chapter 10: cipher techniques

Slide #10-1

Chapter 10: Cipher Techniques

• Some Problems

• Types of Ciphers

• Networks

• Examples

Slide #10-2

Overview

• Problems– What can go wrong if you naively use ciphers

• Cipher types– Stream or block ciphers?

• Networks– Link vs end-to-end use

• Examples– Privacy-Enhanced Electronic Mail (PEM)– Security at the Network Layer (IPsec)

Slide #10-3

Problems

• Using ciphers requires knowledge of environment, and threats in the environment, in which ciphers will be used– Is the set of possible messages small?– Do the messages exhibit regularities that

remain after encipherment?– Can an active wiretapper rearrange or change

parts of the message?

Slide #10-4

Attack #1: Precomputation

• Set of possible messages M small

• Public key cipher f used

• Idea: precompute set of possible ciphertexts f(M), build table (m, f(m))

• When ciphertext f(m) appears, use table to find m

• Also called forward searches

Slide #10-5

Example

• Cathy knows Alice will send Bob one of two messages: enciphered BUY, or enciphered SELL

• Using public key eBob, Cathy precomputes m1 = { BUY } eBob, m2 = { SELL } eBob

• Cathy sees Alice send Bob m2

• Cathy knows Alice sent SELL

Slide #10-6

May Not Be Obvious

• Digitized sound– Seems like far too many possible plaintexts

• Initial calculations suggest 232 such plaintexts

– Analysis of redundancy in human speech reduced this to about 100,000 (≈ 217)

• This is small enough to worry about precomputation attacks

Slide #10-7

Misordered Blocks

• Alice sends Bob message– nBob = 77, eBob = 17, dBob = 53– Message is LIVE (11 08 21 04)– Enciphered message is 44 57 21 16

• Eve intercepts it, rearranges blocks– Now enciphered message is 16 21 57 44

• Bob gets enciphered message, deciphers it– He sees EVIL

Slide #10-8

Notes

• Digitally signing each block won’t stop this attack

• Two approaches:– Cryptographically hash the entire message and

sign it– Place sequence numbers in each block of

message, so recipient can tell intended order• Then you sign each block

Statistical Regularities

• If plaintext repeats, ciphertext may too

Slide #10-9

Slide #10-10

What These Mean

• Use of strong cryptosystems, well-chosen (or random) keys not enough to be secure

• Other factors:– Protocols directing use of cryptosystems– Ancillary information added by protocols– Implementation (not discussed here)– Maintenance and operation (not discussed here)

Slide #10-11

Stream, Block Ciphers

• E encipherment function– Ek(b) encipherment of message b with key k– In what follows, m = b1b2 …, each bi of fixed length

• Block cipher– Ek(m) = Ek(b1)Ek(b2) …

• Stream cipher– k = k1k2 …– Ek(m) = Ek1(b1)Ek2(b2) …– If k1k2 … repeats itself, cipher is periodic and the kength of

its period is one cycle of k1k2 …

Slide #10-12

Examples

• Vigenère cipher– bi = 1 character, k = k1k2 … where ki = 1 character

– Each bi enciphered using ki mod length(k)

– Stream cipher

• DES– bi = 64 bits, k = 56 bits

– Each bi enciphered separately using k

– Block cipher

Slide #10-13

Stream Ciphers

• Often (try to) implement one-time pad by xor’ing each bit of key with one bit of message– Example:

m = 00101k = 10010c = 10111

• But how to generate a good key?

Slide #10-14

Synchronous Stream Ciphers

• n-stage Linear Feedback Shift Register: consists of– n bit register r = r0…rn–1

– n bit tap sequence t = t0…tn–1

– Use:• Use rn–1 as key bit

• Compute x = r0t0 … rn–1tn–1

• Shift r one bit to right, dropping rn–1, x becomes r0

Slide #10-15

Operation

r0rn–1

… bi

…

…

ci

r0´ rn–1´… ri´ = ri–1,0 < i ≤ n

r0t0 + … + rn–1tn–1

Slide #10-16

Example

• 4-stage LFSR; t = 1001r ki new bit computation new r0010 0 01001001 = 0 00010001 1 01000011 = 1 10001000 0 11000001 = 1 11001100 0 11100001 = 1 11101110 0 11101001 = 1 11111111 1 11101011 = 0 01111110 0 11101011 = 1 1011– Key sequence has period of 15 (010001111010110)

Slide #10-17

NLFSR

• n-stage Non-Linear Feedback Shift Register: consists of– n bit register r = r0…rn–1

– Use:• Use rn–1 as key bit• Compute x = f(r0, …, rn–1); f is any function• Shift r one bit to right, dropping rn–1, x becomes r0

Note same operation as LFSR but more general bit replacement function

Slide #10-18

Example

• 4-stage NLFSR; f(r0, r1, r2, r3) = (r0 & r2) | r3

r ki new bit computation new r

1100 0 (1 & 0) | 0 = 0 0110

0110 0 (0 & 1) | 0 = 0 0011

0011 1 (0 & 1) | 1 = 1 1001

1001 1 (1 & 0) | 1 = 1 1100

1100 0 (1 & 0) | 0 = 0 0110

0110 0 (0 & 1) | 0 = 0 0011

0011 1 (0 & 1) | 1 = 1 1001

– Key sequence has period of 4 (0011)

Slide #10-19

Eliminating Linearity

• NLFSRs not common– No body of theory about how to design them to have

long period

• Alternate approach: output feedback mode– For E encipherment function, k key, r register:

• Compute r= Ek(r); key bit is rightmost bit of r• Set r to r and iterate, repeatedly enciphering register and

extracting key bits, until message enciphered

– Variant: use a counter that is incremented for each encipherment rather than a register

• Take rightmost bit of Ek(i), where i is number of encipherment

Slide #10-20

Self-Synchronous Stream Cipher

• Take key from message itself (autokey)• Example: Vigenère, key drawn from plaintext

– key XTHEBOYHASTHEBA– plaintext THEBOYHASTHEBAG– ciphertext QALFPNFHSLALFCT

• Problem:– Statistical regularities in plaintext show in key

– Once you get any part of the message, you can decipher more

Slide #10-21

Another Example

• Take key from ciphertext (autokey)• Example: Vigenère, key drawn from ciphertext

– key XQXBCQOVVNGNRTT– plaintext THEBOYHASTHEBAG– ciphertext QXBCQOVVNGNRTTM

• Problem:– Attacker gets key along with ciphertext, so deciphering

is trivial

Slide #10-22

Variant

• Cipher feedback mode: 1 bit of ciphertext fed into n bit register– Self-healing property: if ciphertext bit received incorrectly, it and

next n bits decipher incorrectly; but after that, the ciphertext bits decipher correctly

– Need to know k, E to decipher ciphertext

kEk(r)r

… E …

mi

ci

Slide #10-23

Block Ciphers

• Encipher, decipher multiple bits at once• Each block enciphered independently• Problem: identical plaintext blocks produce

identical ciphertext blocks– Example: two database records

• MEMBER: HOLLY INCOME $100,000• MEMBER: HEIDI INCOME $100,000

– Encipherment:• ABCQZRME GHQMRSIB CTXUVYSS RMGRPFQN• ABCQZRME ORMPABRZ CTXUVYSS RMGRPFQN

Slide #10-24

Solutions

• Insert information about block’s position into the plaintext block, then encipher

• Cipher block chaining:– Exclusive-or current plaintext block with

previous ciphertext block:• c0 = Ek(m0 I)

• ci = Ek(mi ci–1) for i > 0

where I is the initialization vector

Slide #10-25

Multiple Encryption

• Double encipherment: c = Ek(Ek(m))– Effective key length is 2n, if k, k are length n– Problem: breaking it requires 2n+1 encryptions, not 22n

encryptions

• Triple encipherment:– EDE mode: c = Ek(Dk(Ek(m))

• Problem: chosen plaintext attack takes O(2n) time with O(2n) memory (ciphertexts)

– Triple encryption mode: c = Ek(Ek(Ek(m))• Best attack requires O(22n) time, O(2n) memory

Slide #10-26

Networks and Cryptography

Application layer

Presentation layer

Session layer

Transport layer

Network layer

Data link layer

Physical layer

Application layer

Presentation layer

Session layer

Transport layer

Network layer

Data link layer

Physical layer

Network layer

Data link layer

Physical layer

• ISO/OSI model• Conceptually, each host has peer at each layer

– Peers communicate with peers at same layer

Slide #10-27

Link and End-to-End Protocols

Link Protocol

End-to-End (or E2E) Protocol

Slide #10-28

Encryption

• Link encryption– Each host enciphers message so host at “next

hop” can read it– Message can be read at intermediate hosts

• End-to-end encryption– Host enciphers message so host at other end of

communication can read it– Message cannot be read at intermediate hosts

Slide #10-29

Examples

• TELNET protocol– Messages between client, server enciphered, and

encipherment, decipherment occur only at these hosts

– End-to-end protocol

• PPP (Point-to-Point) Encryption Protocol– Host gets message, deciphers it

• Figures out where to forward it

• Enciphers it in appropriate key and forwards it

– Link protocol

Slide #10-30

Cryptographic Considerations

• Link encryption– Each host shares key with neighbor– Can be set on per-host or per-host-pair basis

• Windsor, stripe, seaview each have own keys• One key for (windsor, stripe); one for (stripe, seaview); one for

(windsor, seaview)

• End-to-end– Each host shares key with destination– Can be set on per-host or per-host-pair basis– Message cannot be read at intermediate nodes

Slide #10-31

Traffic Analysis

• Link encryption– Can protect headers of packets– Possible to hide source and destination

• Note: may be able to deduce this from traffic flows

• End-to-end encryption– Cannot hide packet headers

• Intermediate nodes need to route packet

– Attacker can read source, destination

Slide #10-32

Example Protocols

• Privacy-Enhanced Electronic Mail (PEM)– Applications layer protocol

• IP Security (IPSec)– Network layer protocol

Slide #10-33

Goals of PEM

1. Confidentiality• Only sender and recipient(s) can read message

2. Origin authentication• Identify the sender precisely

3. Data integrity• Any changes in message are easy to detect

4. Non-repudiation of origin• Whenever possible …

Slide #10-34

Message Handling System

MTA

UA

MTA

UA

MTA

UAUserAgents

MessageTransferAgents

Slide #10-35

Design Principles

• Do not change related existing protocols– Cannot alter SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

• Do not change existing software– Needs compatibility with existing software

• Make use of PEM optional– Available if desired, but email still works without them– Some recipients may use it, others not

• Enable communication without prearrangement– Out-of-bands authentication, key exchange problematic

Slide #10-36

Basic Design: Keys

• Two keys– Interchange keys tied to sender, recipients and

is static (for some set of messages)• Like a public/private key pair

• Must be available before messages sent

– Data exchange keys generated for each message• Like a session key, session being the message

Slide #10-37

Basic Design: Sending

Alice Bob{ m } ks || { ks } kB

Confidentiality• m message• ks data exchange key• kB Bob’s interchange key

Slide #10-38

Basic Design: Integrity

Alice Bobm { h(m) } kA

Integrity and authentication:• m message• h(m) hash of message m —Message Integrity Check (MIC)• kA Alice’s interchange key

Non-repudiation: if kA is Alice’s private key, this establishesthat Alice’s private key was used to sign the message

Slide #10-39

Basic Design: Everything

Alice Bob{ m } ks || { h(m) } kA || { ks } kB

Confidentiality, integrity, authentication:• Notations as in previous slides• If kA is private key, get non-repudiation too

Slide #10-40

Practical Considerations

• Limits of SMTP– Only ASCII characters, limited length lines

• Use encoding procedure1. Map local char representation into canonical format

– Format meets SMTP requirements

2. Compute and encipher MIC over the canonical format; encipher message if needed

3. Map each 6 bits of result into a character; insert newline after every 64th character

4. Add delimiters around this ASCII message

Slide #10-41

Problem

• Recipient without PEM-compliant software cannot read it– If only integrity and authentication used, should be able

to read it

• Mode MIC-CLEAR allows this– Skip step 3 in encoding procedure– Problem: some MTAs add blank lines, delete trailing

white space, or change end of line character– Result: PEM-compliant software reports integrity

failure

Slide #10-42

PEM vs. PGP

• Use different ciphers– PGP uses IDEA cipher– PEM uses DES in CBC mode

• Use different certificate models– PGP uses general “web of trust”– PEM uses hierarchical certification structure

• Handle end of line differently– PGP remaps end of line if message tagged “text”, but

leaves them alone if message tagged “binary”– PEM always remaps end of line

Slide #10-43

IPsec

• Network layer security– Provides confidentiality, integrity,

authentication of endpoints, replay detection

• Protects all messages sent along a path

dest gw2 gw1 srcIP IP+IPsec IP

security gateway

Slide #10-44

IPsec Transport Mode

• Encapsulate IP packet data area• Use IP to send IPsec-wrapped data packet• Note: IP header not protected

encapsulateddata body

IPheader

Slide #10-45

IPsec Tunnel Mode

• Encapsulate IP packet (IP header and IP data)• Use IP to send IPsec-wrapped packet• Note: IP header protected

encapsulateddata body

IPheader

Slide #10-46

IPsec Protocols

• Authentication Header (AH)– Message integrity– Origin authentication– Anti-replay

• Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP)– Confidentiality– Others provided by AH

Slide #10-47

IPsec Architecture

• Security Policy Database (SPD)– Says how to handle messages (discard them,

add security services, forward message unchanged)

– SPD associated with network interface– SPD determines appropriate entry from packet

attributes• Including source, destination, transport protocol

Slide #10-48

Example

• Goals– Discard SMTP packets from host 192.168.2.9

– Forward packets from 192.168.19.7 without change

• SPD entriessrc 192.168.2.9, dest 10.1.2.3 to 10.1.2.103, port 25, discard

src 192.168.19.7, dest 10.1.2.3 to 10.1.2.103, port 25, bypass

dest 10.1.2.3 to 10.1.2.103, port 25, apply IPsec

• Note: entries scanned in order– If no match for packet, it is discarded

Slide #10-49

IPsec Architecture

• Security Association (SA)– Association between peers for security services

• Identified uniquely by dest address, security protocol (AH or ESP), unique 32-bit number (security parameter index, or SPI)

– Unidirectional• Can apply different services in either direction

– SA uses either ESP or AH; if both required, 2 SAs needed

Slide #10-50

SA Database (SAD)

• Entry describes SA; some fields for all packets:– AH algorithm identifier, keys

• When SA uses AH

– ESP encipherment algorithm identifier, keys • When SA uses confidentiality from ESP

– ESP authentication algorithm identifier, keys• When SA uses authentication, integrity from ESP

– SA lifetime (time for deletion or max byte count)

– IPsec mode (tunnel, transport, either)

Slide #10-51

SAD Fields

• Antireplay (inbound only)– When SA uses antireplay feature

• Sequence number counter (outbound only)– Generates AH or ESP sequence number

• Sequence counter overflow field– Stops traffic over this SA if sequence counter overflows

• Aging variables– Used to detect time-outs

Slide #10-52

IPsec Architecture

• Packet arrives

• Look in SPD– Find appropriate entry– Get dest address, security protocol, SPI

• Find associated SA in SAD– Use dest address, security protocol, SPI– Apply security services in SA (if any)

Slide #10-53

SA Bundles and Nesting

• Sequence of SAs that IPsec applies to packets– This is a SA bundle

• Nest tunnel mode SAs– This is iterated tunneling

Slide #10-54

Example: Nested Tunnels

• Group in A.org needs to communicate with group in B.org

• Gateways of A, B use IPsec mechanisms– But the information must be secret to everyone except

the two groups, even secret from other people in A.org and B.org

• Inner tunnel: a SA between the hosts of the two groups

• Outer tunnel: the SA between the two gateways

Slide #10-55

Example: Systems

hostA.A.org

gwA.A.org

gwB.B.org

hostB.B.org

SA in tunnel mode(outer tunnel)

SA in tunnel mode(inner tunnel)

Slide #10-56

Example: Packets

• Packet generated on hostA• Encapsulated by hostA’s IPsec mechanisms• Again encapsulated by gwA’s IPsec mechanisms

– Above diagram shows headers, but as you go left, everything to the right would be enciphered and authenticated, etc.

IP headerfromhostA

Transportlayer

headers,data

ESP headerfromhostA

AH headerfromhostA

IP headerfromhostA

ESP headerfromgwA

AH headerfromgwA

IP headerfromgwA

Slide #10-57

AH Protocol

• Parameters in AH header– Length of header– SPI of SA applying protocol– Sequence number (anti-replay)– Integrity value check

• Two steps– Check that replay is not occurring– Check authentication data

Slide #10-58

Sender

• Check sequence number will not cycle• Increment sequence number• Compute IVC of packet

– Includes IP header, AH header, packet data• IP header: include all fields that will not change in

transit; assume all others are 0• AH header: authentication data field set to 0 for this• Packet data includes encapsulated data, higher level

protocol data

Slide #10-59

Recipient

• Assume AH header found

• Get SPI, destination address

• Find associated SA in SAD– If no associated SA, discard packet

• If antireplay not used– Verify IVC is correct

• If not, discard

Slide #10-60

Recipient, Using Antireplay

• Check packet beyond low end of sliding window• Check IVC of packet• Check packet’s slot not occupied

– If any of these is false, discard packet

…

current window

Slide #10-61

AH Miscellany

• All implementations must support:

HMAC_MD5

HMAC_SHA-1

• May support other algorithms

Slide #10-62

ESP Protocol

• Parameters in ESP header– SPI of SA applying protocol

– Sequence number (anti-replay)

– Generic “payload data” field

– Padding and length of padding• Contents depends on ESP services enabled; may be an

initialization vector for a chaining cipher, for example

• Used also to pad packet to length required by cipher

– Optional authentication data field

Slide #10-63

Sender

• Add ESP header– Includes whatever padding needed

• Encipher result– Do not encipher SPI, sequence numbers

• If authentication desired, compute as for AH protocol except over ESP header, payload and not encapsulating IP header

Slide #10-64

Recipient

• Assume ESP header found• Get SPI, destination address• Find associated SA in SAD

– If no associated SA, discard packet

• If authentication used– Do IVC, antireplay verification as for AH

• Only ESP, payload are considered; not IP header

• Note authentication data inserted after encipherment, so no deciphering need be done

Slide #10-65

Recipient

• If confidentiality used– Decipher enciphered portion of ESP heaser– Process padding– Decipher payload– If SA is transport mode, IP header and payload

treated as original IP packet– If SA is tunnel mode, payload is an

encapsulated IP packet and so is treated as original IP packet

Slide #10-66

ESP Miscellany

• Must use at least one of confidentiality, authentication services

• Synchronization material must be in payload– Packets may not arrive in order, so if not, packets

following a missing packet may not be decipherable

• Implementations of ESP assume classical cryptosystem– Implementations of public key systems usually far

slower than implementations of classical systems– Not required

Slide #10-67

More ESP Miscellany

• All implementations must support (encipherment algorithms):DES in CBC modeNULL algorithm (identity; no encipherment)

• All implementations must support (integrity algorithms):

HMAC_MD5HMAC_SHA-1NULL algorithm (no MAC computed)

• Both cannot be NULL at the same time

Slide #10-68

Which to Use: PEM, IPsec

• What do the security services apply to?– If applicable to one application and application layer

mechanisms available, use that• PEM for electronic mail

– If more generic services needed, look to lower layers• IPsec for network layer, either end-to-end or link mechanisms,

for connectionless channels as well as connections

– If endpoint is host, IPsec sufficient; if endpoint is user, application layer mechanism such as PEM needed

Slide #10-69

Key Points

• Key management critical to effective use of cryptosystems– Different levels of keys (session vs. interchange)

• Keys need infrastructure to identify holders, allow revoking– Key escrowing complicates infrastructure

• Digital signatures provide integrity of origin and contentMuch easier with public key cryptosystems than with

classical cryptosystems