 Marketingefforts
Onceatourismsitehasbeenestablishedandhabituation(ifappropriate)isunderway,theprocess
ofmarketingshouldbegin.
• Identify key players in the tourism market: Market surveys will help to identify
stakeholdersandmeansofattractingappropriatesectorsofthetourismmarket.
• Prepare and distribute marketing materials stressing conservation principles:
Materialsdesignedtoattracttouroperatorsandtouriststoasiteandtoinformthem
ofwhattoexpectmustemphasisethatconservationistheprioritygoaloftourism.
Thiswillsensitisetouristsbydemonstratingthatactivitieswillbemanagedtomini-
miseriskstotheapes,andwillbetterpreparetouroperatorstoinformtheirclients
oftherulesandregulationsintendedtoprotecttheapesfromtourismimpacts.
• Marketing must moderate tourist expectations: Manypeopleconsidergreatape
tourism to be a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. Marketing must generate realistic
expectationssothattouristsunderstandandappreciatethetypicaltouristexperi-
enceinagivensite.Thepressuretoguaranteeobservationsofwildapesshouldbe
45
resisted,asitraisesexpectationssignificantly,anditisimpossibletoguaranteea
100%chanceofobservingwildanimals,eveniftheyarehabituated.Itispreferable
tomarkettrackingratherthanviewing,stipulatingthatstaffwill followtracksand
attempt to locate theapes,butcannotguarantee theywillbevisible.Alternative
activitiesshouldbeinplaceandofferedtovisitorsiftheapesarenotlocated(e.g.,
ifagrouphasmovedtoofaraway).
• Marketing must manage tour operator and other partner expectations: Greatape
tourismisviewedbymanyprivatesectorpartnersasanopportunitytoselllucrative
tourismpackages.Marketingeffortsmustaddressthetendenciesoftouroperators
toregardapetourismasa‘product’ratherthanaconservationopportunity,asthe
formerattitudemayleadtodisregardofregulations,abuseofvisitingprivilegesand
pressuretoexpandoperations.
• Marketing should promote broad tourism circuits:Greatapetourismoftenoper-
ateswithinconstraintsofuncertainsightings (orpoorqualityviewing), in remote
locationswithbasicvisitorfacilities,allofwhichmayreducetouristinterest,occu-
pancyandsatisfaction.Whilestrivingtoimprovevisitorfacilities(alongbestpractice
guidelines),itisimportanttobuildapetourismintocircuitsthathighlightaregion’s
wildlifeandnaturalhabitats,aswellasspecialistinterests,suchasbird-watchingor
culturaltours,toencouragelongerstaysintheregionorcountry.
5.4.13 Staffingissues
Tourismmanagementrequiresprofessional,competentandefficientstaff,whoarewellpaid,well
trainedandwellequipped.Thefollowingareissuestoincorporateintorecruitmentplansforgreat
apetourism.
• Local recruitment: To maximise benefits to communities adjacent to great ape
habitat, it is important toprovide local employmentopportunities.Knowledgeof
theforestenvironmentisusuallyadvancedinlocalpeoplewhousetheforestand
itsresources.Manyhaveskillsthatareessential fortrackinggreatapes,andare
familiarwithlocalcommunitycultureandtraditions,whichcanenhancethevisitors’
experience.Formaltraining(seenextpage)todevelopskillsthatlocalstaffdonot
havewillrequirefundingandtimecommitments.
• Importing skilled staff as trainers:Onlywhenparticularskillscannotbesourcedor
developedlocallyshouldstaffberecruitedfurtherafield.Thismightbethecasefor
functionssuchashospitality,managementandaccounting,orpositionsrequiring
anabilityinaparticularforeignlanguage.Skilledstaffshouldthenprovidetraining
tolocalrecruits.
• Staff affiliation:Ideallyallstaffguidingtouristswillbehireddirectlybyaprotected
area management authority, or officially recognised by that authority. If staff are
employees,theirstrictadherencetoregulationswillbeeasiertoenforce.
• Remuneration: Ape tourism has the potential to attract high fees, and must be
adequately controlled to protect the apes from the negative impacts of strong
monetary incentives. This will require loyalty to the conservation goals of a tour-
ismprogramme,andstaffmustnotbetemptedtodeviatefromestablishedrules
forpersonalgain.Oneofthebestwaystoavoidcorruptionistopaysatisfactory
salaries.Inmanycountries,thelegally-mandatedminimumwageisnotenoughto
guaranteeanappropriatestandardofliving;thustourismprojectsshouldassessthe
costoflivingandprovidea‘livingwage’sufficienttomaintainastaffmemberwith
anaverage-sizedfamily.(SeealsotippingpoliciesinSection5.5.16).
• Equipment and uniforms:Fieldstaffmustbeprovidedwithappropriatefieldand
communicationsequipmentandattiredinprofessionaluniformsthatclearlyidentify
themastourismstaff.Diseasetransmissionshouldbeminimisedbyassigningspe-
cificstaffmemberstoparticulargroups,withanadequatesupplyofcleanuniforms
andappropriatebootwashingfacilities(Whittier2009).
46
5.4.14 Stafftraining
Forgreatapetourismtobeeffectivelymanagedwithconservationasitsmainpurpose,itmustbe
runbyskilledandknowledgeablestaffwhounderstandtherisksinvolved,thatconservationisthe
primaryobjective,andwhohavetheauthoritytoenforceregulationsinthefaceofpressuresfrom
bothtouristsandtouroperators.Thefollowingissuesmustbetakenintoaccountwhendesigning
andfinancingstafftrainingprogrammes:
• Great ape behaviour and forest ecology:Staffshouldbeknowledgeableaboutthe
ecosysteminwhichtheywillguidevisitors.Manytouristsarekeentolearnwhile
hikingandtracking,andstaffshouldbecapableofansweringquestionsaboutgreat
ape biology and behaviour, and the ecology of their habitat. Tourism staff could
improvetheirknowledgebyparticipatinginresearchactivities.
• Language skills:Staffmustbeabletoexplaintherationalebehindregulations,to
controltouristsandtocommunicateeffectivelyduringanemergency.Theytherefore
needtobecompetentinspeakingthemostcommonlanguageofasite’stourists.
• Empowerment: Aswellasenforcingprotectedarearegulationsandnationallaws,
staffmusthavetheabilitytocontroltouristswithoutconcernforanyperceiveddif-
ferentialinsocialstatus,andtheymustnotgiveprioritytotouristsatisfactionover
apeprotection.Stafftrainingshouldincludetechniquesfordealingwith‘problem’
touristswhoresist theirauthorityandwhomayaggressivelypushforrulestobe
broken.
• First aid: Trainingandequipmentshouldpreparestafftorespondappropriatelyin
casesofaccidentorinjury,totreatandtransporttouriststosafety.
5.4.15 Emergencycontingencyplans
Alltourismsitesmustdevelopplanstorespondtoemergenciesthatmayaffecttheviabilityoftheir
programmes:
• Funding contingency plans: While successful tourism will be a good source of
funding,itmaynotbereliable,giventheficklenatureoftheindustryandthattrends
aredifficulttopredict.Slumpsinvisitationwillresultinlowerrevenuesforconserva-
tionandlawenforcement,buttheseactivitiesmust continueevenintheabsenceof
tourism.Financialcontingencyplanscanincludeemergencysupportfromdonors,
endowment funds or revenue set-asides to cover core conservation operations
duringlow-tourismperiods.
Tourism staff training, Budongo
Forest Reserve, Uganda. Photo
© Debby Cox.
47
• Disease outbreak contingency planning: Great apes are vulnerable to disease
transmittedby tourists,fieldstaff, localcommunities, livestockandotherwildlife.
Thereforeveterinarysupportprogrammesshouldworkwithsiteauthoritiestoputin
placediseasesurveillanceandresponseplanssothatquickactioncanbetakento
preventspreadoroutbreaks.11
• Human–great ape conflict response plans: Tourismcanexacerbateconflictswith
localpeopleif,forexample,habituationincreasestheincidenceofcrop-raidingand
incomeisnotseentobefairlydistributed.Planstoavoidormitigatesuchconflicts
mustbeinplace(seeHockingsandHumle2009).
• Security or natural disaster planning:Anyareathat ispronetonaturaldisasters,
cross-border conflict, civil war, crime or terrorist attacks should not selected for
tourismdevelopment; however, unforeseenevents canaffect any site. Thus it is
importantthatevacuationplansandsecurityprotocolsareinplacetoprotecttour-
ists,staffandgreatapesduringanysuchevent.
5.5 Implementation phase—regulations
Greatapetourismsitesshoulddevelopdetailedregulations incorporating lessons learnedfrom
othersites,andshouldmonitor,reinforceandimprovetheseregulationsthroughoutthelifespan
oftheirprogramme.Site-specificregulationscanbedevelopedinconsultationwithmedical,vet-
erinary, travel and ecotourism practitioners (Muehlenbein and Ancrenaz 2009). However, good
plansaremeaninglesswithouteffectiveenforcement,andpoorenforcementhasbeenaperennial
problemforgreatapetourism.Therefore,itiscriticalthatconservationmanagershavetheauthor-
itytoinstitutetourismregulations,toexerciseauthorityoncetourismisunderway,andtomaintain
thatauthorityoverthelong-term.Thiswillhelptofostercompliancebybothstaffandtourists.The
generalregulationsgivenbelowarerelevanttomostgreatapetourismsites.
Regulations – Pre-Visit
5.5.1 Disseminationofregulationsviatouroperatorsandbookingagents
Prior to theirarrivalatagreatape tourismsite,visitorsshouldbepresentedwith the rationale
behind measures intended to minimise disease risks and other negative impacts of tourism.
Printedregulationsshouldbesenttotouroperators,marketingorbookingagentsand,ifpossible,
postedonawebsite.
5.5.2 Immunisation
Manygreatapesitesrequirethattouristspresentproofofvaccination,oracurrentnegativetest,
foranumberofdiseases.Vaccinationrequirementsmayincludepolio,tetanus,measles12,mumps,
rubella,hepatitisAandB,yellowfever,meningococcalmeningitis, typhoidandtuberculosis (or
proofofnegativeskintestwithinthelastsixmonths).Thisregulationhasanumberofadvantages:
besidespreventingthespreadof theseparticulardiseases, it reinforcesthevisitor’sperception
thattourismposesarisktotheapes.Thisshouldstimulateanyresponsibletourist’swillingnessto
adheretoguidelinesfortheirvisit.Relyingonproofofvaccinationoranegativetestalonewillnot
controlallinfectionsofconcern,suchasthecommoncoldandinfluenza,forwhichthereiseither
novaccineoravaccineforcertainstrainsonly.
Therecanbeproblemswithvaccinations:Vaccinatedtouristsmaydevelopafalsesenseofsecu-
rityandfeelthattheycanviolateotherregulationsbecausetheyareimmunised.Inaddition,lead-
times for vaccination mean that vaccination requirements may not be easy to administer (e.g.,
vaccinatingonlyonedaybeforeavisitisgenerallynotprotective,andamodifiedlivevaccinemay
11 Disease contingency plans are available for mountain gorillas (UWA and IGCP 2000; MGVP 2004). Inaddition,simpleproceduressuchaspreventingstafffromvisitingmultiplegroupswillpreventdiseasespread(Whittier2009).12 Laboratorytestsshowthatimmunitytomeaslescansubstituteforproofofvaccination(BudongoForestProject2006).
48
infectothercontacts,apesincluded).Toavoiddisappointment,vaccinationandhealthregulations
shouldbeprovidedatthetimeofbookingsothattouristsareabletoorganiseanyimmunisations
ortestsrequiredandobtainthenecessarydocumentation.SeeLeendertzet al.(inpress)formore
information.
Regulations – On Arrival
5.5.3 Presentationoftourismimpactsandsafetyissues
Appropriateinformationonthevariousimpactsoftourismongreatapesshouldbegiventotourists
onarrival.Presentationshouldbethoroughandconsistofbothactivediscussionoftheregulations
that minimise risks and passive information transfer (such as written materials in accommoda-
tion facilities, displays and signage in check-in areas). This can be reinforced with demonstra-
tionsoftherequiredsafedistanceandrole-playwithguidesshowinghowtheywouldmanagean
approachingapetopreparetouristsonhowtheyshouldrespond.Ifactedout,touristswillbemore
likelytorememberwhattheyhavebeentold.Safetyprecautionsshouldalsobeexplainedatthis
timeand,ifrequired,visitorliabilitywaiverssigned.
5.5.4 Guidedhealthevaluationpriortodeparture
Duringfinalcheck-inforatouristvisit,staffshouldinspectvaccinationcertificatesratherthanrely
onself-reporting(Muehlenbeinet al.2008).Touristsshouldthenbeguidedthroughaself-evalu-
ationdesignedtohighlightwhethertheymightbeinfectiousorotherwiseunabletoparticipatein
thevisit.Thisshouldincludeachecklistofsymptomssuchassneezing,coughing,feverordiar-
rhoeawithintheprevious48hours,andexposuretoanysignificantrisks(e.g.,disease,batcaves).
N.B.Self-evaluationisnotenoughtoensurecompliancebecausesometouristswilltrytoconceal
symptoms;however,theprocesswillidentifythosewillingtodeclineavisitonhealthgrounds,and
facilitatetheprocessofrefundingtouristswhoself-reportillness.
5.5.5 Professionalhealthevaluation
Ahealthprofessionalon-sitecouldperformroutinehealthchecks,suchasmeasuringbodytem-
perature,heart rateandrespiratory rate.Thiswillnotbepossibleatallsites,but large tourism
programmesshouldconsiderhavinganurseordoctoronstaff,inconjunctionwithanemployee
healthprogramme.Healthprofessionalswillalsobeabletoadviseonlocalandglobaldiseasepat-
ternsandproposeadditionalprecautionsasneeded.Guidesshouldalsobetrainedtorecognise
touristswhoareunwell,andgivenauthoritytoexcludethemfromgreatapetourismactivities.
Regulations – During Visit
Unfortunately, touristswhohave travelled longdistances (usually atgreat expense)may try to
hide illness, while others could be infectious without knowing it. Consequently everyone who
approachesgreatapesposesadiseaseriskandmustactaccordingly.Strictregulationsarealso
importanttominimisethebehaviouralimpactsoftouristvisits.Anysiteclaimingthattheyadhere
tobestpracticeingreatapetourismmustimplementthefollowing:
5.5.6 Maximumnumberoftouristspergroup
To minimise behavioural disturbance and disease risk, strict limits on the number of tourists
allowedtovisiteachdaymustbesetandadheredto.Indenseforestwherevisibilityispoor,any
suddennoiseormovementcouldcausealarmandunpredictablereactions. Inaddition,finding
agoodviewingspotforeachtouristcanbechallenging.Touristsmuststaytogetherandavoid
encirclingtheapesbeingviewed.Tofacilitatethecontrolofvisitors,minimisedangerandenhance
visitorsatisfaction,thenumberofpeopleperpartyshouldbenomorethan4touristsaccompanied
by2guides/trackers.Thisshouldachieveareasonablebalancebetweenapesandhumans,and
reducestressanditsknock-oneffects.Smallnumbersalsofavourhighpermitprices,astourists
tendtovaluebeingpartofasmallandexclusivegroupofvisitors.
Thisgeneralguidelineshouldbeimplementedbyallnewsites.However,notethatspecies-specific
recommendationsontouristnumbersarediscussedinSection5.7.Anumberofsitesoperatewith
fewerthan4tourists,includingthesitesofferingviewingofhabituatedwesternlowlandgorillasand
49
someorangutansites—thecontinuedviabilityofthesesitessuggeststhatnumberscanremain
low.Mountaingorillasitesandsomechimpanzeesitescurrentlyoperatewithmorethan4tour-
ists,andthesesitesshouldassesswhetherreducingtouristnumberstowardsthisrecommended
maximumcouldbefeasibleinfuture,andanynewapegroupsopenedfortourismshouldhavea
smallernumberoftourists.
5.5.7 Onetouristvisitperday
• Thereshouldbenomorethanonevisitperdaytoeachgroupofapes(orindividual/
party/forestareainthecaseofchimpanzeeandorangutantourism).
• Anysite thatcurrentlyoperatesmorethanonevisitperdayshouldtry toreduce
thescheduletoonevisitadaypergrouporindividual.Thiscanbedonebyclosing
second-visitbookingsover time,orbyhabituatinganewgroup (guidedbya full
impactassessment).
• Tourismaccommodationlocatedinornearapehabitatmustlimitvisitormovements
awayfromthefacilitytopreventuncontrolledapeviewing.
5.5.8 Novisitsbypeoplewhoaresick
• Peoplewhoareunwellwillnotbeallowedtovisittheapes,andthismustbemade
veryclearatthetimeofbooking.It iscriticalthattouristsareencouragedtoself-
reporttheirillnessesandbegivenincentivestorefrainfromvisitingifnecessary.This
shouldnotbeapostponedvisit(itisprobablethatthepersonwouldcontinuetobe
infectiousforafewdays),butcouldbearefundon-siteorvouchersforothertour-
ismservices(e.g.,accommodation,hiking).
• Similarly,staffmemberswhoareillmustnotparticipateinapevisits,andmustbe
givenincentivestoremainawayfromapes,suchasguaranteed‘sickdays’anda
policyofnon-discriminationiftheycannotworkbecauseofillness.
5.5.9 N95respiratormasks
• Alltouristsandstaffwhoarelikelytoapproachhabituatedapestowithin10metres
shouldwearasurgicalqualityN95respiratormaskforthedurationoftheirone-hour
visit.Respiratorsthatfilterouthigherpercentagesofaerosolisedparticlesarealso
acceptable(i.e.,N99orN100).
• Masksshouldbecarriedbytracker/guidesinappropriatewaterproofcontainersso
thattheyarenotdamagedandrenderedlesseffectiveduringtransport.Theyshould
bedistributedtotouristsjustbeforetheybeginactuallyviewingtheapes.
• Masksaredisposableandshouldnotbere-used.Theyshouldbecollectedbythe
trackers/guidesimmediatelyafterthevisitanddisposedofappropriatelyafterthe
visit,astheyposeadiseaserisktoapesandotherwildlifeifaccidentallydropped
intheforest.
• Masksmustbeburneduponreturnto tourismadministrationoraccommodation
facilities,awayfromareaswhereapesrange.
• Masks that become damp or wet are less effective at blocking pathogens and
shouldbeexchangedforanewone.
• Staffmustreceivetraininginmaskmanagement,includingproperfit-testing,wear,
useanddisposal.
• Appropriateuseofmasks(includingfitting,handlinganddisposal)shouldbedem-
onstratedinfulltotouristsatthedeparturepoint,withareviewbeforetheyreachthe
10-metredistance,sothatmasksarenotputonincorrectlyinarushtoseetheapes.
• Asurgicalmaskshouldnotgivethewearerafalsesenseofsecurity—allotherregu-
lations(concerninghygiene,distancefromtheapes,timespentwiththem)mustbe
enforcedalongsidemaskprovision.Appropriateeducationmustbegiventostaff
andtouristsalike.
50
• Touristsfeelingtheurgetosneezeorcoughwhileinproximitytotheapesshould
turntheirheadawayevenwhenwearingasurgicalmask,butshouldnotremovethe
mask,althoughstaffshouldofferareplacementmaskifnecessary.
• Maskmanagementshouldbemonitoredaspartofabroadertourismmonitoring
programme,andresultsusedtoinformandimproveprocedures.
• Tourist compliance and feedback should also be taken into consideration when
reviewingmaskmanagementprocedures.
• Procurementsystemsmustensureareliablesupplyofappropriatemasksonsite.
• IfN95 respiratormasksarenot available, surgicalqualitymulti-layermasksmay
beusedwhileN95respiratorsareprocured,assurgicalmasksprovideabarrierto
large-droplets.Theiruseshouldonlybetemporary,assurgicalmasksarenotas
effectiveasN95respirators.FurtherinformationonsurgicalmasksandN95respira-
torscanbefoundinAppendixII.
5.5.10 Childrenyoungerthan15yearsoldprohibitedfromvisiting
• Childrenbelow15yearsoldmustnotbeallowedtovisitgreatapes.Whileparents
mayargueagainstthisregulationonthebasisthattheirchildiscapableofthehike
ormatureenoughtocontroltheirfear,thissafeguardisprimarilyforhealthreasons.
Youngpeoplearemorelikelytobeinfectedwithcommonchildhooddiseases,even
whenproperlyvaccinated,andthereforeposeamuchgreaterhealthrisktohabitu-
atedapes.
5.5.11 Non-essentialpersonneltoremainatadistancefromapes
• Non-essentialpersonnelsuchasmilitaryescortsorportersmuststayasfaraway
asfeasible,outofsightand earshotduringthetouristvisit.
• Non-essential personnel should remain in contact with guides via walkie-talkie
radios,sothattheycanbeinstructedtomoveiftheapesheadintheirdirection.
5.5.12 Preventcontaminationofthehabitatwithfoodwaste
• Eatingisnotallowedduringavisit.Foodanddrinkmustnotbevisiblewhileobserv-
inggreatapes,butshouldbeleftwithportersorotherpersonnelwhoremainoutof
sensoryrangeoftheapes.
• Foodmustnotbeconsumedwithin500metresofapes.Thiswillminimisetheacci-
dentalcontaminatedwasteandpreventtheapesfromdevelopinganassociation
betweenhumansandfood.
• Foodwasteandallotherrubbishmustbestowedinbackpacksandcarriedoutof
theforesttopreventdepositionofinfectiouswasteinthehabitat.
• Foodmustneverbeusedtoattractapestowardstourists.
5.5.13 Minimumdistancetohabituatedgreatapes
• For visitors wearing N95 surgical masks, the minimum distance permitted is
7metres(22feet)
• ForvisitorsnotwearingN95masks,theminimumdistancepermittedis10metres
(33feet)
5.5.14 One-hourtimelimit
• Touristsmustspendnomorethanonehournearhabituatedapes.
• Thislimitcombinedwithrestrictionofonevisitperdaymeansthatnoapeshouldbe
visitedbytouristsformorethanonehouronanyday.
• Ifapesarenoteasilyvisiblewhenfirstapproached,staffshouldescorttouristsaway
toadistanceof200metrestoawaitatimewhentheapesarerestingorhavemoved
intomoreopenvegetation,andthenbeginthepermittedhour.
51
5.5.15 Hand-washingandhygiene
• Basin facilities and soap should be provided at departure points, and tourists
encouragedtowashtheirhandsbeforedeparture.
• Latrinesmustbeprovidedatdeparturepoints,andtouristsencouragedtousethem
before departure. Latrines should be constructed at appropriate distances from
watercourses(atleast30metres).
• If touristsorstaffhave tourinateordefecatewhile in the forest, faecesmustbe
buriedina30-centimetrehole.Thisshouldbeatleast500metresfromapes’loca-
tionandawayfromwatercourses.
• Guidesshouldcarryhanddisinfectantspray(suchaschlorhexidine),gel,orwipes
forallvisitorsandstafftousebeforeapproachingapes.
• Smokingisprohibitedinapehabitatduetotheriskoffire,andofdiseasetransmis-
sionviacontaminatedcigarettebutts.Thesmellofsmokewillalsoscarewildlife.
• Spittingandnoseblowing/clearingonthegroundareforbidden—staffandtourists
shouldusehandkerchiefs asneeded, and theseactivities shouldnot takeplace
neartheapes.
• Thesamebootsandclothingshouldnotbeworntovisitadifferentgroupunlessit
hasbeenwashedanddriedbetweenvisits.
5.5.16 Tippingpoliciesandstaffsalaries
• Touristsmustbeinformedthattipscannotbeusedtoencouragestafftobreakregu-
lations,andstaffmustnotviewtipsasjustificationtoignoreregulations;thiswould
alsoreducetheprofessionalismoftheoperation.
• Touristsdislikehavingrulespresentedtothemandthenseeingthembroken––this
reducesrespectforbothstaffandregulations.Thismessagemustbecommunicated
tostaffthrougheducation,trainingandmonitoring,toenhancetheircompliance.
• Tippingpoliciesshouldbeclearlydisplayedsothattouristsareawareoftheissues
beforestartingtheiractivity.
• Tourismstaffshouldbepaidsatisfactorysalaries(atleasta‘livingwage’andprefer-
ablyhigher)tominimisetemptationstoviolateregulationsforhighertips.
• Regularmonitoringandstaffsupervisionshouldbeusedtoreinforcetippingissues.
Scaled-model of the mini-
mum 7-metre distance allowed
between tourists and mountain
gorillas, Volcanoes National
Park, Rwanda. Photo © Maryke
Gray.
52
• Alltourismstaff,fromcheck-inclerkstotrackersandguides,shouldbenefitfrom
tipsviaasharedtipboxwithtipsdistributedequallyamongallstaffeachday.
• Policiesspecifyingthatpooledtipswillbedividedamongalltourismstaffwillhelp
preventirregularitiesandshouldbepostedwheretheyarevisibletovisitors.
• Touristsappreciateguidanceontipping,andappropriateamountscanbesuggested.
• Ano-tippingpolicyshouldbeconsiderediftipsarejudgedtobeaprimefactorin
staffrelaxingregulations.
5.5.17 Monitoringandenforcementofrules
• Itisimperativethatallstaffunderstandtherules,canexplaintheirrationaletovisi-
torsandenforcethem.
• Tourismstaff shouldbe regularlymonitoredandevaluatedon theirconduct,and
resultsshouldbediscussedopenlybetweenevaluatorsandstaff.
• Apost-visitchecklistprovidedtotouristsandstaffcouldhelptoreinforcestaffcom-
pliance,andspecificcaseswherestaffhadproblemsenforcingrulescouldbeused
instafftrainingexercises.
• Regularrefreshercourseswillreinforcestaffunderstandingandadherencetotour-
ismregulations,andshouldincludetrainingonenforcementtechniques.
Regulations – Site Management
5.5.18 Infrastructuredesignedtominimiseimpactonapesandhabitat
• EIAsshouldbecarriedout forall tourism-related infrastructuredevelopments, in
keepingwithnationalenvironmentallegislation.
• Tourism infrastructure, such as lodges, campsites and visitor centres, should be
constructedinareaswhereimpactsonapesandtheirhabitatsareminimal.
• Ifpossible,tourisminfrastructureshouldbelocatedoutsideorontheedgeofape
habitat,andanydisruptiontonativevegetation,especiallyforest,shouldbekept
toaminimum.
• Tourisminfrastructureshouldnotbebuiltinareasfrequentedbyapes,duetorisks
ofencounteringpeople,foodpreparationareas,wastedisposal,orsanitationfacili-
ties,andriskofinjuryfromelectricalcablesorotherhazards.
A viewing platform, Mbeli Bai,
Republic of Congo. Photo ©
Fiona Maisels.
53
• Tourism infrastructuremust not introduceadditional disease risks to apepopula-
tions.Attentiontoappropriatesanitation,hygieneandwastedisposaliscriticalin
thisregard.
• Tourisminfrastructureshouldnotincludeinstallationsthatcouldattractapes,such
astheplantingofcropsorfruittrees.
• Ifinfrastructureonanyscaleisnecessaryinapehabitat,attentionshouldbepaid
toreducingtheimpactoftreefellingontheapes’feedingandrangingrequirements
(seeMorganandSanz2007).
5.5.19 Staffhousingandadministrativeinfrastructure
• Staffandadministrativebuildingsshouldbesited tomaximise theoversightand
control of tourism programmes. Managers and law enforcement teams should
bepostedon-siteso thatmonitoringandprotectionactivitiescanbecarriedout
routinely.
• Staff and administration buildings must be located and designed to minimise
impactsonapesandtheirhabitatfromnoiseandotherhazards(e.g.,fuel,power
lines,toxins).
5.5.20 Tourismaccommodationshouldbenefitlocalcommunities
• Accommodationinlodgesorcampsitesshouldbemanagedtomaximisecommu-
nitybenefitsthroughcommunity-ownership,employmentopportunities,orrevenue-
sharingschemesthatprovideincometomembersofthecommunityorfundingfor
socialservices.
• Touristaccommodationthatbenefitslocalcommunitiesshouldbeprotectedfrom
external competition.This canbeachieved throughzoningso thatonly a viable
numberoffacilitiesareallowedtooperateatthepreferredlocations.
5.6 Monitoring and evaluation phase
5.6.1 Appliedresearch
Tourism programmes should be supported by independent impact-assessments to inform and
improvetourismpolicyandmanagementsystems.Formalmechanismsofreviewandincorpora-
tionof research results intomanagementandpolicywill ensure that conservation impactsare
optimised.Researchprogrammesshouldinclude:
• Disease monitoring: Disease is the most serious risk associated with great ape
tourism.Healthmonitoringrecordswillshowpatternsofdisease,andallowman-
agementtodesignpreventionmeasures(e.g.,quarantine,touristvaccinationregu-
lations,communityhealthprojects)andtorespondtodiseaseoutbreaks.Routine
observationsby trainedpersonnel andnon-invasive screening shouldbe supple-
mentedbyopportunisticsamplingofimmobilisedanimals(seeLeendertzet al.in
press).
• Behavioural monitoring: Tourism can also have serious negative impacts on
the behaviour, physiology and social dynamics of habituated apes. Independent
researchwillhighlightpotentialor incipientproblemsbefore theybecomesevere
andwillallowadaptivemanagement(seeFawcett2004;Muyambi2004;Hodgkinson
andCipolletta2009).
• Ecological monitoring:Heavy tourist trafficmaycause soil compaction, erosion,
tramplinganddamagetovegetation.Controlstominimisedegradationofthehabi-
tatshouldincludeprohibitionofthecuttingorremovalofseedlingsandvegetation,
walkingofftrails,andfire.
• Population monitoring: Population monitoring is an essential adjunct to tourism
management. Tourism should stimulate the development of research projects to
meettourism-impactmonitoringandappliedresearchrequirements.
54
• Law–enforcement monitoring: Thedevelopmentandoperationoftourismmustnot
divertattentionandresourcesawayfromthecentralgoalofprotectinggreatapes
andtheirhabitat.Itis,therefore,importanttomonitortrendsinillegalactivities,and
assesstheperformanceandresultsoflaw-enforcementactivities.Law-enforcement
monitoringwillhighlightareas for improvementor theneed for increasedsurveil-
lance,andcaninformmanagementwhenapesarerangingintoareasofillegalactiv-
ity,sothatpreventionandresponsetothoseactivitiescanbeenhanced.
• Conflict monitoring:Human-greatapeconflictscanbealleviatedthroughtheprovi-
sionoftourismbenefitstolocalcommunities,orexacerbatedbytourismalteringthe
apes’rangingbehaviourandbringingthemintoconflictsituationsmorefrequently.
Itisimportantthatconflictsaresystematicallymonitoredandthesuccessofmitiga-
tioneffortsmeasured.
• Economic assessments:Themotivationforinitiatinggreatapetourismisoftenthe
economicbenefitsanticipatedbyvariousinstitutional,localandnationalstakehold-
ers,inboththepublicandprivatesectors.However,ashasbeenstatedthroughout
thisdocument,conservationmustbetheultimategoalofgreatapetourism,and
shouldbegivenpriorityoverother interests.Therefore, it is important tomonitor
theeconomic impactsof great ape tourism tobetter justify its existenceand to
inform management decisions, such as pricing structures and booking systems.
Methodology can be adapted from previous studies (e.g., Wilkie and Carpenter
1999;HatfieldandMalleret-King2006;BushandFawcett2008;WCSGabon2008).
5.6.2 Staffmonitoring
Staffworkingingreatapetourismmustbefullysupportedintheirroleastheprimedefendersof
greatapesagainstthenegativeimpactsoftourism.Theyneedtobe,andfeel,abletodiscussand
enforcetourismrulesandregulations.Theirrolesmustbeevaluatedregularlytoassesseffective-
nessandmodifymanagement,asneeded.Thiscanbeachievedbyregularsupervision,including
evaluationinthefield,evaluationduringtourismimpactresearch,andfeedbackfromtourists.
5.6.3 Programmemonitoringandevaluation
• Financial monitoring and transparency:Asatooltoprovidefundingforconserva-
tion,itiscrucialthatsystemsareinplacetomonitorrevenuegeneration.Financial
controllers must be able to demonstrate that income is supporting protected
area management and operations, community projects and revenue-sharing pro-
grammes.Transparencywillgoalongwaytoreassuringcriticsofgreatapetourism
thatthisisanappropriateconservationmeasure.
• Programme reporting:Progressreportsandtheresultsoftourismimpactmonitor-
ingandappliedresearchshouldbeproducedatregularintervals(preferablyquar-
terly,butat leastannually) tostimulate internalreviewandtimely identificationof
issuestobeaddressed.
• Programme evaluation: Regular medium-term (every two years) internal assess-
ments of the performance, management and impacts of great ape tourism pro-
grammes must be carried out to accurately monitor progress and to allow for
programmereviewandimprovement.Theresultsofmanagement-relatedresearch
(Section5.6.1)shouldbeusedtoguideimprovementandadaptationintourismpro-
grammemanagement. In the longer-term,externalevaluationsshould takeplace
every 5 years to ensure appropriate implementation and to foster learning and
exchangewithothergreatapetourismsites.
55
GUIDELINES FOR SPECIFIC SITUATIONS OR SPECIES
5.7 Species-specific guidelines
InadditiontothegeneralguidelinesinSection5.5,thefollowingarespecifictoeachtaxonand
tailoredtotheirsocio-ecology,habitat,and/orthetypeoftourismoperatingwheretheyoccur.
5.7.1 EasternGorillas
Lessonslearnedfromover30yearsofexperiencewitheasterngorillatourismformthefounda-
tionofthegeneralguidelinesaboveandfewvariationsareproposedforthisspecies.Mountain
gorillasocio-ecologymakesthemparticularlyamenabletotourism,whichisfurtherfacilitatedby
featuresoftheirhighaltitudehabitat(e.g.,WilliamsonandFawcett2008).Thesecharacteristics
makeitpossibleforslightlylargertouristgroupstovisitinsafety.Mountaingorillatourismbegan
withgroupsof6tourists;however,atsomesitestouristgroupsizewasincreasedagainstexpert
advice.Wemaintainthatthesmallernumberofvisitorsisbetterforbothgorillasandtourists,and
recommendthattouristgroupsizebereducedfrom8to6,andthatanynewgroupsopenedfor
tourismshouldreceivenomorethan6tourists.The‘goldstandard’recommendationsforeastern
gorillatourism(MGVP2009)arepresentedinAppendixI–A.
5.7.2 WesternGorillas
Thehighprofileandrevenuesgeneratedbymountaingorillatourismhaveinspiredambitionsto
replicate this successelsewhere.However, thewesterngorillas’ socio-ecology,habitat, history
andthethreatstheyfacediffersignificantlyfromeasterngorillas,andanumberoffactorswarrant
specialmention.Thetwositescurrentlyofferingviewingofhabituatedwestern lowlandgorillas,
MondikaandBaiHokou,havelimitedvisitorgroupsizeto2and3touristsrespectively(seealso
AppendixI–B).
• Tailored marketing:Westerngorilla tourismwill notmeetexpectations thathave
beenraisedbythemountaingorillaexperience,somarketingmustemphasisethe
differencesandkeepvisitorexpectationstoarealisticlevel.It isadvisabletopro-
motewesterngorilla‘tracking’ratherthan‘viewing’,asencounteringadispersed
groupofgorillasobscuredbythickgroundvegetationorhighintreesmightdisap-
pointthoseexpectingclearobservationsandphotoopportunities.
• Tracking expertise: Trackingwesterngorillas,whichhave longday ranges, large
home ranges and leave little trail, requires a level of expertise that often exists
only among historically hunter-gatherer groups. Where possible, trackers should
Western lowland gorillas, Mbeli
Bai, Republic of Congo. Photo ©
Vicki Fishlock.
56
besourcedfromtheseethnicgroups,tomaximisethesuccessofhabituationand
tourismprogrammes.
• Gorilla population density:Anunusuallyhighgorilladensitymayimpedehabituation
effortsastrackerscouldfollowmorethanonegroupbymistakewhentrailscrossin
theoverlappingrangesofdifferentgroups.However,iftheirdensityisverylow,goril-
laswillbehardertofind.
• Multiple groups:Suddenchangeinthetypicallysmallergroupsofwesternlowland
gorillas,suchasthedeathofthedominant‘silverback’male,canleadtogroupdis-
integration and the abrupt termination of habituation or tourism efforts. Therefore,
tourismprogrammesshouldidentifyandcommittoworkingwithatleasttwogroups
fromtheoutset.
• Tourism outside of protected areas: Most western gorillas live outside protected
areasandtourismcanimprovetheprotectionofsomepopulations. Insuchcases,
tourismmustoperateunderclear,legally-bindingagreementswithlocalstakeholders,
whichdefineeachpartner’srolesandresponsibilitiestowardsthelong-termconser-
vationeffort,aswellastotourismdevelopmentandoperations.Sustainablefunding
mustbesecurednotonlytocovertourismdevelopmentcosts,butalso long-term
protection and conservation activities, particularly as it is more difficult to ensure
fundingforconservationprojectsoutsideprotectedareas.
• Bai visits:SeeAppendixI–Cforanexampleofregulationsforviewingfromaplatform.
• Tracking unhabituated gorillas:SeeAppendixI–Dforanexampleofregulationsfor
forestwalks.
5.7.3 Chimpanzees
Chimpanzeepartiestendtobelesscohesivethangorillagroups.Althoughitisdifficulttooverseea
groupofpeoplewhenthechimpanzeesaredispersed,staffmustkeepcontroloftouristsatalltimes.
It is critical toprevent touristsbecomingseparatedandat risk, especially fromdisplayingadult
males.SeeAppendixI–Eforsampleregulations,butpleasenote:Sitescurrentlyallowinggroups
withmorethan4touriststovisitareadvisedtorevisethispolicy.
• No provisioning: Although this is a general guideline recommended for all spe-
cies,itisemphasisedhereasmostrelevanttochimpanzeesiteswhereprovisioning
hasbeenpracticedinthepast,andwheretherewereindicationsthatprovisioning
resultedinincreasedaggression.
• Prevention of attacks on human infants:Chimpanzeeshavebeenknowntoattack
humanbabiesasanextensionof their normalpredatorybehaviour.Theminimum
ageofatouristis15years,sosmallchildrenwillneverbeallowedtovisitgreatapes.
However,wherelocalpeoplearepermittedtowalkondesignatedtrails,theymustbe
forewarnedofthedangers.Achimpanzeecommunitythatrangesintoareasusedby
localpeopleshouldnotbehabituatedfortourism.
5.7.4 Bonobos
BonobotourismisunderdevelopmentatafewsitesintheDRC,buttodatetherearenolessons
learnedspecifictobonobos.
5.7.5 Orangutans(SumatranandBornean)
Participantsofthe2002OrangutanConservationandRe-introductionWorkshop(RosenandByers
2002)recommendedagainstadditionaltourismdevelopmentinwildorangutanhabitatinIndonesia.
Thiswasduetoconcernsoversecurityandillegallogging,combinedwiththeremotenatureofmost
orangutansitesandhowthisaffectscompetition in theSoutheastAsian regional tourismmarket.
CivilwarinAcehendedin2005,andtourismcouldagainbeusedasaconservationanddevelopment
tool(Singleton,pers.comm.).The2002workshopencouragedthepromotionofcommunity-based
tourisminitiativesonly inareasthatarenotprioritiesfororangutanconservationandthusarenot
57
candidatesforimmediateprotectionand/orincentives.AppendixI–Fpresentsguidelinesfromone
suchproject.Inadditiontothegeneralguidelines,thefollowingarespecifictoorangutans:
• Minimise impacts on social interactions between habituated and unhabituated
orangutans:Althoughtouristvisitsare limitedtoonehour,humanpresencemay
reduceopportunitiesforhabituatedorangutanstointeractwithnon-habituatedindi-
viduals that are scared of people. This impact on orangutan sociality should be
minimisedbyimplementingthefollowingguidelines:
~ Individualorangutansshouldnotbevisitedbytouristsformorethan
10dayspermonth.
~ Tourism to individual orangutans should be suspended for at least
3 months per year. Note that if all habituated orangutans at a par-
ticularsiteusethesameareaofforest,periodicclosureofthesiteis
recommended.
~ Consort pairs should not be followed. Male orangutans are more
aggressivewheninconsortshipwithafemale,therefore,consortpairs
shouldbeleftalonetominimisestressandriskofinjury,andtoavoid
disruptionoftheirreproductivebehaviour.
• Minimise impacts on vegetation:Iftourismisregularlyconductedwiththesame
individualorangutans,tramplingofvegetationandtrailcuttingwillbeconcentrated.
Thiscanbeaddressedby:
~ Limitingvisitationto10dayspermonthperindividual(asabove).
~ Suspending tourism to an individual or area for 3 months per year (as
above).
~ Spreadingtheimpactbyrotatingthefocusoftourismactivitiestooran-
gutansindifferentpartsoftheforest.Whencertainindividualsorareas
areclosedtotourism(20dayspermonthplus3monthsperyear),tour-
ismismovedtodifferentareasandindividuals,givingtheecosystema
chancetorecover,therebyincreasingthelong-termsustainabilityoftour-
ism.Thisstrategyexposesagreaterproportionoftheorangutancommu-
nityandagreaterareaofforesttotheimpactsoftourism,soabalance
mustbeachieved.
• Zero-poaching in habituated orangutan home ranges:Thegeneralguidelinesstate
thatallhabituatedgreatapesmustbemonitoreddailyandinperpetuity,toprotect
themfrompoaching.Duetotheorangutans’semi-solitaryandarborealnature,itis
impossibletomonitoreachindividualeveryday.Accordingly,managersmuststrive
towardsagoalofzeropoachingthroughouttheareasinwhichtheyrange.
Tourists wearing masks viewing
chimpanzees, Mahale Moun-
tains National Park, Tanzania.
Photo © Toshisada Nishida.
58
• Viewing from boats or vehicles: AfewsitesinSabah,Malaysia,offerwildlifeview-
ingexcursionsbyboatorvehicle,andGunungLeuserNationalPark inSumatra,
Indonesia,offerstrekkingonelephants.Whenorangutansareseen,theyareusu-
allyatdistancesof20metresandabovesotherisksofdiseasetransmissionare
loweredand thenumberof touristspervisitcanbe increased to12perboator
vehicle.However, largenumbersoftouristscanbenoisyandintrusive,sotourist
behaviourmustbecontrolled,particularlywhenviewingunhabituatedanimals.Boat
size,numberofboatsoperating,andothersite-specificfactorswilldetermineupper
limits,butingeneralthereshouldbenomorethanthreeboatsorvehiclesinproxim-
itytoanorangutanatanyonetime.
• Tourists must remain in vehicle or boat at all times: It isessential thatdistance
maintainedandtouristnumberscontrolledtoenhancewildlifeviewingandreduce
impactsonthewildlife.Touristsshouldneverbeallowedto leavetheirvehicleor
boattopursueorangutansonfoot.
• Enforcement of no-feeding regulations:Whilenoprovisioningisageneralrecom-
mendationforalltaxa,feedingisstillpracticedatsomeorangutansites.Tourism
managersshould imposerulestostopthefeedingoffree-rangingorangutansby
bothtouristsandguides,andindeedprohibitthecarryingofanyfoodintotheforest.
• Ex-captives: Notourismshouldbeallowedwithreintroducableorangutansinreha-
bilitationcentres,or in forestswhere rehabilitants range (RosenandByers2002;
Russon,SusiloandRussell2004).Giventhatsuchtourismiscurrentlyinoperation,
weincluderegulationsfromBukitLawangasAppendixI–G.
5.8 Special considerations for small and Critically Endangered populations
ParticularcautionisrequiredbeforedevelopingorexpandingtourismwithCriticallyEndangered
taxa. Thisclassificationisgiventothreeofthefourgorillasubspecies(mountain,westernlowland
andCrossRiver)andtheSumatranorangutanas(IUCN2010).Althoughthethreesubspeciesof
BorneanOrangutanarelistedasEndangered,thenorthwesternandtheEastKalimantanpopula-
tionsof theeasternsubspeciesalsomeritspecialconsiderationbecause theirsmall remaining
populationsaresimilarinsizetothoseoftheSumatranorangutan(Soehartonoet al.2007).
5.8.1 Risk-managementprogrammes
Werecommendthatanumberof impact-managementmeasuresaccompanyallgreatapetour-
ismprogrammes.InthecaseofsmallorCriticallyEndangeredpopulations,fundingforriskman-
agementmustbeguaranteedbeforeanytourismactivitiesarelaunched,toensurethatnegative
impactsareidentifiedandimmediatelyaddressed.
5.8.2 Optimisebeforeexpanding
AnumberofsiteswithCriticallyEndangeredgreatapesarealreadyconductingtourism.Insome
of them, tourism has made a positive contribution, generating income for comprehensive con-
servationprogrammesinandaroundtheirhabitat.Incometonationaltreasuriesandarangeof
stakeholdershasresultedinenhancedperceptionsofgreatapes,andstimulatedlong-termsup-
portforconservation.Whilekeepingthesesuccessesinmind,itisalsoimportanttostepbackand
evaluatethefutureoftourismatthesesites,toprotecttheprogrammesfromcomplacency,and
topreventthemslidingtowardsover-exploitationoftheapes.Therehasbeenageneraltendency
toexpandtourismbyhabituatingadditionalanimals,butforconservationtoremaintheprimary
objective,itisimportanttoresisttemptationtoexpandforeconomicgain.Economicbenefitscan
beachievedinwaysthatdonotinvolvesubjectingtheapestoadditionaltouristsorexposingmore
animalstotourism.Therecommendationsbelowshouldbefollowedatallsitesoperatingtourism
withCriticallyEndangeredapes:
• Income generation that does not involve tourism expansion:Governmentsand
conservation authorities should encourage alternative means of stimulating earn-
ingsbyauthorities,theprivatesectorandlocaleconomies,suchasinvestmentin
59
nationalenterprisedevelopment,micro-credit schemes for localenterprises,and
supportforotherbusinessdevelopments.
• No increase in the number of groups habituated for tourism: SiteswithCritically
Endangeredapesshouldavoidexpandingthenumberofhabituatedgroups. It is
importanttomaintainabalanceofexposedandunexposedgroupstobettermiti-
gatenegativeimpactsoftourism.
• No increase in the number of individual apes habituated for tourism: Habituation
decisionsshouldnotbebasedonhabituating the largestgroupsofapes,or the
greatestnumberofindividuals,fortourism.Thelargertheproportionofapopulation
thatisexposedtotourism,thegreatertheriskthatdiseasecouldresultindrastic
reductionofthepopulation.
• Maximise revenue per tourism permit: If there ispressure to increase revenues
fromgreatapetourism,thefirstmeasuretakenshouldbetoincreasepermitprices.
Revenueperpermitshouldalsobemaximisedbydiversifyingtourismactivitiesat
each site, and building ape tourism into national tourism circuits. Extending the
averagelengthofin-countrystayofgreatapetouristswouldincreasetheearnings
associatedwitheachpermitatlocal,regionalandnationallevels.
Section 6: Conclusions
Thisdocumenthasprovidedareviewofthehistoryofgreatapetourismandcoveredindetailthe
multiplecostsandbenefitstotheconservationofgreatapesandtheirhabitats.Whilenotappro-
priateateverysite,greatapetourismcanserveasatooltofundgreatapeconservationefforts.
Sitesthatintendtodevelopandoperategreatapetourismshouldusethegeneralandspecific
guidelinesgiveninSection5todesignandimplementtourismactivitiesthatarerootedinconser-
vation,nottheexploitationofgreatapes.
Inclosing,readersshouldreviewtheguidingprinciplesofbestpracticeingreatapetourism,keep-
ingthefollowinginmindatallstagesofplanning,developing,implementing,andmonitoringgreat
apetourism:
• Tourismisnotapanaceaforgreatapeconservationorrevenuegeneration.
• Tourismcanenhancelong-termsupportfortheconservationofgreatapesandtheir
habitat.
• Conservationmustbetheprimarygoalatanygreatapesiteandtourismcanhelp
tofundit.
• Greatapetourismshouldbedevelopedonlyiftheanticipatedconservationbenefits,
asidentifiedthroughimpactstudies,significantlyoutweightherisks.
• Conservationinvestmentandactionatgreatapetourismsitesmustbesustained
inperpetuity.
• Greatapetourismmustbebasedonsoundandobjectivescience.
• Tourismbenefitsandprofitforcommunitiesadjacenttogreatapehabitatshouldbe
maximised.
• Profittoprivatesectorpartnersandotherswhomayderive incomefromtourism
mustnotbethedrivingforceforgreatapetourismdevelopmentorexpansion.
• Tourismdevelopmentmustbeguidedbyacomprehensiveunderstandingofpotential
impacts,andmanagedtomaximisethepositiveimpactsandmitigatethenegative
impacts.
60
Section 7: Acknowledgements
Sincere appreciation goes to all who contributed throughout the process of developing these
guidelines.SignificantinputwasprovidedbyLouiseHurst,JohnOates,AnthonyRylands,Chris
Sandbrook,JanetteWallisandChrisWhittier.Wearealsoverygratefultothefollowingwhogen-
erouslylenttheirtimeandexpertisetoimprovingthisdocument:MikeCranfield,DaveDellatore,
MarykeGray,AnnetteLanjouw,MagdalenaLukasik-Braum,AngelaMeder,MichaelMuehlenbein,
IanRedmond, JohannesRefisch,LucySpelmanandAngeliqueTodd.Thefinaldraftbenefited
fromthedefteditorialhandandguidanceofAnthonyRylands.ThanksarealsoextendedtoKim
MeekforgraphicdesignandtoLynnBarrie,FrancesBroussard,CarolineDeimel,JulianEaston,
Vicki Fishlock,MarykeGray, JosephineHead,AlainHoule, JoséKalpers,UweKribus,Annette
Lanjouw,FionaMaisels,JohnMartin,RussMittermeier,MPI-EVAN,IanNichols,ToshisadaNishida,
ChristopherOrbell,MarthaRobbins,PerryvanDuijnhovenandVirungaNationalPark forkindly
allowingtheuseoftheirphotographs.ThispublicationwassponsoredbyagranttotheIUCN/SSC
PrimateSpecialistGroupandConservationInternationalfromtheUnitedStatesFishandWildlife
Service(GreatApeConservationFund).
Section 8: Bibliography
8.1 Literature cited
Adams,H.R.,Sleeman,J.M.,Rwego,I.andNew,J.C.2001.Self-reportedmedicalhistorysurveyofhumansasameasureofhealthrisktothechimpanzees(Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)ofKibaleNationalPark,Uganda.Oryx35:308–312.
Adams,W.M.andInfield,M.2003.Whoisonthegorillas’payroll?ClaimsontouristrevenuefromaUgandannationalpark.World Development31:177–190.
Ali,R.,Cranfield,M.,Gaffikin,L.,Mudakikwa,T.,Ngeruka,L.andWhittier,C.2004.OccupationalhealthandgorillaconservationinRwanda.International Journal of Occupational Environmental Health10:319–325.
Ambu,L.2007.Strategy of the Sabah Wildlife Department for Wildlife Conservation in Sabah. FirstInternationalConservation Conference in Sabah: the Quest for Gold Standards. Sabah Wildlife Department, KotaKinabulu,Malaysia.
Ancrenaz,M.2006.Kinabatangan—Guidelines for Tourists Visiting the Red Ape Encounter Habituated Orang-Utans.KinabatanganProject,Sabah,Malaysia.
Ancrenaz,M.,Dabek,L.andO'Neil,S.2007.Thecostsofexclusion:recognizingaroleforlocalcommunitiesinbiodiversityconservation.PLoS Biology5:e289.
Archabald, K. and Naughton-Treves, L. 2001. Tourism revenue-sharing around national parks in WesternUganda:earlyeffortstoidentifyandrewardlocalcommunities.Environmental Conservation28:135–149.
Aveling,C.1999.LowlandgorillatourisminCentralAfrica.Gorilla Journal18:18–20.Aveling,R.J.andMitchell,A.1982.Isrehabilitatingorangutansworthwhile?Oryx16:263–271.Baboulene,L.2008.Etude marketing et écotouristique du programme de préservation des écosystèmes du
bassin du Congo.IUCN,WestandCentralAfricaRegionalOffice,Ougadougou.Beck,B.,Walkup,K.,Rodrigues,M.,Unwin,S.,Travis,D.andStoinski,T.S.2007.Best Practice Guidelines for
the Re-introduction of Great Apes.IUCN/SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup,Gland,Switzerland.Bermejo,M.2004.Home-rangeuseandintergroupencountersinwesterngorillas(Gorilla g. gorilla)atLossi
Forest,NorthCongo.American Journal of Primatology64:223–232.Bermejo,M.,Rodríguez-Teijeiro,J.D.,Illera,G.,Barroso,A.,Vilà,C.andWalsh,P.D.2006.Ebolaoutbreakkills
5000gorillas.Science314:1564.Bertolani,P.andBoesch,C.2008.Habituationofwildchimpanzees(Pan troglodytes) oftheSouthGroupatTaï
Forest,Côted’Ivoire:empiricalmeasureofprogress.Folia Primatologica79:162–171.Blom,A.2000.Themonetary impactof tourismonprotectedareamanagementand the localeconomy in
Dzanga-Sangha(CentralAfricanRepublic).Journal of Sustainable Tourism8:175–189.Blom,A.2001.PotentialsandpitfallsoftourisminDzanga-Sangha.Gorilla Journal22:40–41.Blom,A.2004.Acriticalanalysisofthreeapproachestotropicalforestconservationbasedonexperiencesin
theSangharegion.Yale Forestry and ES Bulletin102:208–215.Blom,A.,Cipolletta,C.,Brunsting,A.M.andPrins,H.H.2004.Behavioralresponsesofgorillastohabituationin
theDzanga-NdokiNationalPark,CentralAfricanRepublic.International Journal of Primatology25:179–196.Blomley,T.,Namara,A.,McNeilage,A.,Franks,P.,Rainer,H.,Donaldson,A.,Malpas,R.,Olupot,W.,Baker,
J.,Sandbrook,C.,Bitariho,R.andInfield,M.2010.Development AND Gorillas? Assessing Fifteen Years of Integrated Conservation and Development in South-western Uganda. Natural Resource Series No. 23. InternationalInstituteforEnvironmentandDevelopment(IIED),LondonandEdinburgh,UK.
61
Boesch,C.2008.WhydoChimpanzeesdieintheforest?Thechallengesofunderstandingandcontrollingforwildapehealth.American Journal of Primatology70:722–726.
Boo,E.1990.Ecotourism: The Potentials and Pitfalls.WorldWildlifeFund,Washington,DC.BRD.2009.Gorilla tourist rules pamphlet.BerggorillaandRegenwaldDirekthilfe(BRD),Muehlheim,Germany.Briassoulis,H.1991.Methodologicalissues:tourisminput-outputanalysis.Annnals of Tourism Research18:485–495.BudongoForestProject2006.Terms of Agreement and Guidelines for Visiting Researchers Working with The Budongo Forest Project.Bush,G.andFawcett,K.2008.An Economic Study of Mountain Gorilla Tourism in the Virunga Volcanoes Conservation Area.Unpublishedreport,US
FishandWildlifeService(USFWS),DianFosseyGorillaFundInternational.Ruhengeri,Rwanda.Butynski,T.1998.Isgorillatourismsustainable?Gorilla Journal16:15–19.Butynski,T.2001.Africa’sgreatapes.In:B.B.Beck,T.S.Stoinski,M.Hutchins,T.L.Maple,B.Norton,A.Rowan,E.F.StephensandA.Arluke(eds.),
Great Apes and Humans: The Ethics of Coexistence, pp.3–56.SmithsonianInstitutionPress,Washington,DC.Butynski,T.M.andKalina,J.1998.Gorillatourism:acriticallook.In:E.J.Milner-GullandandR.Mace(eds.),Conservation of Biological Resources,
pp.294–313.BlackwellScience,Oxford,UK.Caillaud,D.,Levréro,F.,Cristescu,R.,Gatti,S.,Dewas,M.,Douadi,M.,Gautier-Hion,A.,Raymond,M.andMénard,N.2006.Gorillasusceptibility
toEbolavirus:thecostofsociality.Current Biology16:489–491.Carlsen,F.,Cress,D.,Rosen,N.andByers,O.2006.African Primate Reintroduction Workshop Final Report. IUCN/SSCConservationBreeding
SpecialistGroup(CBSG),AppleValley,MN.CDC.2004.Guidance for the Selection and Use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) in Healthcare Settings.CentersforDiseaseControland
Prevention(CDC),Atlanta,GA.<www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dhqp/ppe.html>.CDC.2006. Interim Guidance on Planning for the Use of Surgical Masks and Respirators in Health Care Settings during an Influenza Pandemic.
CentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC),Atlanta,GA.<www.pandemicflu.gov/plan/healthcare/maskguidancehc.html>.Chafe, Z. 2004. Consumer Demand and Operator Support for Socially and Environmentally Responsible Tourism. Center on Ecotourism and
SustainableDevelopmentandtheInternationalEcotourismSociety.Washington,DC.Cipolletta,C.2003.RangingpatternsofawesterngorillagroupduringhabituationtohumansintheDzanga-NdokiNationalPark,CentralAfrican
Republic.International Journal of Primatology24:1207–1226.Cochrane,J.1998.Organization of Ecotourism in the Leuser Ecosystem.LeuserManagementUnit,Medan.Collins,A.2003.HealthguidelinesforvisitingresearchersinGombeNationalParktominimiseriskofdiseasetransmissionamongprimates.Pan
Africa News 10:1–3.Cranfield,M.2006.MGVP thoughts on Surgical Masks and Ecotourism.UnpublishedreporttotheIUCN/SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup.Cranfield,M.2008.Mountaingorilla research: the riskofdisease transmission relative to thebenefit from theperspectiveofecosystemhealth.
American Journal of Primatology70:751–754.Cranfield,M.,Gaffikin,L.andCameron,K.2001.ConservationmedicineasitappliestotheMountainGorilla(Gorilla gorilla beringei).In:G.Rabb(ed.),
The Apes: Challenges for the 21st Century Conference Proceedings,pp.238–240.ChicagoZoologicalSociety.Brookfield,ILCzekala,N.andRobbins,M.M.2001.Assessmentofreproductionandstressthroughhormoneanalysisingorillas.In:M.M.Robbins,P.Sicotteand
K.J.Stewart(eds.),Mountain Gorillas: Three Decades of Research at Karisoke,pp.317–340.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UK.DecisionTreeWritingGroup.2006.Clinicalresponsedecisiontreeforthemountaingorilla(Gorilla beringei)asamodelforgreatapes.American
Journal of Primatology68:909–927.Deem,S.L.,Karesh,W.B.andWeisman,W.2001.PuttingTheoryintoPractice:WildlifeHealthinConservation.Conservation Biology 15:1224–1233.Dellatore,D.F.2007.BehaviouralHealthofReintroducedOrangutans(Pongo abelii) inBukitLawang,Sumatra, Indonesia.MScthesis inPrimate
Conservation,OxfordBrookesUniversity,Oxford,UK.Djoh,E.andvanderWal,M.2001.Gorilla-based tourism:a realisticsourceofcommunity income inCameroon?Casestudyof thevillagesof
KoungoulouandKaragoua.Rural Development Forestry Network Papers25e:31–37.Doran-Sheehy,D.M.,Derby,A.M.,Greer,D.andMongo,P.2007.HabituationofWesternGorillas:theprocessandfactorsthatinfluenceit.American
Journal of Primatology69:1–16.Dreller,S.,Jatzwauk,L.,Nassauer,A.,Pasckiewics,P.,Tobys,H.-U.andRuden,H.2006.[Investigationsonsuitablerespiratoryprotectionagainst
airbornepathogens].Gefahrstoffe - Reinhalten der Luft,66:14–24.[InGerman]Duffus,D.A.andDearden,P. 1990.Non-consumptivewildlife-orientedrecreation:aconceptualframework.Biological Conservation53:213–231.Dupain,J.2007.AWF Congo Heartland Report, 3rd Quarter, FY 2007.Unpublishedreport,AfricanWildlifeFoundation,Nairobi,Kenya.EplerWood,M. 1996.The Evolution of Ecotourism as a Sustainable Development Tool. PaperpresentedatTheSixthInternationalSymposiumon
SocietyandNaturalResourceManagement,PennsylvaniaStateUniversity, 18-23May 1996.Fawcett,K.2004.The Impact of Tourism on Gorilla Behaviour—Preliminary Results from Rwanda.Unpublishedreport,KarisokeResearchCentre,
Ruhengeri,Rwanda.FDA. 2009. Masks and N95 Respirators. US Food and Drug Administration. Silver Spring, MD. <http://www.fda.gov/MedicalDevices/
ProductsandMedicalProcedures/GeneralHospitalDevicesandSupplies/PersonalProtectiveEquipment/ucm055977.htm>Ferber,D.2000.Humandiseasethreattogreatapes.Science 289:1277–1278.Focken,K.2002.Taï National Park Ivory Coast – PACPNT. Paperpresentedat the InternationalWorkshoponMarket Incentives forBiodiversity
ConservationandSustainableUse,Dakar,25–27June2002.Font, X., Cochrane, J. and Tapper, R. 2004. Pay Per Nature View. Tourism for Protected Area Financing: Understanding Tourism Revenues for
Effective Management Plans.LeedsMetropolitanUniversityandWWF,Leeds,UK.Formenty,P.,Boesch,C.,Wyers,M.,Steiner,C.,Donati,F.,Dind,F.,Walker,F.andLe,G.B. 1999.Ebolavirusoutbreakamongwildchimpanzees
livinginarainforestofCoted’Ivoire.Journal of Infectious Diseases 179(Suppl.1):120–126.Frey,R.1975.Sumatra’sredapesreturntothewild.Wildlife17:356–363.Gami,N. 1999.Lesgorillesdeplainepourquoipaseux?Canopée13:3.Garber,P.A.2008.Diseasetransmissionfromhumanstowildapes:perspectivesonthecostsandbenefitsofresearchandconservation.American
Journal of Primatology70:715.Goldberg,T.L.,Gillespie,T.R.,Rwego,I.B.,Wheeler,E.,Estoff,E.L.andChapman,C.A.2007.Patternsofgastrointestinalbacterialexchangebetween
chimpanzeesandhumansinvolvedinresearchandtourisminwesternUganda.Biological Conservation 135:527–533.
62
Goldsmith,M.2004.Impact of Habituation for Ecotourism on Bwindi Gorilla Behavioral Ecology—Summary of Findings and Recommendations for UWA - 2004.UnpublishedreporttoUgandaWildlifeAuthority,Kampala,Uganda.
Goldsmith,M.2005a.Habituatingprimatesforfieldstudy—ethicalconsiderationsforAfricangreatapes.In:T.R.Turner(ed.),Biological Anthropology and Ethics: From Repatriation to Genetic Identity, pp.49–64.StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.Albany,NewYork.
Goldsmith,M.2005b.ImpactsofhabituationforecotourismonthegorillasofNkuringo.Gorilla Journal30:11–14.Goldsmith,M.L.,Glick,J.andNgabirano,E.2006.Gorillas livingontheedge: literallyandfiguratively. In:N.E.Newton-Fisher,H.Notman,J.D.
PatersonandV.Reynolds(eds.),Primates of Western Uganda,pp.405–422.SpringerVerlag,NewYork.GombeStreamResearchCentreandWilson,M.L.2006.Health Protocol for Longer-Term Visitors to Gombe Stream Research Centre.GombeStream
ResearchCentre,Kigoma,Tanzania.Graczyk, T.K, Bosco-Nizeyi, J., Ssebide, B., Thompson, R.C., Read, C., Cranfield, M.R. 2002. Anthropozoonotic Giardia duodenalis genotype
(assemblage)ainfectionsinhabitatsoffree-ranginghuman-habituatedgorillas,Uganda.Journal of Parasitology88:905–909.Greer,D.andCipolletta,C.2006.Westerngorillatourism:lessonslearnedfromDzanga-Sangha.Gorilla Journal33:16–19.GrieserJohns,B.D.1996.ResponsesofchimpanzeestohabituationandtourismintheKibaleForest,Uganda.Biological Conservation78:257–262.Grosspietsch,M.2007.MaximizingTourism’sContributiontoPovertyReductioninRwanda.Doctoraldissertation,WestphalianWilhelms-University,
Münster,Germany.Guerrera,W.,Sleeman,J.M.,Ssebide,B.J.,Pace,L.B.,Ichinose,T.Y.andReif,J.S.2003.Medicalsurveyofthelocalhumanpopulationtodeter-
minepossiblehealthriskstothemountaingorillasofBwindiImpenetrableForestNationalPark,Uganda.International Journal of Primatology 24:197–207.
Gutierrez,E.,Lamoreux,K.,Matus,S.andSebunya,K.2005.Linking Communities, Tourism and Conservation: A Tourism Assessment Process.ConservationInternationalandTheGeorgeWashingtonUniversity,Washington,DC.
Hanamura,S.,Kiyono,M.,Nakamura,M.,Sakamaki,T., Itoh,N.,Zamma,K.,Kitopeni,R.,Matumula,M.andNishida,T.2006.ANewCodeofObservationEmployedatMahale:PreventionagainstaFlu-likeDisease.Pan Africa News 13:13–16.
Hanamura,S.,Kiyono,M.,Lukasik-Braum,M.,Mlengeya,T.,Fujimoto,M.,Nakamura,M.andNishida,T.2007.ChimpanzeedeathsatMahalecausedbyaflu-likedisease.Primates49:77–80.
Harcourt, A. H. 1986. Gorilla conservation: Anatomy of a campaign. In: K. Benirschke (ed.) Primates: The Road to Self-Sustaining Populations, pp.31–46.Springer-Verlag,NewYork,USA.
Harcourt,A.2001.Thebenefitsofmountaingorillatourism.Gorilla Journal 22:36–37.Hastings, B.E., Kenny, D., Lowenstine, L.J. and Foster, J.W. 1991. Mountain gorillas and measles: ontogeny of a wildlife vaccination program.
Proceedings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians 1991:198–205.Hatfield,R.andMalleret-King,D.2006.The Economic Value of the Mountain Gorilla Protected Forests (The Virungas and Bwindi Impenetrable
National Park).InternationalGorillaConservationProgramme(IGCP),Nairobi,Kenya.Hockings,K.andHumle,T.2009.Best Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict Between Humans and Great Apes.IUCN/SSC
PrimateSpecialistGroup,Gland,Switzerland.Hodgkinson,C.2009.Tourists,gorillasandguns:integratingconservationanddevelopmentintheCentralAfricanRepublic.Doctoralthesis,UCL
(UniversityCollegeLondon)http://eprints.ucl.ac.uk/15848/Hodgkinson,C.andCipolletta,C.2009.Westernlowlandgorillatourism:impactongorillabehaviour.Gorilla Journal38:29–32.Hofer,H.andEast,M.L.1994.Biologicalconservationandstress.Advances in the Study of Behavior 27:405–525.
Mountain gorilla with a bamboo
shoot, Volcanoes National Park,
Rwanda. Photo © Annette Lan-
jouw.
63
Homsy, J. 1999. Ape Tourism and Human Diseases: How Close Should We Get? A Critical Review of Rules and Regulations Governing Park Management and Tourism for the Wild Mountain Gorilla, Gorillagorillaberingei. InternationalGorillaConservationProgramme(IGCP),Nairobi.<www.igcp.org/wp-content/themes/igcp/docs/pdf/homsy_rev.pdf>.
Hosaka,K.2008.Asinglefluepidemickilledatleast11chimps.Pan Africa News 2:3–4.Hudson,H.R.1992.Therelationshipbetweenstressanddiseaseinorphangorillasanditssignificanceforgorillatourism.Gorilla Conservation News
6:8–10.Hurst,L.2007.Preliminary Assessment of Chimpanzee and Primate Tourism Management Issues in Nyungwe National Park.Unpublishedreport,
WildlifeConservationSociety(WCS)andTheRwandaEnvironmentManagementAuthority,Kigali,Rwanda.Hurst,L.2008a.Recommendations and Rationale for Eastern Chimpanzee (Pantroglodytesschweinfurthii) Tourism Regulations in Nyungwe National
Park.Unpublishedreport,WildlifeConservationSociety(WCS)andtheRwandanOfficeofTourismandNationalParks(ORTPN),Kigali,Rwanda.Hurst,L.2008b.Chimpanzee Habituation Review and Recommendations for Nyungwe National Park.Unpublished report,WildlifeConservation
Society(WCS)andtheRwandanOfficeofTourismandNationalParks(ORTPN),Kigali,Rwanda.Hurst,L.2008c.Mountain Gorilla (Gorillaberingeiberingei) Visitation Regulations Review Workshop Report.Unpublishedreport,WildlifeConservation
Society(WCS)andtheRwandanOfficeofTourismandNationalParks(ORTPN),Kigali,Rwanda.IGCP2004.Gorilla Rules.Pamphlet,InternationalGorillaConservationProgramme(IGCP),Kigali,Rwanda.IUCN2010.IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.Version2010.1. InternationalUnionforConservationofNatureandNaturalResources(IUCN),
SpeciesSurvivalCommission(SSC),GlandSwitzerlandandCambridge,UK.Jacobson,S.K.andFigueroaLopez,A.1994.Biologicalimpactsofecotourism;touristsandnestingturtlesinTortugeroNationalPark,CostaRica.
Wildlife Society Bulletin 22:414–419.JGI-Uganda2006.Chimpanzee Ecotourism Health Protocol Manual—Budongo Forest.JaneGoodallInstitute(JGI),Washington,DC.Kalpers,J.,Williamson,E.A.,Robbins,M.M.,McNeilage,A.,Nzamurambaho,A.,Lola,N.andMuguri,G.2003.Gorillasinthecrossfire:population
dynamicsoftheVirungamountaingorillasoverthepastthreedecades.Oryx37:326–337.Kaur,T.andSingh,J.2008.UpcloseandpersonalwithMahalechimpanzees—apathforward.American Journal of Primatology70:729–733.Kaur,T.,Singh,J.,Tong,S.,Humphrey,C.,Cleverger,D.,Tan,W.,Szekely,B.,Wang,Y.,Li,Y.,Muse,E.A.,Kiyono,M.,Hanamura,S., Inoue,E.,
Nakamura,M.,Huffman,M.A.,Jiang,B.andNishida,T.2008.Descriptiveepidemiologyoffatalrespiratoryoutbreaksanddetectionofahuman-relatedmetapneumovirus inwildchimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)atMahaleMountainsNationalPark,westernTanzania.American Journal of Primatology70:755–765.
Kazooba,C.2008.MPswanttoendUgandaSafari’sgorillamonopoly.The East African28September2008.<www.theeastafrican.co.ke/news/-/2558/475356/-/s1ua7iz/-/index.html>
Klailova,M.,Hodgkinson,C.andLee,P.C.2010.Behavioralresponsesofonewesternlowlandgorilla(Gorilla gorilla gorilla)groupatBaiHokou,CentralAfricanRepublic,totourists,researchersandtrackers.American Journal of Primatology71.DOI:10.1002/ajp.20829
Köndgen, S., Kühl, H., N’Goran, P.K., Walsh, P.D., Schenk, S., Ernst, N., Biek, R., Formenty, P., Mätz–Rensing, K., Schweiger, B., Junglen, S.,Ellerbrok,H.,Nitsche,A.,Briese,T.,Lipkin,W.I.,Pauli,G.,Boesch,C.andLeendertz,F.H.2008.Pandemichumanvirusescausedeclineofendangeredgreatapes.Current Biology 18:1–5.
Kortlandt,A.1996.Anepidemicoflimbparesis(Polio?)amongthechimpanzeepopulationatBeni(Zaire)in1964, possiblytransmittedbyhumans.Pan Africa News3:9.
Krief,S.,Huffman,M.A.,Sévenet,T.,Guillot,J.,Bories,C.,Hladik,C.M.andWrangham,R.W.2005.NoninvasivemonitoringofthehealthofPan troglodytes schweinfurthiiintheKibaleNationalPark,Uganda.International Journal of Primatology 26:467–490.
Kruger,O.2005.Theroleofecotourisminconservation:panaceaorPandora’sbox?Biodiversity and Conservation14:579–600.Kühl,H.,Maisels,F.,Ancrenaz,M.andWilliamson,E.A.2008.Best Practice Guidelines for Surveys and Monitoring of Great Ape Populations.IUCN/
SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup,Gland,Switzerland.Lanjouw,A.1999a.MountaingorillatourismincentralAfrica.Mountain Forum Bulletin3:7–8.Lanjouw,A.1999b.TourismeauxgorillesenAfriquecentrale:Plaidoyerpourlaréalité.Canopée13:3.Leendertz,F.H.,Ellerbrok,H.,Boesch,C.,Couacy-Hymann,E.,MatzRensing,K.,Hakenbeck,R.,Bergmann,C.,Abaza,P.,Junglen,S.andMoebius,
Y.2004.Anthraxkillswildchimpanzeesinatropicalrainforest.Nature430:451–452.Leendertz,F.H.,Pauli,G.,Maetz-Rensing,K.,Boardman,W.,Nunn,C.,Ellerbrok,H.,AinaJensen,S.,Junglen,S.andBoesch,C.2006.Pathogens
asdriversofpopulationdeclines:Theimportanceofsystematicmonitoringingreatapesandotherthreatenedmammals.Biological Conservation131:325–337.
Leendertz,F.,Cameron,K.,Cranfield,M.,Gaffikin,L.,Gillespie,T.,Lonsdorf,E.,Minnis,R.,Nizeyi,J-B.,Nutter,F.,Reed,P.,Rwego,I.,Travers,D.andWhittier,C.Inpress.Best Practice Guidelines for Health Monitoring and Disease Control in Great Ape Populations. IUCN/SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup,Gland,Switzerland.
Litchfield,C.1997.Treading Lightly: Responsible Tourism with the African Great Apes.Pamphlet,Travellers’MedicalandVaccinationCentreGroup,Adelaide.
Litchfield, C. 2007. Responsible Tourism: a conservation tool or conservation threat? In: T.S. Stoinski, H.D. Steklis and P.T. Mehlman (eds.)Conservation in the 21st Century—Gorillas as a Case Study, pp.107–127.SpringerVerlag,NewYork.
Lonsdorf,E.V.,Travis,D.,Pusey,A.E.andGilby,I.C.2006.Causesandconsequencesofchimpanzee(Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii)illness:aretro-spectiveanalysisoffactorscorrelatedtochimpanzeehealthatGombeNationalPark.ProceedingsoftheXXIInternationalPrimatologicalSocietyConferenceheldinEntebbe,Uganda.August,2006.International Journal of Primatology 27 (Suppl.1):Abst#547.Abstract.
Low, T.W. 2004. Can Ecotourism Help Protect Orang-utans? BSc thesis in Sustainable Tourism Development, Anglia Polytechnic University,CambridgeandChelmsford,UK.
Lukasik-Braum,M.andSpelman,L.2008.ChimpanzeerespiratorydiseaseandvisitationrulesatMahaleandGombeNationalParksinTanzania.American Journal of Primatology70:734–737.
Macfie,E.1991.TheVolcanoVeterinaryCentreupdate.Gorilla Conservation News 5:20.Macfie,E.1996.CaseReportonScabiesInfectioninBwindiGorillas.Gorilla Journal 13:4–5.Macfie,E.J.2005.Gorilla Tourism Numbers in Bwindi Impenetrable National Park—Position Statement. International Gorilla Conservation Programme,
UgandaWildlifeAuthority,Kampala,Uganda.
64
Macfie,E.J.2007a.Habituation Impact Assessment: A Tool for the Analysis of Costs and Benefits Related to the Potential Habituation of a Gorilla Group for Either Tourism or Research.VirungaBwindiGorillaManagementTechnicalAdvisoryCommittee, InternationalGorillaConservationProgramme.
Macfie,E.J.2007b.Studying the Potential of Gorilla-Based Tourism as a Possible Tool for the Long-Term Conservation and Management of the Afi Mountain Wildlife Sanctuary Cross River Gorilla Population, Cross River State, Nigeria.ReporttotheAfiMountainWildlifeSanctuaryPartnership,FaunaandFloraInternational,Cambridge,UK.
Maddison,N. 2004.AssessingApeBasedTourism inAfrica: IdentificationofKeySuccessFactors forPrivateSectorEngagement inPro-PoorTourism.MBAthesis.UniversityoftheWestofEngland(BristolBusinessSchool),Bristol,UK.
McFarland,K.L.2007.EcologyofCrossRiverGorillas(Gorilla gorilla diehli)onAfiMountain,CrossRiverState,Nigeria.Doctoraldissertation,CityUniversityofNewYork,NewYork.
McNeilage,A.1996.EcotourismandmountaingorillasintheVirungaVolcanoes.In:V.J.TaylorandN.Dunstone(eds.),The Exploitation of Mammal Populations, pp.334–344.ChapmanandHall,London,UK.
Meder,A.1994.Causesofdeathanddiseasesofgorillasinthewild.Gorilla Journal 9:3–4.Mehta,H.andGuchu-Katee,C.2005.Virunga Massif Sustainable Tourism Development Plan: D.R. Congo, Rwanda and Uganda.InternationalGorilla
ConservationProgramme(IGCP),Nairobi.Kenya.MGVP2002EmployeeHealthGroup.2004.Riskofdiseasetransmissionbetweenconservationpersonnelandthemountaingorillas.EcoHealth
1:351–361.MGVP.2004.Mountain Gorilla Disease Contingency Plan—Decision Tree.MountainGorillaVeterinaryProgram(MGVP),Ruhengeri,Rwanda.MGVP.2008.Gorilla and Chimpanzee Visitation Guidelines for Tourists, Researchers and Park Staff—MGVP Recommendations updated April 2008.
MountainGorillaVeterinaryProgram(MGVP)Inc.,Ruhengeri,Rwanda.MGVP.2009.MGVP Ecotourism Recommendations to ICCN – Comments to Accompany April 2008 MGVP Document on Tourism Rules.Mountain
GorillaVeterinaryProgram(MGVP)Inc.,Ruhengeri,Rwanda.Mittermeier,R.A.,LouisJr.,E.E.,Richardson,M.,Schwitzer,C.,Langrand,O.,Rylands,A.B.,Hawkins,F.,Rajaobelina,S.Ratsimbazafy,J.Rasoloarison,
R.,Roos,C.,Kappeler,P.M.andMacKinnon,J.2010. Lemurs of Madagascar.3rdedition.TropicalFieldGuideSeries,ConservationInternational,Arlington,VA.
Morgan,D.andSanz,C.2007.Best Practice Guidelines for Reducing the Impact of Commercial Logging on Great Apes in Western Equatorial Africa.IUCN/SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup,Gland,Switzerland.
Moyini,Y.2000.Analysis of the Economic Significance of Gorilla Tourism in Uganda.Report.InternationalGorillaConservationProgramme(IGCP),Kampala,Uganda.
Mudakikwa,A.2001.AnoutbreakofmangehitstheBwindigorillas.Gorilla Journal 22:24.Muehlenbein,M.P.andAncrenaz,M.2009.Minimizingpathogentransmissionatprimateecotourismdestinations:theneedfor inputfromtravel
medicine.Journal of Travel Medicine16:229–232.Muehlenbein,M.P.,Martinez,L.A.,Lemke,A.A.,Ambu,L.,Nathan,S.,AlsistomS.,Andau,P.andSaking,R.2008.Perceivedvaccinationstatusin
ecotouristsandrisksofanthropozoonoses.EcoHealth5:371–378.Muyambi,F.2004.Bwindi Impenetrable National Park Gorilla Tourism Impact study. PresentationfortheSeptember2004Virunga-BwindiConservation
AreaRegionalMeeting,InternationalGorillaConservationProgramme,Goma,DRC.Muyambi,F.2005.Theimpactoftourismonthebehaviourofmountaingorillas.Gorilla Journal30:14–15.Nakamura,M.andNishida,T.2009.ChimpanzeetourisminrelationtotheviewingregulationsattheMahaleMountainsNationalPark,Tanzania.
Primate Conservation24:85-90.Nishida,T. andMwinuka,C.2005. Introductionof seasonalpark feesystem toMahaleMountainsNationalPark: aproposal.Pan Africa News
12:17–19.Nizeyi,J.B.2005.NoninvasiveMonitoringofAdrenocorticalActivity inFree-rangingMountainGorillasofBwindi ImpenetrableNationalPark in
South-westernUganda.DoctoralDissertation,FacultyofVeterinaryMedicine,MakerereUniversity,Kampala,Uganda.Nutter, F. and Whittier, C. 2001. Occupational health programs for primate field researchers: improving human health care benefits nonhuman
primates. In: G. Rabb (ed.), The Apes: Challenges for the 21st Century Conference Proceedings, pp.244–249. Chicago Zoological Society,Brookfield,IL.
Nutter,F.,Whittier,C.,Cranfield,M.andLowenstine,L.J.2005.Causesofdeathformountaingorillas(Gorilla beringei beringeiandg. b. undecided)from1968-2004:anaidtoconservationprograms.InProceedings of the Wildlife Disease Association International Conference. June 26-July 1, 2005, Cairns, Australia,pp.200–201.
Ostroff,S.M.andKozarsky,P.1998.Emerginginfectiousdiseasesandtravelmedicine.Infectious Disease Clinics of North America 12:231–241.Plumptre,A.andWilliamson,E.A.2001.ConservationorientedresearchintheVirungaregion.In:M.M.Robbins,P.SicotteandK.J.Stewart(eds.),
Mountain Gorilla: Three Decades of Research at Karisoke, pp.361–390.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UK.Plumptre,A.,Kayitare,A.,Rainer,H.,Gray,M.,Munanura,L.,Barakabuye,N.,Sivha,M.,Asuma,S.andNamara,A.2004.The Socio-economic
Status of People Living Near Protected Areas in the Central Albertine Rift.WildlifeConservationSociety(WCS),NewYork.Purcell,Z.2002.Chimpanzeeviewingandregulation:MahaleMountainsNationalPark.Pan Africa News 9:17–19.Rajaratnam,R.,Pang,C.andLackman-Ancrenaz, I.2008.Ecotourismand indigenouscommunities: theLowerKinabatanganexperience. In:J.
ConnellandB.Rugendyke(eds.),Tourism at the Grassroots: Villagers and Visitors in the Asia Pacific, pp.236–255.Routledge,London,UK.Rijksen,H.D.1982.Howtosavethemysterious‘manoftheforest’?In:L.E.M.deBoer(ed.),The Orang Utan: Its Biology and Conservation,pp.317–
341.Dr.W.JunkPublishers,TheHague.Rijksen,H.andMeijaard,E.1999.Our Vanishing Relative: the Status of Wild Orang-utans at the Close of the Twentieth-Century.KluwerAcademic
Publications,London.Rosen,N.andByers,O.2002.Orangutan Conservation and Reintroduction Workshop: Final Report.IUCN/SSCConservationBreedingSpecialist
Group(CBSG).AppleValley,MN.Russon,A.E.,Susilo,A.andRussell,C.2004.Orangutan-focusedecotourism:Evaluating30years’experience.PaperpresentedatXXthCongress
oftheInternationalPrimatologicalSociety,23-28August2004,Turin,Italy.Rwego,I.B.,Isabirye-Basuta,G.,Gillespie,T.R.andGoldberg,T.L.2008.Gastrointestinalbacterialtransmissionamonghumans,mountaingorillas
andlivestockinBwindiImpenetrableNationalPark,Uganda.Conservation Biology 22:1600–1607.
65
Sandbrook,C.G.2006.Tourism,ConservationandLivelihoods:The ImpactsofGorillaTrackingatBwindi ImpenetrableNationalPark,Uganda.Doctoraldissertation,UniversityCollegeLondon,London.
Sandbrook,C.G.2008.Puttingleakageinitsplace:thesignificanceofretainedtourismrevenueinthelocalcontextinRuralUganda.Journal of International Development.PublishedOnline:1Oct,2008.DOI:10.1002/jid.1507.
Sandbrook,C.G.andSemple,S.2006.Therulesandtherealityofmountaingorilla(Gorilla beringei beringei)tracking:howclosedotouristsget?Oryx40:428–433.
SGLCP.2009.Response to Notification: Updating or Revision of the Convention after 2010.ConventiononBiologicalDiversity(CBD)SteeringGrouponLinkingConservationandPoverty(SGLCP).<www.cbd.int/2010-target/notifications.shtml>.
Singleton,I.andAprianto,S.2001.The Semi-Wild Orangutan Population at Bukit Lawang; A Valuable ‘Ekowisata’ Resource and Their Requirements.Unpublishedpaperpresentedattheworkshop‘Eco-tourismdevelopmentatBukitLawang’workshop,Medan,Indonesia,April2001.PanEcoandYayasanEkosistemLestari,Medan,Indonesia.
Singleton,I.,Knott,C.D.,Morrogh-Bernard,H.C.,Wich,S.A.andvanSchaik,C.P.2009.Rangingbehavioroforangutanfemalesandsocialorganiza-tion.In:Orangutans: Geographic Variation in Behavioral Ecology and Conservation, pp.205–213.OxfordUniversityPress,NewYork.
Singleton, I., Wich, S., Husson, S., Stephens, S., Utami Atmoko, S., Leighton, M., Rosen, N., Traylor-Holzer, K., Lacy, R. and Byers, O. 2004.Orangutan Population and Habitat Viability Assessment: Final Report.IUCN/SSCConservationBreedingSpecialistGroup(CBSG).AppleValley,MN.
Soehartono,T.,Susilo,H.D.,Andayani,N.,Atmoko,S.S.,Sihiti,J.,Saleh,C.andSutrisno,A.2007.Orangutan Indonesia: Conservation Strategies and Action Plan 2007–2107.DirectorateGeneralofForestProtectionandNatureConservation,MinistryofForestryoftheRepublicofIndonesia,Jakarta,Indonesia.
SOS.2008.Sumatran Orangutan Health Protocols and Guidelines for Visitors to the Bukit Lawang Eco-tourism Site.SumatranOrangutanSociety(SOS),Oxford,UK.
TANAPAandFZS.2007.Mahale Mountains National Park—Chimp Viewing Code of Conduct.TanzaniaNationalParks(TANAPA),DaresSalaamandFrankfurtZoologicalSociety(FZS),Frankfurt.
Tapper,R.2006.Wildlife Watching and Tourism—A Study on the Benefits and Risks of a Fast Growing Tourism Activity and Its Impacts on Species.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP)/ConventiononMigratorySpecies(CMS),Bonn,Germany.
Tentena,P.2010.IGGcancelsgorillaparkcontracts.New Vision23May2010<http://allafrica.com/stories/201005240404.html>TIES.2005.Ecotourism Fact Sheet.TheInternationalEcotourismSociety(TIES),Washington,DC.Timen,A.,Koopmans,M.P.G.,Vosson,A.C.T.M.,vanDoornum,G.J.J.,Günther,S.,vandenBerkmortel,F.,Verduin,K.M.,Dittrich,S.,Emmerich,
P.,Osterhaus,A.D.M.E.,vanDissel,J.T.andCoutinho,R.A.2009.ResponsetoimportedcaseofMarburghemorrhagicfever,theNetherlands.Emerging Infectious Diseases15:1171-1175.
Tutin,C.E.G.andFernandez,M.1991.Responsesofwildchimpanzeesandgorillastothearrivalofprimatologists:behaviorobservedduringhabitu-ation.In:H.O.Box(ed.),Primate Responses to Environmental Change,pp.187–197.ChapmanandHall,London,UK.
UNEP-GRASP2005.Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes.UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP),GreatApeSurvivalProject(GRASP),Nairobi,Kenya.
UNWTO2009.Testingtimesforinternationaltourism.UNWTO World Tourism Barometer7:1.UgandaWildlifeAuthorityandIGCP.2000.Regional Contingency Planning for Disease Outbreak in the Mountain Gorilla Population—Report from a
Workshop held 21st June–22nd June 2000, Kisoro, Uganda.InternationalGorillaConservationProgramme(IGCP),Nairobi,Kenya.vanKrunkelsven,E.,Dupain,J.,vanElsacker,L.andVerheyen,R.1999.Habituationofbonobos(Pan paniscus):firstreactiontothepresenceof
observersandevolutionofresponseovertime.Folia Primatologica70:365-368.Wallis,J.andLee,D.R.1999.Primateconservation:thepreventionofdiseasetransmission.International Journal of Primatology 20:803–826.Wallis,J.andLonsdorf,E.V.2010.Summaryofrecommendationsforprimateconservationeducationprograms.American Journal of Primatology
72:441-444.Wallis,J.,Woodford,M.,Karesh,W.,Sheeran,L.,Whittier,C.,Nutter,F.andTaylor,S.2000.ASPpolicystatementonprotectingprimatehealthinthe
wild.ASP Bulletin 24:9.Walsh,P.D.etal.2003.CatastrophicapedeclineinwesternequatorialAfrica.Nature422:611–614.WCSFieldVeterinaryProgram2008.Health and Safety Protocols—Great Ape Ecotourism and Research—Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, Republic
of Congo.WCSFieldVeterinaryProgram,Brazzaville,RepublicofCongo.WCSGabon2006.Langoué Bai: Information for Visitors.WCSGabon.Libreville,Gabon.WCSGabon.2008.Langoué Bai, Ivindo National Park: Review of the Pilot Tourism project 2001–June 2008.WildlifeConservationSociety,Libreville,
Gabon.<http://en.calameo.com/books/00000278504447bd38612>Weber,A.W.1993.Primateconservationandeco-tourisminAfrica.In:C.S.Potter,J.I.CohenandD.Janczewski(eds.),Perspectives on Biodiversity:
Case Studies of Genetic Resource Conservation and Development,pp.129–150.AmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofSciencePress.Washington,DC.
Weber,A.W.andVedder,A.1983.PopulationDynamicsoftheVirungaGorillas:1959–1978.Biological Conservation26:341–366.Weber,B.andVedder,A.2001.In the Kingdom of Gorillas: Fragile Species in a Dangerous Land. SimonandSchuster,NewYork.Whittier,C.2009.DiagnosticsandEpidemiologyofInfectiousAgentsinMountainGorillas.Doctoraldissertation,ComparativeBiomedicalSciences,
NorthCarolinaStatueUniversity,Raleigh,NC.Whittier,C.,Nutter,F.andStoskopf,M.2009.Zoonoticdiseaseconcernsinprimatefieldsettings.In:G.Rabb(ed.),The Apes: Challenges for the 21st
Century Conference Proceedings, pp.232–237.ChicagoZoologicalSociety,Brookfield,IL.Wilkie,D.S.andCarpenter,J.F.1999.CantourismfinanceprotectedareasintheCongoBasin.Oryx33:332–338.Wilkie,D.S.,Carpenter,J.F.andZhang,Q.2001.Theunder-financingofprotectedareasintheCongoBasin:somanyparksandsolittlewillingness-
to-pay.Biodiversity and Conservation 10:691–709.Williamson,E.A.1988.BehaviouralEcologyofWesternLowlandGorillasinGabon.PhDthesis,UniversityofStirling,Stirling,UK.Williamson,E.A.andFawcett,K.A.2008.Long-termresearchandconservationoftheVirungaMountainGorillas.In:R.WranghamandE.Ross(eds.),
Science and Conservation in African Forests: The Benefits of Long-term Research, pp.213–229. CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UK.Williamson,E.A.andFeistner,A.T.C.2003.Habituatingprimates:processes,techniques,variablesandethics.In:J.M.SetchellandD.J.Curtis(eds.),
Field and Laboratory Methods in Primatology: A Practical Guide, pp.25–39.CambridgeUniversityPress,Cambridge,UK.
66
Williamson,E.A.,Harcourt,A.,Nkurunungi,J.B.,Wallis,J.,Litchfield,C.,Blom,A.andRussell,C.L.2001.Gorillaandeco-tourism.AseriesofarticlesinGorilla Journal 22:35–41.
Williamson,E.A.,Blom,A.,Bermejo,M.,Cipolletta,C.,Klein,K.,McFarland,K.,Nishihara,T.andTodd,A.2002.RecommendationsfromtheTourismWorkingGroupattheWesternGorillaWorkshop,Leipzig,2002.Unpublishedmanuscript.
Wilson,M.E.1995.TravelandtheEmergenceofInfectiousDisease.Emerging Infectious Diseases 1:39–46.Woodford,M.H.,Butynski,T.M.andKaresh,W.2002.Habituatingthegreatapes:thediseaserisks.Oryx36:153–160.Wrangham,R.W.1974.Artificialfeedingofchimpanzeesandbaboonsintheirnaturalhabitat.Animal Behaviour 22:83–93.Wrangham,R.W.2001.Moraldecisionsaboutwildchimpanzees.In:B.B.Beck,T.S.Stoinski,M.Hutchins,T.L,Maple,B.Norton,A.Rowan,E.F.
StephensandA.Arluke(eds.),Great Apes and Humans: the Ethics of Coexistence,pp.230–244.SmithsonianInstitutionPress,Washington,DC.WWF.2008.Fact Sheet: Lac Télé—Lac Tumba Landscape.WorldWildlifeFund(WWF),Washington,DC.Yamagiwa,J.1999.SlaughterofgorillasintheKahuzi-BiegaPark.Gorilla Journal19:4–6.ZSL.2009.Guidelines for Health and Safety in Tourism Activities at Mikongo Conservation Centre,ZoologicalSocietyofLondon(ZSL),London,UK.
8.2 Bibliography – other relevant literature
Planning tools
Brown,M.,Bonis-Charancle,J.M.,Mogba,Z.,Sundararajan,R.andWarne,R.2004.Linking the Community Options, Assessment and Investment Tool (COAIT), Consensys™ and Payment for Environmental Services (PES): A Model to Promote Gorilla Conservation in Africa. InnovativeResourcesManagement,Washington,DC.
Eagles,P.,McCool,S.andHaynes,C.2002.Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning and Management.WorldCommissiononProtectedAreas(WCPA)/IUCN,Gland,Switzerland.
Lindberg,K.andHawkins,D.1993.Ecotourism: a Guide for Planners and Managers.TheInternationalEcotourismSociety,NorthBennington,VT.Steck,B.,Strasdas,W.andGustedt,E.1999.Tourism in Technical Co-operation: A Guide to the Conception, Planning and Implementation of Project-
accompanying Measures in Regional Rural Development and Nature Conservation.DeutscheGesellschaftfürTechnischeZusammenarbeit(GTZ),TropicalEcologySupportProgramme.Eschborn.
SecretariatoftheConventiononBiologicalDiversity.2004.Guidelines on Biodiversity and Tourism Development: International Guidelines for Activities Related to Sustainable Tourism Development in Vulnerable Terrestrial, Marine and Coastal Ecosystems and Habitats of Major Importance for Biological Diversity and Protected Areas, Including Fragile Riparian and Mountain Ecosystems. Secretariat of the Convention on BiologicalDiversity,Montreal,Canada.
Travis,D.A.,Hungerford,L.,Engel,G.A.andJones-Engel,L.2007.Disease riskanalysis:a tool forprimateconservationplanninganddecisionmaking.American Journal of Primatology68:855–867.
USAID.2003.ENCAP Guidelines for Ecotourism.UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID),Washington,DC.
Additional information on surgical masks and respirators
Belkin,N.L.1997.Theevolutionofthesurgicalmask:filteringefficiencyversuseffectiveness.Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology18:49–57.Greene,V.W.andVesley,D.1962.Methodforevaluatingeffectivenessofsurgicalmasks.Journal of Bacteriology83:663–667.Lipp,A.2003.Theeffectivenessofsurgicalfacemasks:whattheliteratureshows.Nursing Times99:22–24.Philips,B.J.,Fergusson,S.,Armstrong,P.,Anderson,F.M.andWildsmith,J.A.1992.Surgicalfacemasksareeffectiveinreducingbacterialcontami-
nationcausedbydispersalfromtheupperairway.British Journal of Anaesthesia 69:407–408.
A fully equipped tourist guide, Budongo Forest Reserve, Uganda. Photo © Debby Cox.
67
Appendix I – Sample Tourist Regulations
A. Eastern Gorillas
Note: The rules listed below are considered by the Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project (MGVP) to be minimum guidelines for tourists,
researchers and park staff visiting mountain gorillas in Rwanda, Uganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (MGVP 2009). They
have been continually updated during years of operation by MGVP and may also be applied to Grauer’s gorillas and chimpanzees. To
reach the ‘gold standard’, MGVP recommends additional rules be implemented; these are marked by a footnote below.
Gorillas Are Endangered* Please Help Us Keep Them Healthy—Gorilla Visitation RULES for Tourists, Researchers and Staff
Before You Set Out13
• Maximumof8visitorsineachgroup,plus2parkstafffortouristvisits—1guide+1tracker 14
• Minimumage:15yearsold
• Toprotectthehealthofthegorillas,washyourhandsbeforesettingout15.
• PleaseusecleantrackingclothesforEACHgorillavisit;pleasecleanyourshoescarefullyBEFOREandaftereach
visit16.
• If you do not feel well, havediarrhoeaorasorethroat,pleasereportittoyourguide.Itisveryimportantthatpeople
withsignsofanytypeofinfectionnevervisitgorillas.Depending on the country, you may be eligible for a rain check/
refund so you may visit when you are well.
• Ifyouhaveachronicillnesssuchasheartdisease,emphysema,orarthritis,pleasereconsideryourdecisiontotrek.
Healthservicesarelimitednearthepark.
• Pleaseusetherestroombeforeyourvisit,astherewillbenofacilitiesavailable.
While You Are in the Park
• Donotentertheparkwithoutaguide.
• Pleasekeepyourvoicelow.
• ‘LeaveNoTrace’.Ifyoubroughtit in-takeitout.Donotlitter.Avoidunnecessarilydamaginganyplants.Donot
removeanyplantsorwildlifefromthepark.
• Ifyoumustrelieveyourself,burysolidwasteatleastonefoot(30cm).Ifyouarewithaguide,askthemtodigthehole.
• Leaveallbackpacks,walkingsticks,foodanddrink,atleast100 metresfromgorillas(thelengthofafootball/soccer
field).Theportersandextratrackerswillstayhere.
• Nosmokingorspitting.
When You Are With the Gorillas
• Maintaina7metre(23feet)distancefromthegorillas.
• Spendamaximumof1hourpervisit
• Donoteatordrinkduringthegorillavisit.Donotfeedthegorillas.AGAINSmokingisnotallowed.
• DoNOTuseflashphotography.Askyourguidefortapetocoverflashifneeded.
• Speakonlyinasoftvoice.
• AllcellphonesmustbeOFF.Radiosshouldbeturneddown.
13 Pre-visitvaccinationshavebeendiscussedinothersites,andtouristsareverylikelytofollowprotocolsifinformedinadvance.Howeverthiswouldnotpreventthediseasesofprimeconcern(influenza,commoncold,TB).14 MGVP‘goldstandards’recommendthemaximumnumberofpeopleshouldbereducedtoimproveboththequalityofthevisitfortouristsandtheabilityoftheguidestoenforcerules.Insteadof8guests+2parkstaff,MGVPrecommends6+2.15 Toilets and hand-washing facilities to be provided at morning meeting points. Hands and boots should be disinfected at entrance topark/forest—thiscanbecarriedoutwithhandsprayerscontainingdisinfectant.16 Trackers and rangers should also change clothes, shower, and clean boots before visiting a second group. During a respiratory diseaseoutbreak,andforoneweekafterwards,staffshouldnotmovebetweengroups.
68
• Donotantagonizethegorillasinanyway:Donotpointatthegorillas,makesuddengesturesormovementsorloud
noises
• Ifagorillachargesyou,remainstill,avoideyecontactBUTDONOTturnaway.
• Followtheinstructionsandadviceofyourguide.
• YouMAYbeaskedtowearamaskBEFOREvisitingthegorillasandwashyourhandsagain/usehandsanitizerifthere
isalocalorglobaldiseaseoutbreak.Theparkofficialswillinstitutethisrulewhenadvisedbyvetsandotherhealth
experts17.
• Ifyoucoughorsneeze,youshouldwearamask(Fortourists,guideswillprovidethemaskandwillcollectthemat
theendofthevisit18
• Note: Those who do not respect the guidelines may be asked to leave the gorillas and the park; you will not
receive a refund and you may be penalized.
B. Western Gorillas: tracking
Note: This content is adapted from material provided by WCS (WCS Field Veterinary Program 2008) for Mondika, where tourists track
habituated western lowland gorillas.
Gorilla tracking at Mondika
TrackinggorillasatMondikacanbephysicallydemandingandwerequestthatvisitorsareinsufficientphysicalconditiontoendure
hikesofupto3hoursindensevegetation,oftenwadingthroughwaterandswamps.
Tourist Health Requirements:InordertoensuretothedegreepossiblethattouristsandothervisitorsarenotcarryingdiseasesthatmaybesubsequentlytransmittedtotheMondikagorillas,thefollowingregulationshavebeeninstituted:
PriortoarrivalinCongo,eachvisitorwillberequiredtofurnishproofofcurrentvaccinationagainstthefollowing:
• Polio(attenuated)
• Measles*(*Itiscontraindicatedthatimmunocompromisedindividualsbevaccinatedagainstmeasles)
• Yellowfever(thisisalsorequiredforenteringmanyAfricancountries)
Inaddition,eachvisitormustprovideproofofnegativetuberculosis(TB)status:
• NegativeTBtest(Mantouxskintestorotherrecognisedtest)obtainedinthelastsixmonthspriortoarrival.
ThisinformationwillbeverifiedonarrivalatBomassaBasebeforegrantingpermissiontovisitMondika.Failuretoprovidetheneces-
saryinformation,orfalsifyingsuchinformation,canresultinbeingrefusedaccesstotheMondikasiteand/orgorillaviewing.Anyone
exhibitingsignsofpotentiallytransmissibledisease,suchasinfluenza,mayberefusedaccesstoMondikaCampandgorillaviewing.
Anyonewithanactiveherpesoutbreak(coldsores)ordiarrhoeawillalsobedeniedentrytotheforest.StaffatBomassaandMondika
retaintherighttodenyaccesstothegorillastoanyonebelievedtobecurrentlyillwithatransmissibledisease.
Forthehealthandwell-beingofthevisitors,thefollowingarealsostronglyrecommended:
• Tetanusvaccination
• HepatitisAvaccination
• HepatitisBvaccination.
17 MGVP“goldstandards”recommendthateveryoneshouldbemadetowearanN95mask–staffandtourists.IfN95masksareunobtainableand/ortooexpensive,astandardsurgicalmaskshouldbeused.Thisisparticularlyimportantinlightoftheincreasingseverityandfrequencyofinfluenzavirusinfectionsamongpeople.18 Fortouristgroups,thegorillaguideshouldbeassignedtheroleofcollectingusedmasksanddisposingofthemproperly.Forresearchgroupsandroutinemonitoring,theleadtrackerisassignedthistask.
69
Tourist Visit Health and Safety Regulations
1. Theminimumageofvisitorsforgorillaviewingis15years.
2. Themaximumnumberofvisitorsviewingthegorillasatanyonetimeislimitedtotwopeople.Visitorswillbeaccompaniedby
onetrackerandoneguide,sothattheviewinggroupislimitedtoatotaloffourpeople.Thisisbecauseofthesmallsizeofthe
gorillagroup,thefactthatthegroupisoftenveryspreadoutanddispersed,theterrainanddiseaseconcerns.
3. Visitswiththegorillaswillbelimitedtoonehour.Guideswillmakeeveryreasonableattempttoinsuregoodviewingofthegorillas,
butsuchmaynotalwaysbepossible.Theguides’decisiononwhentoterminatethevisitisfinal.
4. Amaximumoftwogorillavisitswillbefacilitatedonanygivenday.Eachofthesevisitswillhaveamaximumoftwovisitorsand
viewingwillbeforamaximumonehour.
5. Allvisitorsmustmaintainaminimumdistanceof7metersfromthegorillasatalltimes.Ifduringthevisitagorillaapproachesto
withinthat7mdistance,yourguideswillhaveyouretreattoasafedistance.
6. Allvisitorsmustweartheprovidedfacemasks(coveringnoseandmouth)atalltimeswhenobservingthegorillas.Theseface-
maskswill not inanywaynegativelyaffect yourexperiencewith thegorillas,butcanplayan important role inminimising
transmissionofdiseasessuchasthecommoncoldorotherrespiratoryconditions,whicharefrequentlypickeduponlong-haul
flights.Thesefacemasksmustbereturnedtotheguideattheendofthevisit.
7. Visitorsmustremainwiththeirguideatalltimes.Speakandmovequietlyintheforest.Youwillseemuchmore.Intheeventthat
ananimaldisplaysorcharges,remaincalmandavoidmovementsthatmayfurtherexcitetheanimal,avoideyecontactand
followthedirectionsofyourguide.
8. Donotattempttotouch,pointatorotherwiseinteractwiththegorillasorotherwildlife.
9. Nodefecatingintheforest.Pleasetakecareofanyneedsbeforeleavingthebasecamp.
10.Nourinatingwithin100mofthegorillas,norinanywatersource.Ifatallpossible,asmallholeshouldbedugandtheurinecov-
eredoverwithdirt.
11.Nocoughing,sneezingorspittinginproximitytothegorillas.Ifyoudohavetosneezeorblowyournose,pleaseturnawayand
coveryourmouthwithatissue.
12.Nolitteringofanykindwillbepermitted;everythingcarriedintotheforestmustbecarriedout.
13.Nosmokingispermittedintheforest.
14.Noeatingispermittedwithin100mofthegorillas.Allfoodpackagingandutensilsmustbecarriedoutoftheforest.
15.Nofeedingofthegorillasoranyotheranimals.
16.Donotattempttoattracttheattentionofthegorillasoranimalsforaphotoopportunityanddonotuseflashphotography.
17.Donotleavebagsorotherbelongingsunattendedintheforestinproximitytothegorillas.
C. Western Gorillas: bai visits
Note: This content is adapted from material provided by WCS for tourism at Mbeli Bai in the Republic of Congo (WCS Field Veterinary Program 2008), and is an example of tourism regulations at ‘bai’ sites, in which visitors observe gorillas, if they are present, along with other species that visit a forest clearing. Viewing at these sites tends to be from platforms on the edge of the clearing, in this case called the ‘mirador’. For regulations from additional bai sites, see WCS Gabon (2006) for Langoué Bai, Gabon, and for Bai Hokou in CAR: http://www.dzanga-sangha.org/drupal/node/516
Guidelines for visitors to Mbeli Bai, Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park
ThesebriefguidelinesshouldhelpyouprepareforthetropicalrainforestandforvisitingMbeliBai.TheNouabalé-NdokiNational
Parkisanintactforestecosystemwithhealthypopulationsofwildanimals.Theseinstructionsareforyoursafetyandforthehealth
oftheanimals.TheywillalsoensurethatyourexperienceoftheNouabalé-NdokiNationalParkisasenjoyableandmemorableas
possible.PleasedonothesitatetocontactNouabalé-NdokiNationalPark(NNNP)stafforresearchersattheMbeliBaiStudyforany
questionsregardinghealth,safetyandwildlife.ItisimportantthatyoualwaysfollowtheinstructionsofNNNPstaff(bothguidesand
researchers)carefullyduringyourvisit.
Illness
• Novisitorshouldvisittheforestiftheyhaveanysymptomsofillness.Ifyoubecomeillduringyourvisit,pleasenotify
theParkstafforresearchteamleaderimmediately.Casesofhumanvirusesandbacteriathatcanbetransmittedfrom
70
humanstoapesincludeinfluenzaandthecommoncold.Therefore,theseillnessescouldproveharmfultochimpan-
zeesandgorillas.
Behaviour in the camp
• Youraccommodationissituated2.7kmfromMbeliBaianditwilltakeyouaround45minutesataleisurelypaceon
awell-troddenpathtoreachtheclearing.Youareinthemiddleoftherainforestanditisnotuncommontoencounter
wildanimalsinthecamporonthepath.Wildanimalsarepotentiallydangerousandshouldalwaysbetreatedwith
theutmostrespect.
• Extremecareshouldbetakenifmovingbetweenyourhouseandyourtoiletduringthenight,andyoushouldnotmove
aroundthecampatnightwithoutaguide.
• IntheNNNPwearetryingtointegrateresearchandeco-tourismatonesite.Wedohoweveraskyoutorespectthe
campworkersandresearcherswholiveinthecamp,andavoidleavingthetouristcamptovisittheresearchcamp.
• Pleasedonotdroplitter.
Behaviour in the forest
• Donotwalkintheforestwithoutaguideoraresearcher
• Alwaysstayinvisualcontactwithparkstaff,guidesorresearchers.Parkstaffhaveyearsofexperiencewithwildani-
malsandwillprovideinstructionsintheeventthatyoumeetananimalonthepathtothebai.
• Followtheinstructionsofparkstaff,guidesandresearcherswhenencounteringanelephants,gorillasorotherwild
animals.
• Neverrunorshoutwhileinproximitytowildlife.
• Walksilentlyandalwaysbevigilantwhileintheforest.
• Donotapproachanylargeanimals,includingchimpanzees,gorillasandelephants.Nevertrytotouchorinanyway
physicallycontactanyoftheanimalsintheforest.
• Actsubmissivelytowardsallanimalsintheforestanddonotexhibitanybehaviourthatmaythreatenorharassthe
animal.
• Ifyoumeetagorillaintheforest,youmustremainwhereyouare,keepquietandstillanddon’trunaway.
• Avoidmakinganynoiseorotherdisturbancewhileinthepresenceofwildlife.(Ifyouhavetocommunicatewithyour
guideoryourgroup,uselowandhushedvoices).
• Donotuseflashesorartificiallightswhenphotographingorfilmingwildlife.Also,pleasekeepanyequipmentnoiseto
aminimum.Wearappropriatefieldclothes,preferablyinforestcolourssuchasgreenandbrown.
• Donotdroplitter.Humanrefuse(foodremains,garbage,personalitems,etc.)isoftenattractivetowildlifeandshould
betransportedfromtheforesttodesignatedlatrinesanddisposedofproperly.Ziplocbagsshouldbeincludedin
hikinggeartostoreandtransporttrashgeneratedwhileintheforest.
• Smokingisprohibitedintheforest.
• Pleaserefrainfromcoughing,sneezing,ornoseblowinginproximitytoanimals.
• PleaseusedesignatedlatrinesateitherMbeliBaicamporMbelimirador,andavoidusingtheforestasatoilet!
Behaviour at the bai
• All theanimalsvisitingMbeliBaiarewildandhabituatedonly to thepresenceof researcherson theobservation
platform(mirador).Inordertominimisedisturbanceandmaximiseyourtimewiththeanimalspleasewhenonthe
platform:
• Speakquietly,moveslowly.
• Donotsmoke,donotcookfood.
• Donotwalkintheforestbehindthemirador.
• Avoidwearingcolourfulclothes,suchasbrightred,yellow.
• Alwayslistentotheadviceoftheresearchers.
• Donotwalktothetoiletwithoutatracker.
• Donotleanovertheedgeofthemirador.
• Beawareofsnakes!
71
D. Western Gorillas: forest walk/chance observation
Note: These recommendations were adapted from a Zoological Society of London visitor information leaflet provided to tourists who
visit Mikongo in Gabon (ZSL 2009). During guided walks through the forest, visitors could on occasion encounter gorillas.
Requirements and recommendations to tour operators
Requirements:
• Age limit:nolessthan15yearsold-thisisprimarilybecausechildrenoflessthan15yearsoldcanstillbevectorsof
childhooddiseasesandmightnotbeabletodealinanappropriatemannerwithadangeroussituation–thereisno
officialupperagelimit.
• Good physical fitness: guests have tobe fit enough tohike for aminimumof 2–3hours in adenseandhumid
environment.
Recommendations:
• Guests should have updated vaccinations for the following diseases: polio(attenuated),measles,tetanus,hepatitisA,
yellowfever(compulsory inGabon).Atthisstage,asguestsarenot inclosecontactwithhabituatedgorillas,vac-
cinationsareonlyrecommended.Thereisnowayforustocheckthatguestsareactuallyvaccinatedagainstthese
diseasesbeforetheyarriveatMCCanditisdifficulttomakesurethattouroperatorsactuallyprovidetheserecom-
mendationstotheircustomers.Iftouristsaretobetakenforhabituatedgorillasviewinginthefuture,vaccinationswill
becompulsoryandwaysofcontrolimplemented.
• Clothing: Guestsshouldwearcomfortableoutdoorclothesofneutralcolours(avoidvisiblecolourssuchaswhite,
brightblueandred,aswellasblack),preferablylongtrousersandlong-sleevedtops.
Checking for guests’ health status
• Visitor health information form: attheirarrival,guestsaregivenahealthformtofillinaspartofanindemnityform
package (cf.annexe I).Thehealth formshouldbeusedasasupport to raiseguests’awarenessaboutanthropo-
zoonoticdiseasesandasameanstocheckforguests’healthinessfromtheirarrival.
• Direct observations: ecoguidesandmanagementstaffhavetopayattentiontoanysignofillness(fever,weakness,
dizziness,sneezing/coughing/sniffing,diarrhoea/vomiting,injury)shownbyguests.Guestsalsohavetobeencour-
agedtoself-reportanyhealthproblemoccurringduringtheirstay.Incaseaguestshowsanysignsof illness,the
managementstaffhastostronglyrecommendgueststostayatcamp.Themanagementstaffretaintherighttodeny
accesstotheforesttoanyguestbelievedtobeillwithatransmissibledisease(e.g.,cold,diarrhoea)orwithanyafflic-
tionlikelytocompromisetheirsafety.
• Awareness: posterssummarisingprimatehealthruleshavebeendesigned,andpostedinallguestrooms.
Applying responsible behaviours
• Informing guests upon their arrival: intheindemnityformpackagetobesignedbytouristsattheirarrival(cf.AnnexeI),
asheetsummarisesthemainsafetyrulesandrecommendationscorrespondingtoresponsiblebehaviourstofollow
whileinthecampandintheforest.Theserulesandrecommendationsaresimilartotheonesprovidedtoforestwork-
ers.Oneimportantadditionalruleisthatguestshavetorespectandfollowecoguides’directivesduringwalksinany
case.Toempowerandincreasethesenseofresponsibilitiesofecoguides,ecoguideshavetobetheonesexplaining
therulesandrecommendationstotheguestsfromtheirarrival:theecoguidehastogothroughthemwiththeguests
andcheckthattheyarewellunderstood.Soparticularattentionshouldbegiventorefreshecoguidetrainingonthese
rulesandcheckonhowtheyapplythem.
• Group size: whatever theirsize,allgroupshave tobeaccompaniedby2ecoguides,one leadingandoneat the
back.Themaximumgroupsizeforguidedwalksisrecommendedtobenomorethan7persons,includingecoguides,
forsafetybutalsotoincreasewildlifeviewingopportunities.Largergroupsshouldthenbeencouragedtosplitinto
smallerones.Thisquestionneedstobeaddressedinadvancewithtouroperatorswhendiscussingbookingssothat
guestsandtourleadersareawarebeforetheirarrival.
• Introductory talk and check-up by guides: beforegoingforwalksintheforest,leadingguideshavetoexplainagain
therulesandrecommendationstotheguestsandcheckthatallaredressedappropriatelyandlookingoodshape.
• Boot cleaning and disinfection: beforeandaftereachwalk,guidesandguestshavetodiptheirbootsolesintothe
disinfectantsolution.
• During walks: ecoguideshavetoavoidinterferingwiththehabituationworkbypreparingwalkswithguestsinadvance
andcheckingwith thehabituationteamthatareas involveddonotoverlap.Regular radiochecksbetweenteams
duringwalkshavetobemadetocheckontheirrespectivepositionandadapttourismcircuitsaccordingly.Itisstrictly
forbiddenthatecoguidesandguestspurposefullyjointhehabituationteamintheforest.
72
E. Chimpanzees
Note: Extracted from the Jane Goodall Institute–Uganda Ecotourism Health Protocols (JGI-Uganda 2006), which cover a range of
visitor categories. The excerpt below is for ‘Day Visitors’, i.e. tourists. Regulations vary slightly between JGI and other chimpan-
zee sites - see also regulations from Gombe (Collins 2003; Gombe Stream Research Centre and Wilson 2006) and from Mahale
Mountains National Park (TANAPA and FZS 2007).
Age Limits:
Minimumageis15years.
Maximumageis65years;thisisalsodependantonsizeandfitnessleveloftheperson.Managementwillassessallclientspriorto
startingthewalk.Ifmanagersareconcerned,youmayberefusedentrywiththechimpanzees.
Health Clearance:
Allvisitorsthatparticipateinthechimpwalksarerequiredtobefreeofanyflu-likediseaseatthetimeofthewalk.Anyonewitha
herpes(coldsores)outbreakwillalsobedeniedentrytotheforest.Iftheprojectsupervisorisatallconcernedaboutthevisitors’
presentstateofhealth,participationonthewalkwillbedenied.JGImanagementstaffwillhavethefinalsayonwhocangoonthe
walk;thisisnotnegotiable.
All visitors must be given the following instructions:
1. If you are sick, you are not allowed to enter the forest to follow the chimpanzees.Humanillnessescaninfectandkillthese
animals.Donotapproachthemiftheyarriveincamp.Evenifyouarenotvisiblysick,youmaybecarryingadiseasethatcan
killthemwhichiswhyfollowingtheserulesissocrucial.
2. It is crucial that you remain a minimum of 10 metres/33 feet from chimpanzees and baboons at all times.Ifananimalstarts
toapproach,moveawaytoadistanceof10metres.Itisyourresponsibilitytokeepthesafeandproperdistance.
3. The number of people in your group must never exceed six (6), excluding your guide, while following the chimps.Youmust
beaccompaniedbyaGuideatalltimesintheforest.Ifyouencounteranothergroupofpeopleobservingchimpsorbaboons,
waitpatientlyatadistanceuntiltheymoveaway.Childrenundertheageof7arenotpermittedintheforest.
4. You are allowed to remain with a group of chimpanzees for one hour, after which you may encounter other parties briefly and
visit the many scenic areas of the forest.
5. It is very important that you stay together in your group.Neverspreadoutorsurroundanimalsyouareobserving.Whenyou
comeuponchimpsorbaboonsintheforestitisbestthatyousitquietly.Youwillseemorenaturalbehaviourifthechimpsare
relaxed.
6. If you must talk in the forest, speak quietly.Donotusearmgestureswhiletalking.Thismaybeseenasathreatbybaboonsand
chimps.Neverstareatababoon,asitistakenasathreat.
7. Carry your equipment, backpacks and other items at all times.Bothchimpsandbaboonswillstealanythingleftunattended.
Theseunfortunateincidentsincreasetheriskofdiseasetransferandresultindamagetoyourbelongings.Beespeciallycareful
withbandanasandtissues.Andneverleavebelongingsoutsideunattendedincamp.
8. Do not spit or nose blow on the ground. Suppress sneezes and coughs while in forest.Ifyoumust,coveryourfaceandturn
awayfromtheanimalsbeingobserved.
9. Do not smoke or eat in the forest. Alwayseatindoorsbehindalatcheddoor.Visitorshavebeenseriouslyinjuredbybaboons
thathavetriedtostealfood.
10. Never feed the chimpanzees, baboons or other wildlife.
11. Use the latrine and wash hands with soap before entering the forest and upon return.Youareresponsiblefordigginga1ft
deepholeintheforestforburyingfaeceswhenalatrineisnotavailable.
12. Never attempt flash photography or use reflective devices.Wildanimalsareunpredictablewhenstartled.Visitorshavebeen
seriouslythreatenedbychimpanzeesafterignoringthisrule.Nevertrytoattractananimal’sattentioninordertotakeabetter
photograph.
13. Littering of any kind is forbidden.Neverthrowfood,candywrappers,cigarettebutts,oranyotherman-madeproductontothe
ground.Transportingtherubbishyoubringbackoutoftheforestandreserve/parkwouldbegreatlyappreciated.
73
F. Orangutans: wild
GUIDELINES FOR TOURISTS VISITING THE RED APE ENCOUNTERS, MALAYSIA
WILD HABITUATED ORANGUTANS
Themostimportantthingforavisitortorememberistoalwaysfollowthetourleader’srecommendationsforthesafetyofboththe
orangutanandthepeople.
RULE 1: Number of people limited to 5 tourists per group (RAE staff not included).
• Reasons:control the risk of human impacts
optimise the encounter and viewing opportunities for tourists
RULE 2: Duration of an orangutan viewing time limited to one hour maximum
• Reasons:reduce orangutan exposure to potential germ-carrying people
minimise behavioural disturbance and associated stress in the animals
Iforangutansarenotvisiblewhenthevisitorsarriveatthesite,theycanwaitinstand-bywiththeirguideataminimumof100metres
fromthetreewheretheanimalstays.
RULE 3: Frequency of visits limited to 1 visit per day and per habituated orangutan
• Reasons:minimise stress of the animals
minimise the negative impacts of heavy human presence on RAE natural environment
(trampling, disturbance to the ecosystem, etc.).
RULE 4: Ill people cannot visit the orangutan
Touristsareaskedtoself-reportanysicknesstotheRAEstaffandtheirvisitwillberefundedorrescheduled.RAEstaffcanrefusea
visittoanyvisitorshowingobvioussignsofdisease.
• Reasons:minimise risks of disease transmission
RULE 5: Not closer than 10 metres from an orangutan
• Reasons:minimise risks of disease transmission
RULE 6: Adopt an appropriate behaviour during the close contact with the orangutan
• Reasons:minimise the stress and disturbance to the animals
• Proper behaviours:
ü Refrainfromsmoking,eating,sneezingandcoughinginthepresenceoforangutans
ü visitorsshouldremaininatightgroup,withoutlosingcontactwiththeRAEstaff
ü wherepossible,visitorsshouldsitwhilstwatchingtheapes
ü bodylanguageisimportantandvisitorsshouldstayasquietaspossibleduringtheirentirevisit(noscream-
ing,nobriskmovements,norunning,etc…).Showrespecttotheanimalsandtrytoremainassilentas
possiblewiththem.
ü donotclearvegetationtogetabetterviewoftheorangutans
ü donotstareattheorangutansanddonotusebinoculars,photographiclensesand/orvideocamerasifthe
animalsaredisturbed(kiss-squeakvocalisations).
ü donottrytoapproachanorangutan(especiallyanewcomer)unlessaguideiswithyou.
RULE 7: Adopt an appropriate behaviour during all times in the forest
• Reasons:minimise disturbance to the ecosystem
• Proper behaviours:
ü allfaecalmaterialandpapersmustbeburied(aparangcanbeborrowedanytimefromtheRAEstaff).
ü litteringisstrictlyprohibitedatRAEsiteandalltypesofrubbishmustbecarriedoutsideoftheforest.
ü donotcollectanylivingorganismsfromtheforest(flowers,insects,seeds,etc.).
74
G. Orangutans: ex-captives and wild
Sumatran Orangutan Health Protocols and Guidelines for Visitors to the Bukit Lawang Eco-tourism Site (SOS 2008)
AsyoutrekthroughtheforestatBukitLawang,itisimportanttorememberthatyouareenteringthehabitatofoneoftherarestgreat
apespeciesonEarth.
ThepopulationofSumatranorangutansatBukitLawangisfromtwodifferentorigins:
1. Ex-captiveindividualswhohavebeenrehabilitatedandreleasedintheforest.Captiveandrehabilitationexperiencesoftenresult
inreleasedrehabilitantorangutansnotfearinghumansandevenexpectingtointeractwiththem.
2. Wildindividuals,someofwhomhavebecomehabituatedtohumanpresence,withtheremainingbeingnaïve(i.e.notusedto
people’spresenceintheirforesthabitat).
Inappropriatebehaviourbyvisitorsmayaffect thebehaviourandhealthoforangutans frombothpopulationsnegatively,which
placesthematincreasedriskofbecomingstressedandfallingill.Byfollowingthesesimpleguidelines,visitorsareabletoseethe
SumatranorangutansatBukitLawanginawaythatisbothsafeforthemselvesandsafefortheorangutans,whilstatthesametime,
experiencingamorenatural,uniqueexperienceintheforest.
Group Responsibilities
• Amaximumgroupsizeofsevenvisitorsistobeadheredtowhilstintheforest.Researchfromothereco-touristsites
thatallowgreatapetrekkinghasshownthatvisitorgroupsizecanaffectthebehaviourofthegreatapesencoun-
teredand(asaresult),thevisitors’experience.Wheregroupsofvisitorsaretoohighinnumber,theanimalsbecome
stressedandnervousandmoveawayfromvisitorgroups.
• EverymemberofavisitorgroupshouldmaintainaminimumdistanceofTENMETRESfromtheclosestorangutan.
Thepotentialfordiseasetransfer,bothhumanstoorangutanandorangutantohuman,isveryhighduetotheclose
geneticrelationshiphumanssharewithgreatapes.Pneumonia,influenza,tuberculosis,hepatitisA,B,CandE,chol-
era,herpes,parasitesandeventhecommoncoldcanallbepassedbetweengreatapesandhumans.
o Thisdistanceservestoprotectvisitorsfromthepossibilityofattackbyorangutans.Thisisarealfactor
inex-captiveorangutans,sincemostarenotafraidofhumansafterhavinglivedashumancaptivesand
beingrehabilitatedbyhumans;itisnotaseriousconcernwithwildorangutans.
o Ifanorangutanmovestowardsavisitorgrouporanymemberofthegroup,itisprimarilytheresponsibility
oftheguidetomovethewholevisitorgroupback(maintainingtheminimumdistanceatalltimes).Every
memberofavisitorgroupshouldnonethelessmoveawayfromanyorangutanthatapproachesandalertothersoftheapproach.
• Onceinthepresenceoforangutans(lessthan50metresaway,thedistanceatwhichorangutansareconsideredto
beassociatingwithoneanother),visitorsmaystayNOLONGERTHANONEHOUR.Thevisitwillbeformallytimed
fromthepointofenteringtheorangutans’presence.Whenthisperiodisover,thegroupistoleavetheareathatthe
orangutanisin.
o Timingistheguide’sresponsibilityandtheviewingperiodCANNOTbeextended.
• RememberthatvisitorsareguestsintheGunungLeuserNationalPark,whichistheorangutans’homeandthatwhat
isbestfortheorangutansistofreelyroamandforagenaturallyintheforestwithoutexcessivedisturbance.
Orangutan Viewing
Sumatranorangutansshareover96.5%oftheirgeneticDNAwithhumansandasaresulttheyarelikeusinmanyways.Itisimpor-
tanttorememberthatorangutansarehighlyintelligent,thinking,feelingbeingsandshouldbetreatedwithduecareandrespect.
VisitorstotheBukitLawangsitearetoobservethefollowing‘orangutanetiquette’guidelines:
• Visitorsshouldnottouchtheorangutansunderanycircumstances.Touchingisverydangerous,forvariousreasons:
diseases,infectionsandevenparasitescaneasilypassbetweenorangutansandhumansandphysicalcontactmakes
thelikelihoodofthishigher.Touchingalsogivestheorangutansthechancetograb;someofthemdo,withallfour
handsandfeet,typicallytostealfoodorothergoods.Amatureorangutanisapproximatelyfourtimesstrongerthan
ahumanandcaninflictseriousorfatalinjuriesiftheyfeelthreatened,irritatedorupset.
o Binocularsmaybeusefulbecausetheyallowcloseupviewsoforangutansfromsafedistances.Pleasedo
notusebinocularsunlessorangutansarerelaxedandstopusingthemiforangutansshowsignsofbecom-
inguneasy.Binocularlensespointedatanorangutancanlooklike‘bigeyes’andorangutanssometimes
seemtofindthisuncomfortable.
75
o Camerausagemustalsofollowthesameguidelinesforbinoculars.Cameralensesmayoftenbelarger
thanthoseofbinocularsandthusmayirritatetheorangutans.Alsolimittheuseofflashphotographyas
thismayalsoaffecttheorangutans.
• Visitorsmustnotfeedtheorangutansunderanycircumstances.
• Visitorsshouldnotunderanycircumstancesmovetoorstayinalocationthatputsthembetweentwoorangutans,
especiallyamotherandherinfantoramaleandhisfemaleconsort.Orangutanmothersareextremelyprotectiveof
theiryoungandcanbecomeaggressiveiftheyfeelthattheirinfantisbeingthreatened.Maleorangutanscanbecome
aggressiveifanyoneapproachestheirconsortandmaythreaten,chaseorevenattack.
• Visitorsorguidesshouldnotcallouttotheorangutansorotherwiselurethemtochangetheirbehaviour.Callingor
luringtheorangutanscancausestressanditautomaticallydisruptsnaturalbehaviour.
• Visitorsshouldrefrainfrommakinganysuddenmovementsandshouldnotattempttogaintheattentionoftheoran-
gutansbywavingtheirarms,etc.,forthesamereasonsgivenabove.Inadditiontodisruptingtheirbehaviour,thiscan
annoyorangutansandevokethreatsormoreseriousaggression.
• Visitorsshouldrefrainfrommakingtoomuchnoisewithintheforestandtrytotalkquietly.Loudnoisecanbeinter-
pretedasathreatbytheorangutansandtheycanrespondeitherbyfleeingorthreateningback.
o Ifanorangutanbeginstomakekiss-squeakvocalisations,throatygruntsorgrowls,or‘raspberry’sounds,
breakingandthrowingbranches,orshakestrees,thesearesignsofirritateddisturbanceandaggressive
threats.Itisbesttomoveonandleavetheorangutanalone.
Visitor Responsibilities
• Visitorsmustnotentertheforestiftheyarefeelingunwellorrecentlyhadanillnessand/ordiarrhoea.Itiseachvisitor’s
moralresponsibilitytoreportanysignofdiseasetotheirguidebeforeenteringtheforest.Spendingtimearoundthe
orangutanswhilstunwellcanseriouslyriskinfectingthem,whichcouldeasilyresultintheirdeath—andhas,inthe
past.Anyorangutaninfectedbyhumanscouldpotentiallyinfectotherorangutansaswell.
o Iftheguidefeelsthatavisitorisnotwellenoughtoentertheforest,itiswithinhis/herauthoritytorefuse
entrytothevisitor.
A not uncommon scene at tourism sites involving ex-captive orangutans, illustrating the potential for both aggressive encounters and disease
transmission. Photo © Steve Unwin.
76
• Nofoodshouldbebroughtintotheforestbyvisitors.Ifnecessary(forlongertreksorinspecialcases),allfoodshould
becarriedbytheguideforsafe-keeping.
o Eatingorevenhavingfoodvisiblewhilstintheforestincreasestheriskofbothdiseasetransmissionand
attacksfromorangutans.Oneofthemainreasonsthatorangutanscontactandattackhumansistosteal
food,andseeingfoodisthereforeamajorprovocation.Ifnofoodisbroughtin,theorangutanswilllearn
thatthereisnothingtoattackfor,whichwillmakeasaferexperienceforALLoftheorangutansandALL
futurevisitorsandguides.
• Visitorsshouldtakeanylittertheyhaveoutoftheforestwhentheyleave.
o Thisincludesfruitskinsasdiscardedfoodsmaylaterattractorangutansandallowfordiseasetransfer
o Itismostpreferabletobringaslittleaspossibleintotheforest,onlytheessentialsshouldbetakenin.This
willlimitchancesofloss/damage.
o Refrainfromsmokingintheforest.SmokingisNOTpermittedwheninthepresenceoforangutans.
• Ifthevisitorneedstodefecatewithintheforest,he/shemustensurethatitisawayfromtheorangutansandthata
holeisdug(atleast30cmdeep)andsubsequentlyfilledin.Wherepossible,visitorsshouldtryandwaituntiltheyare
outoftheforest.
Forest Responsibilities
Likeanytropicalforest,BukitLawanganditssurroundingareasrepresentacomplicatedanddiverse(butaboveall,fragile)habitat.
Thewholeforestsystemisadelicatelybalancednetworkofanimalandplantspeciesandmanyspeciesareheavilydependentupon
one-another.Wethereforeaskvisitorstofollowthissimpleguideline:
• Visitorsshouldnotremove,damage,oralteranyofthevegetationwithintheforest.Leaves,seedsandshellsallplay
arolewithintheforestecosystemandshouldnotbetakenout.
It is the responsibility of every person entering the forest to help ensure the survival of this critically endangered species and
its habitat. Visitors should discourage other members in their party, including their guides, from acting in a way that contradicts
these guidelines and should express their disapproval and report to the national park office any activity which puts either the
visitors or the orangutans at risk.
With your help and cooperation, the orangutan can continue to flourish in Bukit Lawang and visitors for years to come will also
be able to enjoy and appreciate them in their natural forest home.
Appendix II – Information on Face Masks/N95 Respirator Masks
Facemasks/Surgical Masks vs. N95 respirator masks:Thisdocumenthasrecommendedasbestpracticethatallvisitors,including
staff,touristsandresearchers,whoapproachtoadistanceof10metresorlessfromwildgreatapeswearsurgicalN95respirators.
Astherearealargevarietyofmasksonthemarket,variouslycalled‘facemasks’,‘surgicalmasks’or‘respirators’,thefollowinginfor-
mationdescribesthedifferencesinmasktypesandprovidesadditionalinformation.Allofthisinformationisadaptedfrommaterial
producedbyhumanhealthnetworks(CDC2004;CDC2006;Drelleret al.2006;FDA2009)and/oradaptedfromrecommendations
fromgreatapeveterinaryexperts(MGVP2008;MGVP2009).
Facemasks:Afacemaskisaloose-fitting,disposabledevicethatcreatesaphysicalbarrierbetweenthemouthandnoseofthe
wearerandpotentialcontaminantsintheimmediateenvironment.Facemasksmaybelabelledassurgical,laser,isolation,dental
ormedicalproceduremasks.Facemasksaremadeindifferentthicknessesandwithdifferentabilitiestoprotectthewearerfrom
contactwithliquids.Thesepropertiesmayalsoaffecthoweasilythewearercanbreathethroughthefacemaskandhowwellthe
facemaskprotectsthewearer.Ifwornproperly,afacemaskismeanttohelpblocklarge-particledroplets(greaterthan50-100μm
diameter),splashes,spraysorsplatterthatmaycontaininfectiousagentsfromreachingthewearer’smouthandnose.Facemasks
mayalsohelpreduceexposureofotherstorespiratorysecretionsofthewearer.Whileafacemaskmaybeeffective inblocking
splashesandlarge-particledroplets,afacemask,bydesign,doesnotfilterorblockverysmallparticlesintheairthatmaybetrans-
mittedbycoughsorsneezes.Facemasksalsodonotprovidecompleteprotectionbecauseoftheloosefitbetweenthesurfaceof
thefacemaskandthewearer’sface.
N95 Respirators:Althoughappearingsimilartofacemaskstothelayperson,anN95respiratorisarespiratoryprotectivedevice
designedtoachieveaclosefacialfitandefficientfiltrationofairborneparticlesincludingverysmallairborneparticles.The‘N95’
designationmeansthatinlaboratorytests,therespiratorblocksatleast95%ofverysmall(lessthan10μm)particles,whichinclude
77
smallparticleaerosolsgenerateddirectlyfromacoughorsneeze.MaskratingsaboveN95,i.e.N99orN100,arealsoacceptableas
theyblockahigherpercentageofparticles.AnN95respiratorrequiresaproperfit,tightbutcomfortable,tothewearer’sfacetobe
effective.Aproperfitcheckisrelativelysimple:wheninhaling,therespiratorshouldcollapse,andwhenexhalingthereshouldbeno
leakagearoundtheface.Ifproperlyfitted,thefiltrationcapabilitiesofN95respiratorsexceedthoseoffacemasks.However,even
aproperlyfittedN95respiratordoesnotcompletelyeliminatetheriskofdiseasetransmission.N95respiratorsarenotdesignedfor
childrenorpeoplewithfacialhair,becauseaproperfitcannotbeachieved.AsN95respiratorsachieveatighterfacialfit,theymay
requiremoreefforttobreatheandthisshouldbeexplainedtothewearerbeforeuse.Somepeoplewithchronicrespiratory,cardiac,
orothermedicalconditionsfindithardertowearN95masks,butgreatapetourismactivities,especiallythosethatrequirestrenuous
hiking,willprobablynotattractthissortoftourist.SomeN95modelshaveexhalationvalvesthatcanmakebreathingouteasierand
helpreduceheatbuild-up,althoughthesewillbemoreexpensive.AtypeofN95respiratorcalledtheDuck-BillN95respiratorallows
moreroomandhasbeentestedbytheMGVP(MGVP2008)forcomfortandreducedfoggingofbinocularsandglasses.
‘Surgical’ N95 Respirators:ThereareN95respiratorssoldforuseinconstructionorotherdustysituationstoprotectthewearerfrom
inhalingnoxiousparticles.SurgicalqualityN95respiratorsareapprovedforuseinmedicalsituationsandmeetadditionalperform-
ancestandardsforsurgicalfacemasks,andthereforeitisthe‘SurgicalN95Respirator’thatisrecommendedasbestpracticefor
greatapetourism.
Mask Information Sources:Moreinformationonthetypesofmasksandrespiratorsdescribedabovecanbefoundonanumber
ofpublichealthinformationwebsites.Anexcellentresource,includingpicturesofthedifferenttypes,canbefoundatthewebsite
below,whichalsodescribesingreatdetailthehost,pathogenandenvironmentalfactorsthataffectaparticle’sinfectivity:http://
pandemicflu.gov/plan/healthcare/maskguidancehc.html
Disposal of Used Masks and Respirators:Masksandrespiratorsmayonlybeusedonce.Usedmasksor respiratorsmustbe
placedinaplasticbagandcarriedoutofgreatapehabitatorbacktoabasecampanddisposedofhygienically–astheyarepaper
based,theycanbeburned.Staffmembersshouldwashhandsorusedahandsanitizerafterhandlingusedmasks.
Mask Procurement: Asthisdocumentisintendedtobeaglobalresource,itisdifficulttoprovidealistofmasksuppliers.Veterinary
supportnetworksandrelevantpublichealthministriesshouldbeabletoprovideguidanceonmaskprocurementoptionsineach
geographicregion.
Ranger wearing a duck-billed N95 surgical mask, Virunga National Park, DRC. Photo © Christina Ellis
Occasional Papers of the IUCN Species Survival Commission1. Species Conservation Priorities in the Tropical Forests of Southeast Asia. Edited by R.A. Mittermeier and W.R. Konstant, 1985, 58pp. 2. Priorités en matière de conservation des espèces à Madagascar. Edited by R.A. Mittermeier, L.H. Rakotovao, V. Randrianasolo, E.J.
Sterling and D. Devitre, 1987, 167pp.3. Biology and Conservation of River Dolphins. Edited by W.F. Perrin, R.K. Brownell, Zhou Kaiya and Liu Jiankang, 1989, 173pp.4. Rodents. A World Survey of Species of Conservation Concern. Edited by W.Z. Lidicker, Jr., 1989, 60pp.5. The Conservation Biology of Tortoises. Edited by I.R. Swingland and M.W. Klemens, 1989, 202pp. 6. Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management, and Sustainable Use. Compiled by S.N. Stuart and
R.J. Adams, with a contribution from M.D. Jenkins, 1991, 242pp.7. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Tenth Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 1991, 107pp.8. Conservation Biology of Lycaenidae (Butterflies). Edited by T.R. New, 1993, 173pp.9. The Conservation Biology of Molluscs: Proceedings of a Symposium held at the 9th International Malacological Congress, Edinburgh,
Scotland, 1986. Edited by A. Kay. Including a Status Report on Molluscan Diversity, by A. Kay, 1995, 81pp.10. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Eleventh Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, January 25 – 28 1993,
Copenhagen, Denmark. Compiled by Ø. Wiig, E.W. Born and G.W. Garner, 1995, 192pp.11. African Elephant Database 1995. M.Y. Said, R.N. Chunge, G.C. Craig, C.R. Thouless, R.F.W. Barnes and H.T. Dublin, 1995, 225pp.12. Assessing the Sustainability of Uses of Wild Species: Case Studies and Initial Assessment Procedure. Edited by R. and C. Prescott-
Allen, 1996, 135pp.13. Tecnicas para el Manejo del Guanaco [Techniques for the Management of the Guanaco]. Edited by S. Puig, South American Camelid
Specialist Group, 1995, 231pp.14. Tourist Hunting in Tanzania. Edited by N. Leader-Williams, J.A. Kayera and G.L. Overton, 1996, 138pp.15. Community-based Conservation in Tanzania. Edited by N. Leader-Williams, J.A. Kayera and G.L. Overton, 1996, 226pp.16. The Live Bird Trade in Tanzania. Edited by N. Leader-Williams and R.K. Tibanyenda, 1996, 129pp.17. Sturgeon Stocks and Caviar Trade Workshop: Proceedings of a Workshop, 9 – 10 October 1995 Bonn, Germany. Federal Ministry for
the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety and the Federal Agency for Nature Conservation. Edited by V.J. Birstein, A. Bauer and A. Kaiser-Pohlmann, 1997, 88pp.
18. Manejo y Uso Sustentable de Pecaries en la Amazonia Peruana. R. Bodmer, R. Aquino, P. Puertas, C. Reyes, T. Fang and N. Gottdenker, 1997, 102pp.
19. Proceedings of the Twelfth Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 3 – 7 February 1997, Oslo, Norway. Compiled by A.E. Derocher, G.W. Garner, N.J. Lunn and Ø. Wiig, 1998, 159pp.
20. Sharks and their Relatives – Ecology and Conservation. Compiled by M. Camhi, S. Fowler, J. Musick, A. Bräutigam and S. Fordham, 1998, 39pp. (Also in French)
21. African Antelope Database 1998. Compiled by R. East and the IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group, 1999, 434pp.22. African Elephant Database 1998. R.F.W. Barnes, G.C. Craig, H.T. Dublin, G. Overton, W. Simons and C.R. Thouless, 1999, 249pp.23. Biology and Conservation of Freshwater Cetaceans in Asia. Edited by R.R. Reeves, B.D. Smith and T. Kasuya, 2000, 152pp.24. Links between Biodiversity Conservation, Livelihoods and Food Security: The Sustainable Use of Wild Species for Meat. Edited by
S.A. Mainka and M. Trivedi, 2002, 137pp. (Also in French)25. Elasmobranch Biodiversity, Conservation and Management. Proceedings of the International Seminar and Workshop, Sabah, Malaysia,
July 1997. Edited by S.L. Fowler, T.M. Reed and F.A. Dipper, 2002, 258pp.26. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the Thirteenth Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 23 – 28 June 2001, Nuuk,
Greenland. Compiled by N.J. Lunn, S. Schliebe and E.W. Born, 2002, 153pp.27. Guidance for CITES Scientific Authorities: Checklist to Assist in Making Non-detriment Findings for Appendix II Exports. Compiled by
A.R. Rosser and M.J. Haywood, 2002, 146pp.28. Turning the Tide: The Eradication of Invasive Species. Proceedings of the International Conference on Eradication of Island Invasives.
Edited by C.R. Veitch and M.N. Clout, 2002, 414pp.29. African Elephant Status Report 2002: An Update from the African Elephant Database. J.J. Blanc, C.R. Thouless, J.A. Hart, H.T. Dublin,
I. Douglas-Hamilton, C.G. Craig and R.F.W. Barnes, 2003, 302pp.30. Conservation and Development Interventions at the Wildlife/Livestock Interface: Implications for Wildlife, Livestock and Human Health.
Compiled by S.A. Osofsky and S. Cleaveland, W.B. Karesh, M.D. Kock, P.J. Nyhus, L. Starr and A. Yang, 2005, 220pp.31. The Status and Distribution of Freshwater Biodiversity in Eastern Africa. Compiled by W. Darwall, K. Smith, T. Lower and J.-C. Vié, 2005, 36pp.32. Polar Bears: Proceedings of the 14th Working Meeting of the IUCN/SSC Polar Bear Specialist Group, 20–24 June 2005, Seattle,
Washington, USA. Compiled by J. Aars, N.J. Lunn and A.E. Derocher, 2006, 189pp.33. African Elephant Status Report 2007: An Update from the African Elephant Database. Compiled by J.J. Blanc, R.F.W. Barnes,
C.G. Craig, H.T. Dublin, C.R. Thouless, I. Douglas-Hamilton and J.A. Hart, 2007, 275pp.34. Best Practice Guidelines for Reducing the Impact of Commercial Logging on Great Apes in Western Equatorial Africa. D. Morgan and
C. Sanz, 2007, 32pp. (Also in French)35. Best Practice Guidelines for the Re-introduction of Great Apes. B. Beck K. Walkup, M. Rodrigues, S. Unwin, D. Travis, and T. Stoinski,
2007, 48pp. (Also in French and Bahasa Indonesia)36. Best Practice Guidelines for Surveys and Monitoring of Great Ape Populations. H. Kühl, F. Maisels, M. Ancrenaz and E.A. Williamson, 2008,
32 pp. (Also in French)37. Best Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Mitigation of Conflict Between Humans and Great Apes. K. Hockings and T. Humle,
2009, 41pp. (Also in French and Bahasa Indonesia)Many of these publications are available online at: www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/publications/thematic_pubs.htm
top related