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Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations
Chapter 10
General conclusions and recommendations
160
The study assessed whether composting could convert the pulp and paper mill sludge
(PMS) produced by Australian Newsprint Mills (ANM) into a product suitable for use as
a slow nutrient releasing mulch in radiata pine plantation forestry, or as a component in
horticultural growing media, in a bid to divert this material from landfill. This section will
review how the experimental aims outlined in the general introduction were addressed
(Chapter I), the major findings, and how PMS can be compost-recycled in an efficient
and cost effective manner.
The first aim of this study was to chemically characterise the PMS to determine its
suitability as a substrate for composting, the nutrient requirement to initiate composting,
and to ensure the absence of potentially toxic substances. The PMS (produced by a
primary treatment system) consisted primarily of cellulose polymorph type I, as in
ordinary pulp, with a minor lignin and uronic acid contribution (Chapter 2). Although the. .PMS was considered to be a suitable substrate for composting due to its high organic
matter content, the preliminary work indicated that the rate of microbial degradation of the
material would be slow because of its high cellulose content. Cellulose is poorly
decomposed by microorganisms as a sole source of carbon due to its highly stable tertiary
structure (Chapter 2). Unlike some.sludges produced by other pulp and paper mills, the
PMS produced by ANM was not contaminated with toxic chlorinated organic substances
(due to the existence of totally chlorine-free pulping and bleaching processes), heavy
metals or excessive concentrations of inorganic elements (except for aluminium), making
it suitable for compost-recycling. Due to the very low concentration of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium in PMS, the addition of significant quantities of these
nutrients was considered necessary to stimulate the microbial decomposition of the
organic fraction during composting (Chapter 2).
The high concentration of aluminium (0.37% w/w, dry weight) in PMS was of
concern, as the soluble form of this element (occurring below pH 5.0) is toxic to plants,
through its effects on cell division and phosphorus availability (Chapters 4 and 7). The
aluminium in PMS was attributable to the use of aluminium sulfate as a flocculating agent
during primary clarification and sludge dewatering. Fortunately, aluminium present in
PMS before and after composting was found to be unavailable for release into solution,
(even at pH less than 5), as it appeared to be non-exchangeably bound in a monomeric
form to the organic fraction (Chapter 7). Thus, the potential for aluminium toxicity to
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 161
occur during use as a plant growth substrate was considered to be low, at least in the
short term (Chapter 7). In the long term, however, mineralisation of the remaining
cellulosic fraction in PMS could lead to the release of phytotoxic aluminium if this
material was incorporated into acidic soils (pH < 5.0). Substitution of the aluminium
sulfate flocculant with a commercially available iron-based flocculant, such as ferric
sulfate (Fe2[S0413) or ferric chloride (FeCI3.6H20) should be considered, in order to
eliminate the uncertainty regarding the reaction of aluminium following the application of
PMS compost to acidic soils. Ferric sulfate and ferric chloride contain iron in the trivalent
form, and their hydrolysis reactions are analogous to that of aluminium sulfate in waste
waters. Given that these iron-based flocculants are effective over a similar pH range to
that of aluminium sulfate, substitution of the latter with ferric sulfate or ferric chloride
could be achieved without having to modify any process conditions currently operating at
the primary treatment plant. Use of an iron-based flocculant during primary clarification
and sludge dewatering would be beneficial in the resulting PMS, as iron is necessary as a
micronutrient for plant growth. At pH values less than 5, iron is soluble, but unlike
soluble aluminium, iron does not rapidly accumulate in plants or cause toxicity. As the
mechanism of ferric-iron mediated flocculation is analogous to that of aluminium sulfate,- . _. -.
it could be assumed that iron would also become strongly bound in a monomeric form to
the organic fraction in PMS. If this is so, it could also be assumed that iron would not
interfere with the availability of phosphorus following its addition during composting.
This is important because in acidic soils (pH < 5.0), soluble iron is also responsible for
fOflllin~\,e'Iinsolubl~p..r:ecip~'cIt(~S ~ith ~h5':P.hat~ ions'J~duc~ng the avai!abi!ity of
phosphorus for plant uptake (a process known as phosphorus fixation). To confirm this
hypothesis, a simple laboratory test involving the addition of a soluble phosphorus form
to a sample of iron-containing PMS should be done. Examination of the total and
available phosphorus concentrations after a few weeks incubation under ambient
conditions should determine whether the availability of phosphorus is affected by the
presence of iron.
The only apparent disadvantage regarding the substitution of aluminium sulfate with
ferric sulfate or ferric chloride is cost. For example, ferric chloride retails at AU$41O r l,
which is approximately twice as expensive as aluminium sulfate (AU$190 r l) (Orica
Watercare, Australia) (Chapter 7). An accurate cost comparison between aluminium
sulfate or ferric chloride is however dependent on their relative rate of addition to the
effluent to achieve a satisfactory level of floc formation. Suchcost comparisons between .
r aluminium sulfate, ferric chloride and ferric sulfate would be of interest.
A microbiological analysis of the PMS following dewatering revealed it to be poorly
colonised by microorganisms, suggesting that inoculation with a compost rnicrobiota may
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 162
be necessary to initiate the composting process (Chapter 2). This could be easily achieved
at the outset by incorporating mature compost within the PMS at a very low rate.
The second objective of this study was to determine the·optimum conditions for PMS
.......:omposting in laboratory-scale reactors, designed to simulate conditions in a large-scale,
periodically-turned windrow (Chapter 3). Mineral nutrients were added to the PMS to
initiate composting: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were added in full prior to
composting or in quarterly instalments (over -10 weeks), or incubated under mesophilic
(35°C) or thermophilic (55°C) temperature conditions in a factorial experimental design.
Urea was added as a source of nitrogen, partially acidulated phosphate rock as a source of
phosphorus and potassium chloride as a source of potassium (Chapter 3). The effect of
incremental nutrient addition on the composting process was assessed due to the
possibility of nutrient leaching from the windrows in the field if all nutrients were added
prior to composting. Composting in laboratory-scale vessels, however, proceeded slowly
under all treatments (17-21 weeks), due to the combined effect of the oxygen limitations
imposed by the vessels, and the fact that cellulose is typically degraded slowly by
microorganisms. The rate of PMS decomposition was faster at the higher composting
temperature. Control of pH (to less than 7.5) during the composting process was also
found to be critical. Without pH control during PMS composting, between 41 and 62%
of the total added nitrogen was lost through the gaseous volatilisation of ammonia. As a
result, the final composts were of relatively low quality, due to the low concentration of
nitrogen present. The pH increase during PMS composting was. due to the alkaline
reaction of urea. Significant loss of nitrogen occurred despite the incremental addition of
urea. This indicated that better nitrogen immobilisation during large-scale PMS
cornposting could be achieved by establishing a pH ceiling of 7.5, by incrementally
adding urea in combination with a non-alkali forming nitrogen source, such as
ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate. The addition of -25% of the total nitrogen
requirement as urea at the outset, however, was considered necessary to raise the pH of
the PMS from -4.4 to the near neutral range required for optimum microbial activity
during composting.
Following the laboratory-scale composting experiments, a large-scale PMS windrow
composting trial was performed (Chapter 4). The purpose of this trial was to assess the
performance of the composting process, the agricultural quality of the final compost, and
the economics of composting relative to landfilling. PMS was composted with mineral
nutrients, based on the method of mineral nutrient addition described above. Three
windrows were formed with a front-end loader, each was 25 m long, 3 m wide and 2 m
high. Turning was undertaken weekly with a front end loader. Temperatures at the pile
centres remained above 50°C for the duration of the trial, with pile pH peaking at 7.46
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 163
after II weeks. pH management through partial substitution of urea with ammonium
sulfate and ammonium nitrate nitrogen sources prevented a pH rise in excess of 7.5,
resulting in more effective nitrogen immobilisation in the PMS than that achieved in
laboratory-scale composting experiments (Chapter 3). As a result, the C:N ratio of the
PMS reduced from 218: I prior to mineral nutrient addition to -23: I after composting. At
the completion of the composting experiment (21 weeks), phytotoxicity was absent and
pile volume had decreased by 45%. This was largely due to a 31.6% increase in bulk
density and a decrease in gravimetric water content (from 71.4% to 63.7%). The slow
rate of PMS decomposition (21 weeks) was partly due to the formation of anaerobic
conditions within the windrows, as indicated by the presence of malodours during
turning.
The efficiency of periodic turning was assessed as a method of aerating PMS during
large-scale windrow composting to determine whether anaerobic conditions formed, and
whether this may have been responsible, in part, for the relatively slow rate of PMS
decomposition (Chapter 5). Anaerobic conditions were determined by monitoring spatial
.and temporal changes in 02 consumption and C02 accumulation in situ. Gas exchange
during the static phase was found to be limited to the outer periphery of the windrow.
Interstitial 02 was reduced to less than 2% in the pile centre between 2 and 6 hours after
turning, indicating that the piles were anoxic for most of the trial. The ability of periodic
turning to replenish voids with 02 and eliminate C02 decreased as composting
progressed..This was due to an increase in bulk density which reduced the volume of
voids participating in gas exchange, and was particularly evident when the bulk density of
PMS increased to more than 550 kg m-3. Since periodic turning of PMS in static
windrows was found to be ineffective in maintaining aerobic conditions, it was suggested
that better oxygenation might be achieved by allowing the height of the piles to reduce
with time, instead of maintaining them at 2 m by continually reducing the length of the
piles (as done in this study). Alternatively, better oxygenation might be achieved by
adding a bulking agent or by installing open-ended perforated plastic pipes. The creation
of a primarily aerobic environment within the PMS windrows during composting could,
therefore, significantly shorten the length of time required to produce a stable compost.
The concentration of soluble salts in the PMS following composting was of some
concern, particularly if this material was to be used as a plant growth substrate. Excessive
soluble salts can injure plant roots by inducing physiological drought (Chapter 4). The
electrical conductivity of the compost increased from 0.59 dS rrr l to 2.78 dS rrr! after 21
weeks, largely due 10 the use of mineral nutrient supplements (Chapter 4). The greatest
rise in electrical conductivity occurred following the addition of ammonium nitrate as a
partial source of nitrogen. Although the electrical conductivity of the PMS was higher
.Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations
..... '-
164
than the maximum permissible level for horticultural growing media (2.2 dS rrr l;
Standards Australia AS3743, 1993), the electrical conductivity could be reduced by
replacing ammonium nitrate with ammonium sulfate, thereby improving the quality of the
PMS compost. In this case, only urea and ammonium sulfate would be used as nitrogen
sources during PMS composting. Although the electrical conductivity was moderately
high in the PMS compost, this did not affect plant growth when matiJre PMS compost
and perlite were blended and used as horticultural growing media (discussed later).
The total concentration of phosphorus in the final compost was high (4400 mg kg-I;
Chapter 4), but the concentration of phosphorus available for plant uptake was very low
(98 mg kg-I, or 2.2% of total phosphorus) (Chapter 4). The low concentration of
available phosphorus in the final compost was due to the fact that the phosphorus source
added to the PMS was only partly soluble (partially acidulated phosphate rock; 4.3%
available phosphorus) (Chapter 3). The agricultural value of the PMS could be improved
by using a more soluble form of phosphorus (e.g. calcium orthophosphate
[superphosphate]). Although the risk of phosphorus leaching from the PMS windrows
. would be high~r w~en a calcium 0rt.hop~os~hate.forr~ of phosphorus is used (due to its
solubility), this could be reduced by incrementally adding it to the PMS (as with
nitrogen).
The PMS compost after 21 weeks was well humified, containing good levels of
. nit~oge~ pota~ium: c_alc~um,_sulf~~ and IIrea~or:ab!e concenu:ati:>u_of phoSIJhorus, wit~
no heavy metal contamination. This suggested that composting was successful in
converting the PMS produced by ANM into a product suitable for agricultural or
horticultural applications (Chapter 4).
Changes in the organic fraction of PMS during the large-scale windrow composting
were characterised in an attempt to determine whether the rate of change in the organic
fraction was related to the maturity of the compost (as indicated by a phytotoxicity test)
(Chapter 6). The length of time required to obtain a sufficiently mature compost for
marketing is important as this will determine the rate at which organic material can be
processed on a site, and when the material is suitable for sale. This study showed that the
majority of the structural change to the PMS occurred during the thermophilic stage of
composting when it exhibited phytotoxic properties. Thereafter, little structural change to
the.organic fraction occurred, indicating the compost was mature. Since the compost was
mature after the thermophilic stage of composting (2I weeks), this indicated that the
material was suitable for use (or sale). Since much of the structural change to the organic
fraction in PMS ceased when the phytotoxicity of the compost disappeared, it appeared
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 165
that direct phytotoxicity tests were suitable for the characterisation of maturity following
PMS composting.
The total cost of composting PMS in periodically-turned windrows for a 21 week
period (includinginfrastructural costs) was estimated to be AU$9.26 m-3 (initial volume)
compared to AU$4.47 m-3 for landfilling (Chapter 4). The total composting cost was
based on an annual PMS production rate of 99 008 m3 (1996 estimate; Chapters 2 and 4);
the purchase of land and costs associated with preparation of the surface (15.3 ha;
AU$459 000); employment of four full-time personnel (AU$40 000 each), construction
of an office and compost storage sheds (AU$300 000) and hire and maintenance of three
front-end loaders and one truck (AU$9 300 per year, each). The most expensive input in
the proposed PMS composting operation are the mineral nutrient amendments,
comprising -64% of the total yearly composting costs. If an alternative nutrient source
could be obtained at lower cost (e.g. chicken or cattle manure), the cost to compost PMS
could decrease to AU$3.34 m-3, assuming that no further mineral nutrient supplements
would be needed to initiate composting. In this case, composting would be -25% cheaper
than landfilling, which would obviously result in significant cost savings to the company.
Even though the implementation of a composting operation would eliminate the need
for disposing of PMS in landfill, a landfill would still be required because only -53% of
all waste landfilled is PMS (Chapter 4). In this case, the only cost savings which could be
achieved by diverting PMS from landfill would be that normally associated with cartage
andd;Ii;ping of PM-S,-esti~t~d-to b~ "\U$4.47 m-'j (without e;~iro~~en~ ~~nito~ini)~
If, however, it was assumed that only PMS was landfilled, and that a composting
operation would eliminate all future needs for a landfill, the landfilling cost would
increase from AU$4.47 m-3 to AU$7.68 m-3. The increase in the estimated cost of
landfilling is due to the fact that the latter estimate takes account for the establishment cost
of the landfill, whereas the former does not. From an economic viewpoint, a composting
operation may be a viable alternative to landfilling if the net cost (total revenue less total
costs) to run the operation is less than the cost of transporting PMS to the landfill (i.e.
<AU$442 923 per year). In this case, the compost must be sold for at least AU$8.70 m-3
to make it an economically viable alternative to landfilling. On the other hand, if all the
compost could be sold at the cost of production (AU$16.84 m-3 of final product),
AU$442 923 annually could be saved in PMS cartage costs to the landfill.
The nutrient costs associated with PMS composting could be reduced or eliminated if
the nutrient content of the material could be increased during effluent treatment or sludge
processing. This could be achieved, indirectly, by installing a secondary treatment plant,
which would further improve the quality of the waste water discharged by the mill.
Chapter I0 - General conclusions and recommendations 166
Primary treatment systems promote the settling of suspended organic matter in waste
water, however, they are relatively ineffective inremoving dissolved organic substances.
Secondary (or biological) treatment processes are used to promote the microbial
degradation of the dissolved organic and remaining particulate fractions. Biological
degradation is enhanced by balancing the pH of the waste water and by the addition of
nitrogen and phosphorus. As a result, the biological oxygen demand of waste water can
be reduced by 80 to 90% during secondary treatment (Biermann, 1993). Secondary
treatment is usually accomplished in oxidation basins, aerated stabilisation basins or by an
activated sludge process (discussed later). Secondary sludges tend to be high in
organically bound nitrogen and phosphorus, and when combined with primary sludge to
improve its handling properties, such sludges would not require the addition of further
nitrogen and phosphorus amendments to promote compo sting. Incorporation of the
mineral nutrient costs into a secondary treatment process could, therefore, significantly
reduce the cost associated with a PMS composting operation, making this process much
more economically attractive than landfilling. The actual cost of a PMS composting
operation following the addition of a secondary treatment plant could not be accurately
estimated, due to the uncertainty regarding the volume of extra sludge produced by the
secondary treatment plant.
Composting of a combined primary and secondary PMS in a laboratory-scale vessel
with forced aeration has been reported previously (Campbell et al., 1991). In this study,
the combined PMS, consisting of primary and secondary sludge mixed at a volumetric- - --- --- --. _.~- - -
ratio of 3: I, possessed a C:N ratio of 29: I, which was within the optimal range for
composting. Levels of phosphorus (238 mg kg· l), potassium (544 mg kg-]) and other
elements were also sufficient to support microbial growth during composting. Although
the addition of secondary sludge to primary sludge can improve the nutrient value of the
latter, excessive use of secondary sludge can markedly increase the electrical conductivity
of the combined material, possibly making it unsuitable as a plant growth substrate
following composting. Campbell et ai. (1991) reported that when primary and secondary
sludge was mixed at a volumetric ratio of 3: I, the electrical conductivity increased from
0.19 dS rrr ! (in the primary sludge) to an acceptable level of 1.12 dS rrr ! (in the
combined sludge). The electrical conductivity of secondary sludge was 3.90 dS rrr l, too
high for utilisation without dilution. Secondary sludges often have a higher electrical
conductivity than primary sludges due to the addition of nitrogen and phosphorus mineral
nutrients to waste water during secondary treatment. Clearly, if such levels of nitrogen,
phosphorus and potassium could be achieved in a combined primary and secondary
sludge at ANM as reported by Campbell et al., (1991), the addition of mineral nutrient
amendments would not be necessary for composting to proceed.
. _. _._-~-::c--::c-~----:------;------;======-----~---------==
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 167
As mentioned previously, the three most commonly used secondary treatment systems·
in the pulp and paper industry are oxidation basins, aerated stabilisation basins or the
activated sludge process. The oxidation basin is the simplest of these, merely being a
pond which relies on natural aeration from the atmosphere to supply oxygen. This type of
secondary treatment process is suited to mills with low production, producing waste
water with a relatively low biological oxygen demand (Biermann, 1993). Aerated
stabilisation basins are similar to oxidation basins except that oxygen transfer into the
waste water is improved by the use of aerators, which greatly improves the efficiency of
the system (Figure 10.1). Oxidation basins and aerated stabilisation basins are usually 90
to 150 cm deep, so adequate supplies of light and oxygen can be transmitted to the
microbiota. Retention times associated with aerated stabilisation basins are typically 6 to
14 days, depending on the temperature of the effluent, as this affects the rate of microbial
growth. Periodic dredging (-once per year) is required to remove accumulated sludge
(Biermann, 1993).
Figure 10.1 Schematic diagram of various aerating devices commonly used in aerated
stabilisation basins (Eckenfelder, 1989).
Jet diffuser
Porous dome(fine bubble)
Diffuser lube(medium and fine bubble)
Turbineaeration system
, eI1l~II:Z;PStatic aeration
"i r/-'-\"
j, / J I,1,,_ /
..... -Bubble aeration
Bubble cap(coarse bubble)
<.,r... ~ \ .I
Radial flow .AxialflowBrush mechanical aerator
==---,,-;;,,----------------------,----::---,---------~---- -----
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 168
In the activated sludge process, microorganisms are purposely added along with
nutrients, agitation and oxygen to promote the degradation of the soluble and insoluble
organic fractions (Eckenfelder, 1989) (Figure 10.2). The advantage of this system is that
retention times can be reduced to as little as 6 to 8 hours, however, significant volumes of
secondary sludge are produced. The sludge consists of a microbial suspension, which
needs to be removed from the basin and treated in a secondary clarifier. This method of
secondary treatment is relatively expensive, generally used when space is limited or
where there is a requirement for biological oxygen demand reduction of greater than 90%.
This method works best with a constant feed supply and with waste water with a
relatively high biological oxygen demand (Biermann, 1993).
Figure 10.2 Schematic diagram of an activated sludge secondary treatment system.
Note that a proportion of the activated sludge recovered from the clarifier is returned to
the aeration tank to inoculate incoming waste water. The remainder of the waste activated
sludge is normally pumped to a holding tank then dewatered (Eckenfelder, 1989).
Oxygensupply -
Controlval ve Pressure signal-~--1,
:
Return activated sludge
Oxygenvenl
Clarifier
J
Waste' activated sludge
Treatedeffluent
As the activated sludge process is the only secondary treatment system capable of
continually generating secondary sludge, this process could permit the functioning of a
continuous composting operation. Ideally, the secondary sludge should be combined with
the primary sludge prior to dewatering at a predetermined ratio, so the combined sludge
produced could be immediately transported and formed into windrows, enabling
composting to proceed immediately. Another advantage of mixing both forms of sludge
prior to dewatering is that dewatering could be carried out more easily, because the
dewatering of secondary sludge (alone) is difficult due to its high protein content.
- --------------,---,-----------------------------
Chapter I0 - General conclusions and recommendations 169
This study also examined the feasibility of recycling PMS compost for use as a mulch
in radiata pine plantation forests or as a component in horticultural growing media.
Firstly, the effect of PMS compost on the growth, nutrition, water relations and weed
. - suppression in a young radiata pine plantation was assessed (Chapter 8). PMS compost
applied to the surface of a relatively infertile podosol soil at a rate of 20, 40 or 60 t ha-I
(dry matter) within rows of trees significantly improved the growth of radiata pine. After
12 months, the percentage increase in stern diameter in treated plots was 40 to 66% above
that made in control plots. The growth response of radiata pine increased proportionally
with the PMS compost application rate, suggesting that larger application rates could
result in further yield improvements (Chapter 8).
The significant improvement in growth of radiata pine II months after application of
PMS compost was primarily attributable to a 17 to 37% increase in the concentration of
foliar nitrogen, and to decreased water stress in amended plots. Improved levels of foliar
nitrogen in treated trees occurred due to the release of soluble nitrogen from the PMS
compost, most of which was leached from the material within the first 2 months
following application. Nitrogen released from the PMS compost was rapidly assimilated
by plant roots within the first 20 ern of the soil profile, with no significant movement
beyond this depth range, suggesting that greater application rates could be achieved
without any detrimental environmental effects (e.g. nitrate leaching into ground water).
Over the first 8 months of the trial, the PMS compost released little phosphorus into the
underlying soil, due to the insoluble nature of the partially acidulated phosphate rock- -- - - - - - - --
added during the composting process. It was suggested that the fertiliser value of the
PMS compost could be improved by adding a more soluble form of phosphorus to the
material during composting, such a calcium orthophosphate (superphosphate).
A decrease in the concentration of aluminium in the foliage of radiata pine following
application of PMS compost suggested that aluminium present in the PMS compost was
not released, even though the pH of the compost (4.0 to 4.5 twelve months after
application) was sufficiently low for aluminium to enter solution. A reduction in
aluminium uptake following application of PMS compost was probably due to dilution in
the newly formed biomass (Chapter 8). Improved uptake of potassium, calcium and
magnesium in the foliage of radiata pine did not occur, however, slow release of these
nutrients from the compost would be expected over time.
An important effect of PMS compost on the growth of radiata pine was a reduction in
the level of water stress, possibly due to increased root growth, resulting in more
extensive exploration of the soil profile for water, and/or due to better stomatal control of
water loss. Since the level of water stress experienced by plants has a long-term effect on
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 170
growth processes, an alleviation in water stress possibly contributed to the large growth
response of radiata pine following application of PMS compost.
Suppression of weeds on the site was only short lived, due to the re-emergence of
bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum). The suppressive effect of PMS compost could be
improved by the application of this material to weeds during their establishment phase, in
areas undergoing reforestation. Application of PMS compost to developing radiata pine
trees would not only assist in weed suppression (thereby reducing competition for water,
nutrients and light), but would also promote strong, early growth. Rapid growth during
the establishment phase could result in significant improvements in transplant survival
and plantation productivity in the long term. At even higher application rates, better weed
suppression may be achievable, although this would only occur in regions where the
compost was applied. Alternatively, better weed suppression over the entire site could be
achieved by surface-applying the compost within rows of trees, with the remainder of the
site being covered with primary sludge. This would result in long term weed
suppression, as nutrient-poor primary sludge is much more effective in suppressing
established weeds and aerially-sown weeds than nutrient-rich composts.
Another approach to weed suppression and the stimulation of radiata pine tree growth
in plantation forestry could involve the use of primary and secondary PMS, without the
need for composting either material. Use of secondary sludge as a nutrient source in
plantation forestry could be possible if a secondary treatment plant was installed at the-- ... -- - - - -
mill, as suggested previously. Work by Henry et at. (1993) has demonstrated that surface
applications of secondary sludge at rates of between 22 and 67 t ha! significantly
improved the growth of hybrid cottonwood cuttings (1 year old at planting) after a period
of 3 years. Average tree height and stem diameter increases following the addition of
secondary sludge were 256 and 281% greater, respectively, than, that achieved in
untreated plots. Release of nutrients slowly over time from secondary sludges, as with
composts, would be expected, because most of the nitrogen and phosphorus added
during secondary treatment would be bound in organic forms within microbial cells in the
material. If primary sludge was also applied between the rows of trees, long-lasting weed
suppression may also be achievable. Use of primary and secondary sludge in this manner
could result, therefore, in significant reductions in the use of fertilisers and herbicides
normally required during the growth of radiata pine in plantation forestry. In this case,
the only costs associated with the disposal of primary and secondary sludges in
plantations would be that associated with transport and application of the material. The
beneficial effects and economics associated with the application of secondary sludge to
plantations, as opposed to composted PMS may warrant further investigation if a
secondary treatment plant is installed at the mill.
Chapter 10 - General conclusions and recommendations 171
In general, this study found that the application of PMS compost to young stands of
radiata pine was an environmentally acceptable method of improving plantation
productivity, capable of eliminating large quantities of PMS. The magnitude and
longevity of tree responses to PMS compost application could not be determined within
the time frame of this study, however, previous work has shown that large yield
improvements can be maintained for more than 16 years after an initial-heavy application
of compost (Jokela et aI., 1990). This suggests that the application of compost can have a
long term effect on plantation productivity, probably comparable to that achievable with
conventional fertiliser applications (e.g. Turner, 1982). A detailed assessment of the
costs associated with the transport and application of PMS compost to radiata pine
plantations was beyond the scope of this study, however, given the potential benefits
resulting from the use of PMS compost on plantation soils, an economic assessment of
this recycling option is needed to establish its feasibility.
_ The final objective of this study involved an assessment of PMS compost as a
component in horticultural growing media (Chapter 9). Compost was blended with perlite
at varying volumetric ratios and plant growth was assessed without the addition of
fertiliser supplements. Media which consisted of between 60 and 90% compost by
volume had excellent physical properties, as required for the growth of plants in
containers. In the mix containing 90% compost, air filled porosity was 22.9% and total
water holding capacity was 65.4% at container capacity. All the mixes tested were
physically stable, as shrinkage did not occur after 15 weeks plant growth.. - - - - - -. -
The moderately high electrical conductivity of the media formulated with between 60
and 90% compost (2.46 to 2.77 dS rrr l) did not deleteriously affect the germination and
growth of lettuce, foxglove, broccoli or English marigold, although the electrical
conductivity of these media exceeded that specified by the Australian Standard AS3743
(1993) for potting mixes (S; 2.2 dS rrr l), Since root growth was extensive in all the plant
species tested, there was no evidence to suggest that aluminium toxicity occurred, even
though the pH of the media (4.8 to 5.3) was within or near the range in which aluminium
normally causes toxicity to plants. This result confirmed previous findings that
aluminium present in the PMS compost was non-exchangeably bound and unavailable for
plant uptake (Chapter 7).
The growth of the plant species, in general, increased as the proportion of PMS
compost increased in the mix, possibly due to the higher concentration of available
nutrients present. This suggested that the medium consisting of 90% compost and 10%
perlite by volume would be most suitable as a general horticultural growing medium.
However, the addition of the following amendments would be required to ensure good
.,....,
Chapter 10 - General conclusions andrecommendations 172
planl growth over an entire growing season, particularl~ if it was sold as a general
purpose horticultural growing medium to domestic consumers: a slow nutrient releasing
fertiliser (e.g. Osmocote'P); magnesium carbonate (to reduce the calcium to magnesium
ratio and to increase the pH of the media from 4.8-5.3 to -6), and a balanced trace
element mix. On the other hand, if media consisting of PMS compost and perlite was
sold to commercial horticultural operators, perhaps only magnesium carbonate should be
added to increase pH. This is because the nutritional requirements of plants under these
conditions are usually met through the application of soluble nutrients in the watering
system.
The estimated cost to produce a growing medium consisting of 90% compost and 10%
perlite (-AU$92 m-3) compared very well with other commercially available bark-based
media (retailing at AU$5 to AU$lO per 20 L bag in Tasmania, or AU$250 to AU$500
m-3). Therefore, the utilisation of PMS compost as a major component in horticultural
growing media is considered to be an environmentally acceptable and an economically
viable method of recycling this organic waste if a market could be established.
In conclusion, this study has successfully investigated the potential' for compost
recycling of PMS in Tasmania. Composting of this material in periodically-turned
windrows with mineral nutrient addition was effective in producing a material suitable for
agricultural or horticultural applications. The potential for composting to divert this
material from landfill, howe"er,. was found to depend primarily on transport and
application costs if applied to plantation forests, or to the development of markets and sale
of the compost. Other potential markets and uses for PMS compost would include:
•
••
••
•
•
•
•
local municipalities for public works projects;
domestic and commercial landscaping;
landscaping around the mill;
viticultural, hop, fruit and other intensive agricultural operations;
mine or quarry site rehabilitation;
artificial soil manufacture (soil substitute);
substrate for turf and wildflower sods;
landfill capping;
soil erosion control.
Given that specialised knowledge is required to establish a composting operation and
to develop markets for material produced, it is suggested that the company seeks the.
interest of an industrial waste management firm to carry out the recommendations made in
this study, or part thereof, if desired.
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Appendix I
Appendix 1
Statistical data not shown in Chapter 3
205
Table Al.I Mean C:N data of PMS compost under the various treatment combinations
at termination.
Treatment Days of composting Mean C:N ratio after composting ±
until termination standard error of 4 replicate runs'
55'C FNA a 121 34.78 ± 0.98 a
55'C INA b 155 47.56 ± 0.94 b
35'CFNA 162 34.79 ± 0.63 a
35'C INA 169 53.02 + 1.15 c
a Full nutrient addition treatment; bIncremental nutrient addition treatment; C Data
followed by a different letter are significantly different at the 0.05 probability level.
(LSDo.o5= 1.42 as calculated in Table Al.2). .. .... -... ,-
Table AI.2 Analysis of variance of C:N ratios between treatments after composting.
Source of S.umof Square~ . .. De~esof Mean Sum F Value Pr> F--_.- -
Variationa Freedom of Squares
Tempb 31.30 31.30 9.23 0.01
MNA' 952.65 952.65 280.93 0.00
Temp x MNA 31.08 31.08 9.17 0.01
Error 40.69 12 3.39
a See table A 1.1 for days for composting until termination; b Temperature: c Method of
nutrient addition. LSDo.05=1.42.
Appendix 2
Appendix 2
Statistical data not shown in Chapter 8
206
Table A2.1 Effect of PMS compost on height of radiata pine over a 12 month period.
Height of radiata pine (m) following application of PMS compost
Months after application of PMS compost
Application rate (t ha-1 DM a) Ob 6 b 12 b
0 1.018 ± 0.053 1.693 ± 0.070 1.885 ± 0.092
20 0.980 ± 0.122 1.665 ± 0.211 1.933 ± 0.235
40 1.068 ± 0.016 1.728 ± 0.025 2.005 ± 0.042
60 0.963 ± 0.042 1.595 ± 0.084 1.893 ± 0.115
LSDo.os c ns ns ns
Percentage increase in height of radiata pine following application of PMS compost
(% of initial height at ground level)
0 67.8±5.1 87.6±6.1
20 69.7 ± 2.8 100.7 ± 3.6
40 64.3 ± 4.5 91.6 ± 5.6
60 69.9 ± 2.3 97.9 ± 4.8
LSDo.osc ns ns
a PMS compost application rate is expressed on a dry matter (DM) basis; b Data
represented is the mean of four replicate plots containing 20 trees per plot ±
standard error; c Least significant difference at the 0.05 probability level;
ns Not significant.
Appendix 2 207
Figure A2.1 Soil moisture characteristic curve of the sandy loam Al horizon in which
most of the radiata pine roots were located. Bars represent the standard error of three
replicate determinations, The Haines apparatus was used to provide soil water potentials
between 0 and -0.02 MPa, and pressure plates for potentials between -0.05 and -1.52
MPa. a Saturation; b Permanent wilting point.
~0.2 -
TIT L ..'" a - Tc, 0 ----------------- ---:E 1~ I 1c - k
~ -0.2 -] -0.4C
~-0.6 -
-0.8 -...¥ -1 -~ -1.2-'0 -1.4 - biZl ---------
-1.6 , , ,0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Gravimetric water content (%, w/w)
2354 J. Agric. Food Chem. 1997, 45, 2354-2358
Organic Composition of a Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge Determinedby FTIR, 13C CP MAS NMR, and Chemical Extraction Techniques
Mark J. Jackson' and Martin A. Line
Department of Agricultural Science, University of Tasmania, G.p.a. Box 252-54, Hobart, 7001 Australia
The organic composition of a primary pulp and paper mill sludge (PMS) was determined by carbon13 cross polarization nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy with magic angle spinning (13C CPMAS NMR), Fourier-transformed infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and chemical extraction methods.Spectroscopic studies showed that the PMS consisted of cellulose type I, which is present in ordinary
. pulp, with a minor uronic acid and lignin contribution. Minor to large structural changes occurredduring extraction of lignin, holocellulose, and cellulose. The standard chemical techniques used toextract these components resulted in sample degradation as well as changes in functionality andstructural organization. Chemical extraction techniques were therefore unsuitable to accuratelyquantitate the organic composition of PMS, and the spectroscopic techniques used provided a morereliable, semiquantitative assessment of actual organic composition.
Keywords: Holocellulose; cellulose; hemicellulose; Klason lignin
INTRODUCTION
PMSs (pulp and paper mill sludges) produced by thepaper manufacturing process are currently the subjectof many recycling studies, particularly by composting.Composted PMS may then be used in horticulture oragriculture, thereby eliminating the need for landfilling,PMSs contain chemically modified wood fibers in association with a number of chemical contaminants, thelatter depending on the nature of the wood materialentering the mill, the chemical treatment processes usedto manufacture paper, and the type of waste-handlingpractices in operation within the mill (Scott and Smith,1995). Thus the chemical composition of a PMS produced by one mill is often significantly different fromanother (McGovern et 01., 1982).
A detailed knowledge of the chemical composition ofa PMS is required to follow the sequential steps in itsbreakdown during composting. Chemical extractionprocedures have been used to selectively isolate organiccomponents, but result in considerable modification ofcovalent bonding, which changes the chemical natureof the sample (Worobey and Barrie Webster, 1981),leading to uncertainty of conclusions drawn. To characterize the organic composition of PMS, a direct
. nondestructive analysis of an intact sample is preferable. A technique that has demonstrated potential forreliable structural characterization of soil organic matter, wood, composts, and herbages is 13C CP MAS NMR(Hatcher et 01., 1981; Kolodziejski et 01., 1982; Piotrowski et 01., 1984; McBride, 1991). Another nondestructive method, FTIR, is capable of characterizingprincipal chemical groups in organic substances. Whenl3C.CP MAS NMR and FTIR are used in a complementary manner, detailed structural information can beobtained (Gerasimowicz and Byler, 1985).
The aim of this study was to determine the structuralcomposition of PMS produced by Australian NewsprintMills (ANM) with 13C CP MAS NMR and FTIR spectroscopy. Structural modifications of lignin, holocellulose, and cellulose present in PMS imposed by chemicalextraction methods were also identified by l3C CP MASNMR and FTIR.
50021-8561(96)00946-6 CCC: $14.00
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Origin of PMS. The PMS analyzed in this study wasproduced by a totally chlorine free bleached newsprint millconsisting of a thermomecbanical pulping mill (TMP), achemimecbanical pulping mill (CMP), a kraft slushing plant,a bleachingtower (hydrogen peroxideand caustic soda based),and two J;lewsprintJspeciality grade paper machines. Pinusradiata (softwood) comprises approximately66%of total woodused in the mill, whereas the remainder consists ofEucalyptusspp. (hardwood)(E. regnans, E. delegate,..is, and E. obliqua)(30% in total) and kraft (4%). Pinus radiata chips are pulpedin the TMPmill, whereas the Eucalyptus spp. chips are pulpedin the CMP mill with cold caustic soda. Effluents producedby the TMPmill, CMPmill, bleachingtower, and waste watersgenerated by the paper machines are directed to the primaryclarifiers. Following primary clarification, the sludge is de- .watered to between 25 and 30% solids(not subject to biologicaltreatment), resulting in the productionofa fibrous calte (PMS)with a low ash (2.1%) and a high carbon content (48.0%)(Jackson and Line, 1997). The pulp yields obtained from theCMPand TMP mills vary, usually beingapproximately85 sod95%, respectively. '.
Sample Preparation for SpectroscopIc Analysis andChemical Extraction. A 10 kg sample ofPMS was collectedfrom the sludge dewatering plant at ANM when themill wasoperating under normal conditions. After collection, the PMSwas oven dried at 70 ·C for 12 h. Samples of PMS wereprepared for FTIR, for IlIC CP MAS NMR, and for chemicalextraction by grinding to < 2 mm particle size. Samplehomogeneity was ensured by mixing the ground PMS. FTIRsamples were prepared by combiningco. 100 mg of KBr withca. 2 mg of dry PMS, which was compressed under vacuum todisks. Extracted lignin, holocellulose, and cellulosefrom PMS
. were dried at 70 °C for 1 h 'prior to spectroscopic analysis.Chemical Extraction of PMS. -Lignin, holocellulose,
cellulose, and hemicellulosewere extracted from PMS (extractives-free) according to esteblisbed procedures (Browning,1967; 1975). Briefly, lignin was isolated with the K1asonmethod by selectively removing cellulose and hemicelluloaeain 72% sulfuric acid, followed by boiling in 3% sulfuric acid.Percentage 1ignin was also determined indirectly by the Kappanumber procedure (TAPPI Standard Method, 1993). Holocellulose was isolated by removal oflignin with sodium chloritein dilute acetic acid. Cellulose'was further isolated from theholocellulose fraction by selectively removing hemicelluloseswith 24% potassium hydroxide. Hemicellulose was precipiteted from the filtrate obtained during cellulose extraction ofholocellulose by addition ofacetic acid. 13C CP MASNMR and
C 1997 American Chemical SOciety
Compost Science & Uttliz.mon, (1997), Vol. 5, No. 1,74·81
Composting Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge - Effect of'Temperature and Nutrient Addition Method
Mark J. Jackson & Martin A. LineDepartment of Agricultural Science, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
Pulp and paper mill sludges (PMS) are a significant by-product of the paper makingindustry world-wide, and composting with mineral nutrients in Tasmania is viewedas the most environmentally suitable method to convert this material into ahorticultural product, thus eliminating the need for landfilling, The major control variablesfor composting PMSwith a high C:N ratio are nutrient and temperature managementAddition of the nutrient requirement prior to composting can result in significant nutrient loss by leaching and may lead to ground water pollution. Alternatively, the nutrient requirement may be added incrementally during composting, thereby decreasing the risk of nutrient loss. Control of temperature is also important as thisaffects the metabolic activity of microorganisms and may determine the rate at whicha cured compost can be produced, This study therefore examined the relationship between the method of nutrient addition and temperature on composting of PMS, using small-scale reactors designed to simulate conditions in a large-scale mechanically turned windrow, The rate of PMS decomposition as determined by the rate of CO2production and 02 consumption was higher at 55°C than at 35°C. The time to produce a cured compost could be shortened by)O-50 days if composting was under- ,taken at the higher temperature. The method of nutrient addition had no effect oil therespiratory activities of compost microbiota or rates of decomposition, but had a rna-
, jor influence on pH which determined the intensity and period of ammonia volatilization, If pH was controlled, then incremental nutrient addition could beadvantageousfrom the perspective of nutrient conservation,
.Introduction
Australian Newsprint Mills (ANM) isa pulp and paper mill located in southern Tasmania. ANM produces approximately 50,000 tonnes of PMS per year, all of which islandfilled currently. The present landfill is near full capacity and several million dollarswill be required to construct a new landfill site complyingwith statutory guidelines.
Although numerous attempts at PMS composting have been undertaken since the1970's (Wysong 1976; Mick et al. 1982; Valente et al. 1987; Campbell et al. 1991, 1995;Line 1995) few have been successful in producing a material satisfactory for use in horticulture' or agriculture. Since the chemical composition of PMS differs among mills(McGovern et al. 1982; Scott and Smith 1995), composting methods developed for onePMS may be unsuitable for another. If commercially viable composting of PMS is to beachieved, sludge-specific methods need to be developed.
The two major control variables for composting a PMS with a high CN ratio inlarge-scale static windrows that are periodically turned are nutrient and temperaturemanagement. In a composting mass containing sufficient water for microbial growth,nutrient content and temperature have a marked influence on the metabolic activity ofmicroorganisms which in turn will govern the rate of mineralization and decomposition of the substrate (Finstein and Morris 1975). Nutrient content may be manipulatedby nutrient addition, whereas temperature may be controlled to some extent by regulating the amount of conductive and/ or convective heat loss. An excessive loading of .mineral nutrients in PMS at the start of composting will increase the risk of nutrientloss to the leachate, and may result in ground water pollution. Management of nutri-
,.- ,
.:'
74 Compost Science & Utilization winter. ,I~97
Compost Science &:Utilization, (1997), Vol. 5, No.3, &.14
,.
, ...
Summer. 1997
· Pulp and paper mill sludges(PMS) are a significant by-product of the paper making industry worldwide, and composting with mineral nutrients in Tasmania isviewed as' the most environmentally acceptable technology to convert this material intoa useful horticultural or agricultural product, thereby eliminating the needfor landfilling. The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of composting PMS in large-scale periodicallyturned windrows based on optimal conditions previously determined in laboratory-scale reactors. Performance of the como .
. posting process and quality of the composted PMSis reported. PMSwas compostedwith mineral nutrients at.an initial C:N:P:K ratio of 35:1:0.6:0.1 in three windrowsof 25 m in length, 3 m in width and 2 m in height with weekly turning for 21weeks,
· following which the trial was terminated. Temperature at the pile center remained'above 50°Cfor the duration of the trial, with pile pH peaking at 7.46after 11 weeks.At termination, phytotoxicity.was absent and pile volume had decreased by 45 percent, partly due toa 31.6 percent increase in. bulk density. anda decrease in gravi- .metric water content from 71.4percent before to 63.7 percent after composting. Due
· to-the moderate level of aluminum in the PMScompos.!, substitution of the alu- .minum sulfate flocculant used in primary clarification and sludge dewatering witha nonaluminum based flocculant may be.required to reduce the potential for aluminum toxicity in-plants. The C:N ratio was reduced from 218:1 prior to mineral nutrient addition to 23:1 after composting with a concomitant rise in electrical conductivity from 0.59dSm·1 to 2.78dSm·1, possibly making the material unsuitable fordirect contact with plants sensitive to moderately saline conditions. The electrical
·coriductivitycould bereducedto less' than-z-dSmv-by substituting.some of.the ni. trogen and potassium amendments with nonsalinizing nutrient forms, thereby sub-·stantially improving the quality of the composted PMS. r ,
Windrow Composting of a Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge:Process Performance and Assessment of Product Quality. . . .
6 Compost Science & Utilization
Introduction
Australian Newsprint Mills (ANM) is a totally chlorine free (TCF) pulpand papermill in southern Tasmania. The mill produces approximately 50,000 metric tons of PMSper year, all of which is currently Iandfilled, The present landfill is near full capacityand several million dollars will be required to construct a new landfill complying withstatutory guidelines.
Although numerous attempts at PMS composting have been undertaken since the1970s (Wysong 1976; Mick et al. 1982; Valente et til. 1987; Campbell et al. 1991,1995; Line1995; Tripepi et al. 1996), few have been successful in producing a material satisfactory for use in horticulture or agriculture. Aproblem with many PMSs has been contamination with excessive loadings of inorganic elements, arising from chemicallybaseddelignification and bleaching processes and possibly due to boiler or furnace ash incorporation with the effluent stream. PMS contamination with absorbable organohalogen chemicals (AOX) is also problematic, since these organic complexes are acutely toxic to fauna and flora (Walden and Howard 1981). AOX chemicals are present inthe solidand liquid effluent of pulp and paper mills that use elemental chlorine or chlorine dioxide bleaching processes (Gullichsen 1991). Such bleaching processes account
\l'a:lI~ ,\1<1n.zgt R~J I'N8: 16: 4: 312-.'19/'rinld in [knmark,:\II rig/ttJ rtltTld .
COfryright © ISWA 1998. Waste Management & Research
ISSN 0734-24LX
Assessment of periodic turning as an aerationmechanism for pulp and paper mill sludge composting
The effectiveness of periodic turning as a method of aerating
a pulp and paper mill sludge (P:-VIS) produced by Australian
Newsprint Mills during windrow composting was determined
by monitoring spatial and temporal changes in O~ consurnp
tion and CO2 accumulation in situ. Gas exchange during the
static phase was found to be limited to the outer periphery of
the windrow with interstitial 0: being reduced to 0 to 2% in
the pile centre between 2 and 6 hours after turning, indicat
ing that the piles were oxygen starved for most of the trial,
however, at no time was methane detected. The effectiveness
of periodic turning in replenishing interstitial O~ and elimi
naring CO2 decreased as cornposting progressed, due to an
-- ~ -vincrease in-bulk densitY'which'reducedthe-volume'of voids
participating in gas exchange. This was particularly evident
when the bulk density of PMS increased to more than 550 kg
m-'. The volumetric quotient ot' CO~ produced ro O 2 con
sumed in a given interstitial gas sample was found to be a bet
ter indicator of whether aerobic or anaerobic conditions were
_. present, -than, simpl y-considering-the .leve[.of-in terstinal O~.
An upward convective flow of gas existing in the PMS wind
row during the static phase was not sufficient to maintain aer
obic conditions within the pile. Periodic turning of PMS in
static windrows was found to be incffecnve in maintaining
aerobic conditions, suggesting that a reduction in pile height,
addition of a bulking agent to improve porosity and/or the
installation of ope,n;endcd perforated plastic pipes could
improve aeration during the static phase. Such measures are
relatively inexpensive and would significantly reduce the
time required to produce <1 stable compost.
Introduction
One of the major wastes produced during the manufacture of
paper is fibre' recovered 'from the wastew~ter Stream, often
referred to as pulp and paper mill sludge (PMS). This material
consists primarily of cellulose fibres which have an incorrect
geometry for the manufacture of paper, being produced by
312
Mark J. JacksonMartin A. LineSChLXlI of Agricultural Science, University of Tasmania,
Hobart, Australia
Keywords - Composrtng. pulp and paper mill sludge, oxvgen.
carbon dioxide, respiratory activity, microbial degradation
Corresponding author: Mr. Mark 1. luckson. School <IfA,gricultural Science, University of Tasmania. GPO Box
252-H. Hobart. Tasmania 7001, Australia
Received 14 October 1997. accepted in revised form
28 April 1998
mechanical and chemical degradation of wood Juring pulp
ing, bleaching and paper making (jackson & Line 1997b).Over the last few decades, most pulE' and paper mills ~ve
reduced their dependence on air and water for the discharge
of sludge and. as a result, many have become heavily depen
dent on landfills for the disposal o'f this waste. Stricter envi
ronmenral legislation and decreased landfill space in many
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