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BusinessMethods
Alan BrymanEmma Bell
Third edition
OXFORDUNIVERSITY PRESS
• • • • \
Detailed cohtents
Abbreviations
About the authors
About the students and supervisors
Guided tour of textbook features
Guided tour of the Online Resource Centre
About the book
Acknowledgements
Reviewers
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Chapter 1 Business research strategies
Introduction
The nature of business research
Theory and research
What type of theory?
Deductive and inductive theory
Epistemological considerations
A natural science epistemology: positivism
Interpretivism
Ontological considerations
Objectivism
Constructionism
Relationship of epistemology and ontology to
business research
Competing paradigms
Research strategy: quantitative and qualitative
Influences on the conduct of business research
Personal values
The politics of business research
Practical considerations
Key points
Questions for review
Chapter 2 Research designs
Introduction
Criteria in business research
ReliabilityReplicationValidity
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Research designs 45Experimental design 45Cross-sectional design 53Longitudinal design(s) 57Case study design 59Comparative design 63Level of analysis 67
Bringing research strategy and research design together 68Key points 69Questions for review 69
Chapter 3 Planning a research project and formulating researchquestions 71
Introduction 72Get to know what is expected of you by your institution 72Thinking about your research area 73Using your supervisor . 74Managing time and resources 76Formulating suitable research questions 79Writing your research proposal 84Preparing for your research 85Doing your research and analysing your results 86Checklist 88Key points 88Questions for review 88
Chapter 4 Getting started: reviewing the literature 90
Introduction 91Reviewing the existing literature and engaging with whatothers have written 91
Getting the most from your reading 94Systematic review 94Narrative review . 101
Searching the existing literature and looking for businessinformation 103
Electronic databases 104Keywords and defining search parameters 108
Referencing your work 111The role of the bibliography 115
Avoiding plagiarism 116Checklist 119Key points 119Questions for review 119
Chapter 5 Ethics in business research 121
Introduction 122Ethical principles 128
Harm to participants 128Lack of informed consent 132Invasion of privacy 136Deception . 136
Part Twow
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Other ethical and legal considerationsData management
Copyright
Reciprocity and trust
Affiliation and conflicts of interest
The difficulties of ethical decision-making
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
The nature of quantitative research
Introduction
The main steps in quantitative research
Concepts and their measurement
What is a concept?
Why measure?
Indicators
Using multiple-indicator measures
Dimensions of concepts
Reliability and validity
Reliability
Stability
Internal reliability
Inter-observer consistency
Validity
Face validity
Concurrent validity
Predictive validity
Construct validity
Convergent validity
Reflections on reliability and validity
The main preoccupations of quantitative researchers
Measurement
Causality
Generalization
Replication
The critique of quantitative research
Criticisms of quantitative research
Is it always like this?
Reverse operation ism
Reliability and validity testing
Sampling
Key points
Questions for review
SamplingIntroduction
Introduction to sampling
Sampling error
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Types of probability sample 179Simple random sample 179Systematic sample 180Stratified random sampling 181Multi-stage cluster sampling 181
The qualities of a probability sample 185Sample size 187
Absolute and relative sample size 187Time and cost 188Non-response 188Heterogeneity of the population 189Kind of analysis 189
Types of non-probability sampling 190Convenience sampling 190Snowball sampling 192Quota sampling 193
Limits to generalization . 195Error in survey research 196Key points 198Questions for review 198
Chapter 8 Structured interviewing 200
Introduction 201The structured interview 202
Reducing error due to interviewer variability 202Accuracy and ease of data processing 203Other types of interview 204
Interview contexts 205More than one interviewee 205More than one interviewer 206In person or by telephone? 206Computer-assisted interviewing 209
Conducting interviews . 210Know the schedule 210Introducing the research 210Rapport 211Asking questions 211Recording answers 212Clear instructions 213Question order 213Probing 215Prompting 216Leaving the interview 217Training and supervision 217
Other approaches to structured interviewing 218Critical incident method 219Projective methods, pictorial and photo elicitation '220Verbal protocol approach 221Repertory grid technique 223
Problems with structured interviewing 225Characteristics of interviewers 225Response sets 226
The problem of meaning 227The feminist critique 227
Key points 228Questions for review 228
Chapter 9 Self-completion questionnaires 230
Introduction 231Self-completion questionnaire or postal questionnaire? 231Evaluating the self-completion questionnaire in relationto the structured interview 232
Advantages of the self-completion questionnaire over thestructured interview 232Disadvantages of the self-completion questionnaire incomparison to the structured interview 233Steps to improve response rates to postal questionnaires 234
Designing the self-completion questionnaire 238Do not cramp the presentation 238Clear presentation 238Vertical or horizontal closed answers? 238Identifying response sets in a Likert scale 240Clear instructions about how to respond 240Keep question and answers together 240
Diaries as a form of self-completion questionnaire 240Advantages and disadvantages of the diary as a methodof data collection 243
Key points 245Questions for review 246
Chapter 10 Asking questions 247
Introduction 248Open or closed questions? 248
Open questions 248Closed questions 250
Types of question 253Rules for designing questions 255
General rules of thumb 255Specific rules when designing questions 255
Vignette questions 261Piloting and pre-testing questions 262Using existing questions 263Checklist 265Key points 266Questions for review 267
Chapter 11 Structured observation 269
Introduction 270Problems with survey research on behaviour 270So why not observe behaviour? 271The observation schedule 275Strategies for observing behaviour 276Sampling 277
Sampling people 277Sampling in terms of time 277
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Further sampling considerations
Issues of reliability and validity
Reliability
Validity
Other forms of structured observation
Field stimulation
Organizational simulation
Criticisms of structured observation
On the other hand . . .
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Content analysis
Introduction
What are the research questions?
Selecting a sample
Sampling media
Sampling dates
What is to be counted?
Significant actors
Words
Subjects and themes
Dispositions
Images
Coding
Coding schedule
Coding manual
Potential pitfalls in devising coding schemes
Advantages of content analysis
Disadvantages of content analysis
Checklist
Key points
Questions for review
Secondary analysis and official statistics
Introduction
Other researchers' data
Advantages of secondary analysis
Limitations of secondary analysis
Accessing the UK Data Archive
Official statistics
Reliability and validity
Condemning and resurrecting official statistics
Official statistics as a form of unobtrusive measure
Key points
Questions for review
Quantitative data analysis
Introduction
A small research project
Missing data
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Types of variable 340Univariate analysis 342
Frequency tables 342Diagrams 343Measures of central tendency 344Measures of dispersion 344
Bivariate analysis 346Relationships not causality 346Contingency tables 347Pearson's r 347Spearman's rho 349Phi and Cramer's V 350Comparing means and eta 350
Multivariate analysis 350Could the relationship be spurious? 351Could there be an intervening variable? 351Could a third variable moderate the relationship? 352
Statistical significance 352The chi-square test 355Correlation and statistical significance 355Comparing means and statistical significance 356
Checklist 356Key points 356Questions for review 357
Chapter 15 Using SPSS for Windows 359
Introduction 360Getting started in SPSS 362
Beginning SPSS . ' 362Entering data in the Data Viewer 362Defining variables: variable names, missing values,variable labels, and value labels 363Recoding variables 364Computing a new variable 367
Data analysis with SPSS 368Generating a frequency table 368Generating a bar chart 368Generating a pie chart 371Generating a histogram 371Generating the arithmetic mean, median, standard deviation,the range, and boxplots 372Generating a contingency table, chi-square, and Cramer's V 372Generating Pearson's r and Spearman's rho 374Generating scatter diagrams 374Comparing means and eta 377Generating a contingency table with three variables 380
Further operations in SPSS 381Saving your data 381Retrieving your data 381Printing output 381
Key points 381Questions for review 382
PartTHree
Chapter 16 The nature of qualitative researchIntroductionThe main steps in qualitative researchTheory and researchConcepts in qualitative researchReliability and validity in qualitative research
Adapting reliability and validity for qualitative researchAlternative criteria for evaluating qualitative researchRecent discussions about quality criteria for qualitativeresearch
The main preoccupations of qualitative researchersSeeing through the eyes of the people being studiedDescription and the emphasis on contextEmphasis on processFlexibility and limited structureConcepts and theory grounded in data
The critique of qualitative researchQualitative research is too subjectiveDifficult to replicateProblems of generalizationLack of transparency
Is it always like this?Some contrasts between quantitative and qualitativeresearchSome similarities between quantitative andqualitative researchResearcher-subject relationships
Action researchCognitive mappingFeminism and qualitative researchCollaborative and participatory research
Key pointsQuestions for review
Chapter 17 Ethnography and participant observationIntroductionOrganizational ethnographyAccess
Overt versus covert?Ongoing accessKey informants
Roles for ethnographersActive or passive?
SamplingPurposive samplingTheoretical samplingNot just people
Field notesTypes of field notes
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Bringing ethnographic fieldwork to an end 448Can there be a feminist ethnography? 449Visual ethnography 451Key points 462Questions for review ' 462
Chapter 18 Interviewing in qualitative research 464
Introduction 465Differences between the structured interview and thequalitative interview 466Unstructured and semi-structured interviewing 467
Preparing an interview guide 473Kinds of questions 477Using an interview guide: an example 480Recording and transcription 482Telephone interviewing 488
Sampling . 489Feminist research and interviewing in qualitative research 493Qualitative interviewing versus participant observation 494
Advantages of participant observation in comparison toqualitative interviewing 495Advantages of qualitative interviewing in comparison toparticipant observation 496Overview 498
Checklist 498Key points 499Questions for review 499
Chapter 19 Focus groups / 501
Introduction 502Uses of focus groups 503Conducting focus groups 505
Recording and transcription . 505How many groups? 507Size of groups 508Level of moderator involvement • 510Selecting participants 511Asking questions 511Beginning and finishing 513
Group interaction in focus group sessions 513The focus group as a feminist method 514Limitations of focus groups 515Checklist 517Key points 517Questions for review 518
Chapter 20 Language in qualitative research 519
Introduction 520Fine-grained approaches 520
Conversation analysis 521Discourse analysis 525
Narrative analysis 531Rhetorical analysis 533Context-sensitive approaches 537
Critical discourse analysis 538Overview " 540Key points 541Questions for review 541
Chapter 21 Documents as sources of data 543
Introduction . 544Personal documents 545Public documents 548Organizational documents 550Mass media outputs 552Visual documents 553Virtual documents 557The world as text ' 558
Readers and audiences—active or passive? 558The reality of documents 559Interpreting documents 560
Qualitative content analysis 560Semiotics 561Hermeneutics 563Historical analysis 564
Checklist 567Key points 567Questions for review 568
Chapter 22 Qualitative data analysis 570
Introduction 571General strategies of qualitative data analysis 574
Analytic induction 574Grounded theory 577
More on coding 584Steps and considerations in coding . 585Turning data into fragments 587Problems with coding 588
Secondary analysis of qualitative data 590Key points 591Questions for review 591
Chapter 23 Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis:using NVivo 592
Introduction 593Is CAQDAS like quantitative data analysis software? 594
No industry leader 594Lack of universal agreement about the utility of CAQDAS 594
Learning NVivo 596Coding 597Searching text 603
MemosSaving an NVivo projectOpening an existing NVivo projectFinal thoughts
Key pointsQuestions for review
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1 Part Four
Chapter 24 Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide 613
Introduction 614The natural science model and qualitative research 615Quantitative research and interpretivism 617Quantitative research and constructionism 618Epistemological and ontological considerations 619Problems with the quantitative/qualitative contrast 619
Behaviour versus meaning • 619Theory tested in research versus emergent from data 620Numbers versus words 621Artificial versus natural 621
Reciprocal analysis 623Qualitative analysis of quantitative data 623Quantitative analysis of qualitative data 623
Quantification in qualitative research 624Thematic analysis 624Quasi-quantification in qualitative research 624Combating anecdotalism through limited quantification 625
Key points 625Questions for review 626
Chapter 25 Mixed methods research: combining quantitative andqualitative research 627
Introduction 628The argument against mixed methods research 629
The embedded methods argument 629The paradigm argument ' 629
Two versions of the debate about quantitative andqualitative research 630The rise of mixed methods research 630Approaches to mixed methods research 631
The logic of triangulation 631Qualitative research facilitates quantitative research 634Quantitative research facilitates qualitative research 635Filling in the gaps 636Static and processual features 637Research issues and participants' perspectives 637The problem of generality 638Qualitative research may facilitate the interpretationof the relationship between variables 639Studying different aspects of a phenomenon 640Solving a puzzle 643
Reflections on mixed methods research 643Key points 645Questions for review 645
Chapter 26 E-research: Internet research methods 646
Introduction 647The Internet as object of analysis 648Using websites to collect data from individuals 651Virtual ethnography 652Qualitative research using online focus groups 655Qualitative research using online personal interviews 659Online social surveys 661
Email surveys 661Web surveys 662Mixed modes of survey administration 663Sampling issues . 663Overview . 669
Ethical considerations in e-research 669The state of e-research 673Key points 673Questions for review 674
Chapter 27 Writing up business research 675
Introduction 676Writing up your research 677
Start early 677Be persuasive 679Get feedback 679Avoid sexist, racist, and disablist language 681Structure your writing 681
Writing up quantitative, qualitative, and mixedmethods research 684An example of quantitative research 684
Introduction 685Theory and hypotheses 686Methods ' 686Results 687Discussion 687Lessons 687
An example of qualitative research 689Introduction 690Review of the literature 690Methods 691Presentation of main themes 691Discussion 691Implications 691Lessons ' 692
An example of mixed methods research 692Introduction 694The Russian context 694Organizational culture and effectiveness 694
Research questions 695Testing the model: a comparative study 695Taking a closer look: four case studies 695Discussion 696Lessons 697
Postmodernism and reflexivity ( 697Writing ethnography 703
Experiential authority 703Typical forms 704The native's point of view 705Interpretative omnipotence 706Ways of writing differently 706
Checklist ' 708Key points 710Questions for review 710
Glossary 712
References 721
Author index 745
Subject index 751
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