biological evolution

One of the most respected evolutionary biologists has defined biological evolution as follows:

"In the broadest sense, evolution is merely change, and so is all-pervasive; galaxies, languages, and political systems all evolve. Biological evolution ... is change in the properties of populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual. The ontogeny of an individual is not considered evolution; individual organisms do not evolve. The changes in populations that are considered evolutionary are those that are inheritable via the genetic material from one generation to the next. Biological evolution may be slight or substantial; it embraces everything from slight changes in the proportion of different alleles within a population (such as those determining blood types) to the successive alterations that led from the earliest protoorganism to snails, bees, giraffes, and dandelions."

- Douglas J. Futuyma in Evolutionary Biology, Sinauer Associates 1986

Evolution and Populations It is important to note that

biological evolution refers to populations and not to individuals and that the changes must be passed on to the next generation. In practice this means that evolution is a process that results in heritable changes in a population spread over many generations.

Competing TheoriesCompeting Theories

Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution

Proposed in 1809, Lamarck observed that characteristics of living things could change over time.

For example, if muscles are used, they grow stronger. These are called “acquired” characteristics.

Competing TheoriesCompeting Theories Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution

Lamark proposed that organisms can pass on these acquired characteristics to their offspring.

For example: ancestors of Giraffes had short necks. Lamark’s theory goes that since they had to stretch to get food, their necks became longer and they could pass this trait to their offspring.

Competing TheoriesCompeting Theories

Competing TheoriesCompeting Theories

Even though the giraffe's neck is extremely long, it has only seven neck vertebrae, the same number that people and most other mammals have.

Definition of Evolution:

The accumulation of changes in the heritable characteristics of a populationpopulation.

Evolution describes the changes in the various genes of a species over time.

These changes are the result of: Mutations Natural selection Chance

Voyage of the Beagle, 1831-1836

Succession of Types

Why should extinct armadillo-like species and armadillos be found on the same continent?

The changes imply ancestry!The changes imply ancestry!

“This wonderful relationship in the same continent between the dead and the living will, I do not doubt, throw more light on the appearance of organic beings on our earth, and their disappearance from it, than any other class of facts.”--The Voyage of the Beagle, ch. 8

Basic Tenets of the Theory of Evolution:

1. Populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support.

• This leads to a struggle for existence in which some individuals survive and some die.

Carrying Capacity

2. 2. Natural SelectionNatural Selection Definition:

The over-production of offspring leads to competition and survival of the individuals best suited to that particular environment.

The better adapted individuals tend to survive and reproduce more than the less well-adapted individuals.

3. The variation in individuals in a population is controlled by their genes and is therefore inheritable.

The better adapted individuals pass on their characteristics to more offspring than the less well adapted.

The results of natural selection therefore accumulate. As one generation follows another, the characteristics

of the species gradually change.

How Does Variation How Does Variation Arise?Arise?In the DNA:In the DNA:

-Sexual Reproduction-Sexual Reproduction

-Mutations-Mutations

In the Environment:In the Environment:

-Genetic Drift -Genetic Drift

Sexual Reproduction Role:

Promotes variation in a species through meiosis and fertilization which is essential to natural selection.

Meiosis:

Crossing over and random separation of the homologous pairs of chromosomes during Meiosis.

resulting in a gamete that is a mixture of paternal and maternal chromosomes.

Crossing Over

Fertilization: Two gametes

from different individuals fuse to create a new organism, leading to further variation

Mutations:Mutations:

Changes in the base pair sequence of DNA.

Most are neutral or harmful to the organism, but some have positive effects.

Note: In an organism that sexually reproduces, the mutation must occur in a gamete (sex cell) if it is to be passed on to offspring, and thus contribute to the evolution of that organism.

A mutation has caused the garden moss rose A mutation has caused the garden moss rose to produce a flower of a different color.to produce a flower of a different color.

Variation is non-directional (random)

The selection process is directional:

It is dictated by the environment (not random).

This leads to differential survival: The result is that the individuals best

adapted to a specific environment will survive to reproduce. ○ They will get the most food○ find the best shelter○ find a mate○ reproduce and care for their offspring○ not be eaten by other species.

Differential Survival:

If environments change (either gradually or suddenly), the “best adapted” may also change.

This process can lead to changes in the species

Genetic Drift: Sometimes the

frequency of a gene in a population is determined by by chancechance and not by whether it gives the individual an advantage in the environment.

This is known as genetic drift.

Populations: It is important to

know at this point that evolution doesn’t work on the level of individuals or species- it works on the level of populations.

In other words: individuals do not evolve, populations do.

Speciation

When two groups of a species are in different environments they cannot interbreed.

If the selection pressure is different, they will eventually become different species: aka speciation.

The eastern meadowlark (Sturnella magna) and the western meadowlark (Sturnella neglecta) have very similar body shapes and coloration.

Their ranges overlap in the middle of the country.

Considered different species: Songs are different Behavioral differences that

prevent interbreeding.

In the summer of 1995, at least 15 iguanas survived Hurricane Marilyn on a raft of uprooted trees. They rode the high seas for a month before colonizing the Caribbean island, Anguilla. These few individuals were perhaps the first of their species, Iguana iguana, to reach the island.

Speciation:

Artificial SpeciationArtificial Speciation

Allopatric speciation of squirrels in the Grand Canyon

Harris’s antelope Harris’s antelope squirrel (south rim)squirrel (south rim)

White-tailed White-tailed antelope squirrel antelope squirrel (north rim)(north rim)

Ex. Many of the finches in the Galapagos islands.

Why are finches different on different islands?

Islands have different kinds of seeds available which select for different types of beaks to eat them.

In time the birds become so genetically/physically different they cannot interbreed.

Environments constantly change and if a species cannot adapt, they may go extinct.Ex. Dinosaurs Couldn’t adapt to

colder climate Their place was

taken by mammals (homeothermic-warm blooded)

Not all dinosaurs went extinct. Some also evolved to become warm-blooded birds.

There have been 5 major extinction events during the history of life on Earth.

The Cretaceous-The Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction Tertiary Extinction (65.5 MYA) is (65.5 MYA) is probably the most probably the most well known, as it well known, as it killed off all non-killed off all non-avian dinosaurs. avian dinosaurs. 75% of all species 75% of all species went extinct.went extinct.

Some 99.9% of all species that have ever lived on Earth are now extinct.

There have been 5 major extinction events during the history of life on Earth.

This wasn’t even the largest though. That honor goes to the Permian-This wasn’t even the largest though. That honor goes to the Permian-Triassic Extinction (251 MYA) which caused the extinction of 96% of all Triassic Extinction (251 MYA) which caused the extinction of 96% of all marine species and 70% of all land species. marine species and 70% of all land species.

Examples of Examples of Evolution:Evolution:

Archeopteryx: A transition fossil between Archeopteryx: A transition fossil between reptiles and birds.reptiles and birds.

Example #1: Peppered Moths A famous example from England that demonstrates natural

selection is the Pepper Moth. Two different species of moths, one light colored and one dark.

○ Before the 1850’s the dark one was very rare, after the 1850’s the light color became rare.

What happened in the 1850’s?

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Coal fired plants produced lots of soot that covered the trees and buildings, making everything dark. So where once the birds preferentially picked off and ate the dark moths, they now saw and ate the light ones instead.

Example #2: Resistance of Bacteria to Antibiotics Through Exposure As the use of

antibiotics have become widespreadmany disease-causing

bacteria have developed resistance against known antibiotics.

Only the resistant bacteria will survive and reproduce

This means that if you become infected with these bacteria, treatment with antibiotics will not cure you and the disease may become fatal.

This is more likely to occur when a small dose of antibiotics is used over a short time. It will kill some of the bacteria but not all.Next time antibiotics are used, these bacteria

may be less vulnerable and more survive.Repeated small dosages can produce very

resistant strains.

http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2013/03/05/superbugs-infections-hospitals/1965133/

In the USA, half the livestock is fed

antibiotics to increase the growth of the animals. ○ This leads to strains of

antibiotic resistant bacteria being discovered in the gut of these animals and then in human guts.

○ The runoff from the waste and feed contains the antibiotic resistant strains that can get out to the rest of the world.

Example #3: Artificial Selection

Example #3: Artificial Selection There are numerous examples of humans

performing their own type of selection (hence: artificial) on desired, heritable traits belonging to a variety of organisms.

Since we seem to like the #3, we have…

3 examples:

Example #3: Artificial Selection#1:

The domestication of the wolf The domestication of the wolf (or domestication of any (or domestication of any animal) is a good example: animal) is a good example:

Further selection of Further selection of favored traits resulted in favored traits resulted in the varied amount of dog the varied amount of dog breeds we have today.breeds we have today.

Example #3: Artificial Selection

#2:

Selective breeding Selective breeding transformed teosinte’s transformed teosinte’s

few fruitcases into few fruitcases into modern corn’s rows of modern corn’s rows of

kernels. kernels.

Example #3: Artificial Selection

#3:

By selecting various traits of the common wild mustard plant By selecting various traits of the common wild mustard plant to breed for, we have created many common vegetables we to breed for, we have created many common vegetables we use today such as broccoli, cauliflower and brussels sprouts. use today such as broccoli, cauliflower and brussels sprouts.

Example #3: Artificial Selection

Artificial selection is also important as it acts as an experiment on natural selection.

Experimentation is the ultimate test of a scientific hypothesis, without it you can never be sure that a correlation (i.e. the environment selecting for traits) you observe is significant.

Example #3: Artificial Selection

In artificial selection, humans are the manipulators (we are the environment)- we choose which individuals get to reproduce.

We would expect to see what is found in nature- that the individuals who reproduce pass on their genes/traits, and that is exactly what we see.

Example #3: Artificial Selection

Artificial Selection can also be used as evidence of evolution.

We will discuss more forms of evidence next.

Scientific Scientific Evidence for Evidence for EvolutionEvolution

““Those who cavalierly reject the Theory of Those who cavalierly reject the Theory of Evolution, as not adequately supported by facts, Evolution, as not adequately supported by facts, seem quite to forget that their own theory is seem quite to forget that their own theory is supported by no facts at all”supported by no facts at all”

-Herbert Spencer, -Herbert Spencer, Essay Scientific,Essay Scientific, Political and Speculative, 1891.Political and Speculative, 1891.

Fossils!

Fossils do show intermediate stages, despite their rarity.

And geological strata consistently reveal the same sequence of fossils!

A quick and simple way to debunk the theory of evolution would be to find a fossil horse in the same stratum as a trilobite.

Fossils!

For example, there are now at least eight intermediate fossil stages identified in the evolution of whales.

Vestigial Structures

An organ present in the organism but either reduced in size or has no use. Ex. Femur in some whalesDewclaw in dogsEyes in blind mole ratsFake sex in virgin Whiptail lizardWings on flightless birds

Human Vestigial Organs

The Appendix

Human Vestigial Organs

Wisdom Teeth

Human Vestigial Organs

Human Coccyx (Tailbone)

Human Vestigial Organs

Body Hair and Erector Pili (Goosebumps)

Human Vestigial Organs

Ear Muscles

Human Vestigial Organs

Third Eyelid

Scientific Evidence Homologous Structures

Similar structures in very different organisms is evidence of a common ancestor.

An example of this is the similarity of the skeleton between all mammals.

Every bone in a bat has is its own identifiable counterpart in a human. Identifiable, because of the order in which they join up. Only the proportions are different.

from Ernst Haeckel's 1904 work Kunstformen der Natur

Scientific Evidence Embryonic

DevelopmentPhysical similarities

between embryos of different species at different stages.

In 1866, Ernst Haeckel proposed his theory that the embryonic development of an individual organism followed the same path as the evolutionary history of its species.

Scientific EvidenceHaeckel’s theory has

largely been rejected today.

Though humans share common ancestors with other animals, stages of human embryonic development are not functionally equivalent to the adults of these shared ancestors.

In other words, just because we develop a tail and gill slits embryonically does not mean that they are functional like they are in fish.

Scientific EvidenceDarwin's view: that early

embryonic stages are similar to the same embryonic stage of related species but not to the adult stages of these species, has been confirmed by modern evolutionary developmental biology

Scientific Evidence

Similarity of Genetic Code (DNA)All organisms share

the same genetic code, based on the series of bases: A, T, G, and C.

The more similar two species are the more alike the sequence of bases in their DNA are.

Common Common MisconceptiMisconcepti

onsons

#1: #1: Isn’t evolution just a Isn’t evolution just a theory that even theory that even scientists can’t agree scientists can’t agree on?on?First we need to look at what the word theory means.The Oxford English Dictionary gives two meanings:

Theory, Definition 1: Theory, Definition 1: A scheme or system of ideas or statements held as an explanation or account of a group of facts or phenomena; a hypothesis that has been confirmed or established by observation or experiment, and is propounded or accepted as accounting for the known facts; a statement of what are held to be the general laws, principles, or causes of something known or observed.

Theory, Definition 2: Theory, Definition 2: A hypothesis proposed as an explanation; hence, a mere hypothesis, speculation, conjecture; an idea or set of ideas about something; an individual view or notion.

#1: #1: Isn’t evolution just a theory that even scientists Isn’t evolution just a theory that even scientists can’t agree on?can’t agree on?Darwin’s Theory, as with all scientific theories follow the first definition.

Having your explanation for a group of observations being called a theory is an Having your explanation for a group of observations being called a theory is an honor in the scientific field; it means that it is the best explanation we have for honor in the scientific field; it means that it is the best explanation we have for why something happens. why something happens.

Does being a scientific law mean you have more evidence to support your Does being a scientific law mean you have more evidence to support your explanation than a theory?explanation than a theory?

Not at all… laws and theories are used to describe different things in science.Not at all… laws and theories are used to describe different things in science.

In general, Scientific Laws describe what is happening. Examples include: In general, Scientific Laws describe what is happening. Examples include: Newton’s Laws of Gravity, Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion, Law of Newton’s Laws of Gravity, Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion, Law of Conservation of Energy, Laws of Thermodynamics….Conservation of Energy, Laws of Thermodynamics….

Scientific Theories explain why something happens. Examples Scientific Theories explain why something happens. Examples include: The Big Bang Theory, Cell Theory, Theory of Relativity, String include: The Big Bang Theory, Cell Theory, Theory of Relativity, String Theory…Theory…

#2:#2:Was one of my ancestors really a Was one of my ancestors really a chimpanzee? chimpanzee? NO!Evolution points to humans sharing a common ancestor with chimpanzees and other great apes around 7-8 million years ago. Chimps have continued to evolved alongside us since then.

The ancestor you share between yourself and the chimpanzee at the zoo probably did look something like this though:

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

#2:#2:Was one of my ancestors really a Was one of my ancestors really a chimpanzee? chimpanzee?

We even shared the Earth atthe same time with other hominid species such asHomo Neanderthalensis.

And this recent find:Homo Floresiensis, the hobbitpeople on the island of Floresin Indonesia.

In fact we have shared the Earth with many other human like species (called hominids).

Courtesy of Smithsonian, 03/10

#3:#3:How can natural selection lead to How can natural selection lead to extremely complicated extremely complicated structures/organs like the human structures/organs like the human eye?eye?Though the eye is incredibly complex, even Darwin back in his day saw that the Theory of Evolution could account for it: “...if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist; if further, the eye does vary ever so slightly, and the variations be inherited, which is certainly the case; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life, then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection, though insuperable by our imagination, can hardly be considered real”-Charles Darwin, Origin of Species

#3:#3:How can natural selection lead to extremely How can natural selection lead to extremely complicated structures/organs like the complicated structures/organs like the human eye?human eye?The first step in the evolution of the eye, would be a set of photoreceptor proteins that sense light called photoreceptors. Photoreceptors can sense ambient brightness, and distinguish light from dark. These allowed unicellular organisms to move toward where they sensed light, probably to use for photosynthesis.

Example of a photoreceptor in a Euglena

#3:#3:How can natural selection lead to extremely How can natural selection lead to extremely complicated structures/organs like the complicated structures/organs like the human eye?human eye?The next step would be indenting the tissue behind the eye to make a cup behind the photoreceptor cells. This enlarges the area of photoreceptor cells as well, now known as the retina.These primitive eyes are called eyespots.

Example of an eyespot in a planarian (flat worm)

#3:#3:How can natural selection lead to extremely How can natural selection lead to extremely complicated structures/organs like the complicated structures/organs like the human eye?human eye?The “pinhole camera” eye stage was next. This is where the eyespot hollows out more and reduces the size of the hole where the light comes through. This gave the organism true imaging, allowing for directional and shape sensing.

Example of a pinhole eye in a nautilus.

#3:#3:How can natural selection lead to extremely How can natural selection lead to extremely complicated structures/organs like the complicated structures/organs like the human eye?human eye?Next came eyes that were fully enclosed, fluid-filled chambers.A refractive lens has also evolved over the pin-hole. Refraction is when light waves change speed as they enter a new medium. This bends the angle of the light, and in the case of an eye (or camera) directs the light into a single beam on one spot.

The refractive lens in most animals is known as the cornea.The iris later evolved, which allows the organism to adjust the “pin-hole”, controlling the amount of light that enters the eye.

#3:#3:How can natural selection lead to extremely complicated How can natural selection lead to extremely complicated structures/organs like the human eye?structures/organs like the human eye?

So if we remember that evolution is an accumulation of heritable changes, the evolution of complex structures like they eye, though remarkable, isn’t all that unrealistic.

““Thus, from the war of nature, from Thus, from the war of nature, from famine and death, the most exalted famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of object which we are capable of conceiving namely, the production of conceiving namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. the higher animals, directly follows. There is grandeur in this view of life, There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone on cycling on according to has gone on cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.”been, and are being, evolved.”

-Charles Darwin, -Charles Darwin, On the Origin On the Origin of Speciesof Species