cell structure chapter 4. 2 cell theory 1.all organisms are composed of cells 2.cells are the...

Cell StructureChapter 4

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Cell Theory

1. All organisms are composed of cells

2. Cells are the smallest living things

3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells

• All cells today represent a continuous line of descent from the first living cells

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Cell size is limited

• Most cells are relatively small due reliance on diffusion of substances in and out of cells

• Rate of diffusion affected by– Surface area available– Temperature– Concentration gradient– Distance

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Surface area-to-volume ratio

• Organism made of many small cells has an advantage over an organism composed of fewer, larger cells

• As a cell’s size increases, its volume increases much more rapidly than its surface area

• Some cells overcome limitation by being long and skinny – like neurons

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What do all cells do?

• Make more cells/DNA

• Make energy

• Make proteins

• Transport materials into and out of cell

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What part of the cell does this?

• Make more cells

• Energy • Proteins

• Transport into and out of cells

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Basic structural similarities

1. Nucleoid or nucleus where DNA is located

2. Cytoplasm– Semifluid matrix of enzymes/organelles – Cytosol

3. Ribosomes– Synthesize proteins

4. Plasma membrane– Phospholipid bilayer

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Prokaryotic Cells

• (Simplest organisms)

• Lack a membrane-bound nucleus– DNA is present in the nucleoid (“cluster”)

• Enzymes

• Do contain ribosomes (not membrane-bound organelles)

• Cell membrane

• Cell wall outside of plasma membrane

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Two Domains of Prokaryotes

• Two domains of prokaryotes– Archaea

• Extremophiles

– Bacteria• “Bacteria”

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Prokaryotic cell walls

• Archaea lack peptidoglycan• Most bacterial cells are encased by a strong cell

wall– composed of peptidoglycan– Cell walls of plants, fungi, and most protists different

• Protect the cell, maintain its shape, and prevent excessive uptake or loss of water

• Susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics often depends on the structure of their cell walls

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EUKARYOTIC CELLS

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What do all cells do?

• Make more cells/DNA

• Make energy

• Make proteins

• Transport materials into and out of cell

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BUT…

• Now these have specialized membrane-bound organelles!

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Eukaryotic Cells

• Possess a membrane-bound nucleus

• More complex than prokaryotic cells

• Compartmentalization– Achieved through use of membrane-bound

organelles and endomembrane system

• Possess a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain cellular structure

What do all cells do?

• Make more cells/DNA – Nucleus

• Make energy– Mitochondria

• Make proteins – Ribosomes

• Transport materials into and out of cell– SER, RER, Golgi, Cell Membrane

AND other specialized organelles19

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Nucleus

• Repository of the genetic information• Most eukaryotic cells possess a single nucleus• Nucleolus – region where ribosomal RNA

synthesis takes place• Nuclear envelope

– 2 phospholipid bilayers– Nuclear pores – control passage in and out

• In eukaryotes, the DNA is divided into multiple linear chromosomes– Chromatin is chromosomes plus protein

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Ribosomes

• * Ribosomes do NOT have a membrane

• Cell’s protein synthesis machinery

• Found in all cell types in all 3 domains

• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)-protein complex

• Protein synthesis also requires messenger RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA)

• Ribosomes may be free in cytoplasm or associated with internal membranes

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Endomembrane System

• Series of membranes throughout the cytoplasm

• Divides cell into compartments where different cellular functions occur

• One of the fundamental distinctions between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

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Endoplasmic reticulum

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)– Attachment of ribosomes to the membrane gives a

rough appearance– Synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to

lysosomes or plasma membrane

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)– Relatively few bound ribosomes– Variety of functions – synthesis, store Ca2+ ,

detoxification

• Ratio of RER to SER depends on cell’s function

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Golgi apparatus

• Flattened stacks of interconnected membranes (Golgi bodies)

• Functions in packaging and distribution of molecules synthesized at one location and used at another within the cell or even outside of it

• Cis and trans faces

• Vesicles transport molecules to destination

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Lysosomes

• Membrane-bounded digestive vesicles

• Arise from Golgi apparatus

• Enzymes catalyze breakdown of macromolecules

• Destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell has engulfed by phagocytosis

• Involved in apoptosis (cell death)

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Peroxisomes

• Variety of enzyme-bearing, membrane-enclosed vesicles

• Peroxisomes– Contain enzymes

involved in the oxidation of fatty acids

– H2O2 produced as by-product – rendered harmless by catalase

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Vacuoles

• Membrane-bounded structures in plants• Various functions depending on the cell

type

• There are different types of vacuoles:– Central vacuole in plant cells– Contractile vacuole of some protists– Storage vacuoles

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Mitochondria

• Found in all types of eukaryotic cells• Bound by membranes

– Outer membrane– Intermembrane space– Inner membrane has cristae– Matrix

• On the surface of the inner membrane, and also embedded within it, are proteins that carry out oxidative metabolism

• Have their own DNA

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Chloroplasts

• Organelles present in cells of plants and some other eukaryotes

• Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis

• Surrounded by 2 membranes

• Thylakoids are membranous sacs within the inner membrane– Grana are stacks of thylakoids

• Have their own DNA

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Endosymbiosis

• Proposes that some of today’s eukaryotic organelles evolved by a symbiosis arising between two cells that were each free-living

• One cell, a prokaryote, was engulfed by and became part of another cell, which was the precursor of modern eukaryotes

• Mitochondria and chloroplasts

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Cytoskeleton

• Network of protein fibers found in all eukaryotic cells– Supports the shape of the cell – Keeps organelles in fixed locations

• Dynamic system – constantly forming and disassembling

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3 types of fibers

• Microfilaments (actin filaments)– Two protein chains loosely twined together– Movements like contraction, crawling, “pinching”

• Microtubules– Largest of the cytoskeletal elements– Dimers of α- and β-tubulin subunits– Facilitate movement of cell and materials within cell

• Intermediate filaments– Between the size of actin filaments and microtubules– Very stable – usually not broken down

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Centrosomes

• Region surrounding centrioles in almost all animal cells

• Microtubule-organizing center– Can nucleate the assembly of microtubules

• Animal cells and most protists have centrioles – pair of organelles

• Plants and fungi lack centrioles

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• Eukaryotic cell walls– Plants, fungi, and

many protists– Different from

prokaryote– Plants and protists

– cellulose– Fungi – chitin– Plants – primary

and secondary cell walls

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Extracellular matrix (ECM)

• Animal cells lack cell walls

• Secrete an elaborate mixture of glycoproteins into the space around them

• Collagen may be abundant

• Form a protective layer over the cell surface

• Integrins link ECM to cell’s cytoskeleton– Influence cell behavior

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Cell-to-cell interactions

• Surface proteins give cells identity– Cells make contact, “read” each other, and

react– Glycolipids – most tissue-specific cell surface

markers– MHC proteins – recognition of “self” and

“nonself” cells by the immune system

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Cell connections

• 3 categories based on function

1.Tight junction– Connect the plasma membranes of adjacent cells in a

sheet – no leakage

2.Anchoring junction– Mechanically attaches cytoskeletons of neighboring

cells (desmosomes)

3.Communicating junction– Chemical or electrical signal passes directly from one

cell to an adjacent one (gap junction, plasmodesmata)

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Cell Movement

Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes can BOTH have flagella and cilia…

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Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Smaller and Simpler Larger and more complex

Protein flagellin Tubulin (9+ 2 microtubule arrangement)

Rotary Motion Bending movement

Proton driven ATP driven

Prokaryotic Flagella

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Eukaryotic Flagella

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