chapter 14: qualitative data collection

Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application, 9th edition.Gay, Mills, & Airasian

Chapter 14: Qualitative Data Collection

Objectives Distinguish between participant and

nonparticipant observational techniques and describe how they can be used in a qualitative study.

Identify four specific interview techniques and describe how they can be used in a qualitative study.

Chapter 14: Qualitative Data Collection

Objectives Describe how questionnaires and

records can be used to provide data for qualitative studies.

Describe strategies to address the trustworthiness (i.e., validity) and replicability (i.e., reliability) of qualitative research.

Qualitative Data Collection Qualitative data collection is referred to as

fieldwork. Fieldwork includes materials gathered,

recorded, and compiled during the study. Fieldwork requires the researcher to

immerse himself in the setting over time. The researcher collects as much data she

can as unobtrusively as possible. Qualitative data is narrative and visual.

Observation

The researcher obtains data by watching participants.

Observational data is often less subject to participant bias.

The researcher attempts not to change the setting.

Observation

Forms of observation Participant observation

The researcher becomes part of and a participant in the situation being observed.

The researcher participates while observing and collecting data.

Observation

Forms of observation Nonparticipant observation

The researcher is not directly part of the situation being observed.

The researcher observes and records but does not interact with the participants.

Nonparticipant observation is a less intrusive form of observation.

Recording Observations Field notes include descriptive

information about what the observer has directly seen and heard on site.

Field notes also include reflective information that captures an observer’s personal reactions and thoughts related to the observations.

The researcher avoids evaluative terms in field notes but instead describes behaviors.

Recording Observations

Observational protocols are often used.

Protocols provide the researcher with a focus during the observation.

Protocols also provide a framework for the field notes.

Example protocol questions include: Who is being observed? How many people

are involved, who are they, and what individual roles and mannerisms are evident?

What is going on? What is the nature of the conversation? What are people saying or doing?

What is the physical setting like? How are people seated, and where? How do the participants interact with each other?

Recording Observations What is the status or roles of people; who

leads, who follows, who is decisive, who is not? What is the tone of the session? What beliefs, attitudes, values seem to emerge?

How did the meeting end? Was the group divided, united, upset, bored, or relieved?

What activities or interactions seemed unusual or significant?

What was the observer doing during the session? What was the observer’s level of participation in the observation?

Recording Observations Start slowly. Do not assume that you

know what you are looking for until you have experience in the setting and have spent time with the participants.

Try to enter the field with no preconceptions. Recognize and dismiss your assumptions and remain open.

Write your field notes as soon as possible. Don’t discuss the observation until you have written field notes.

Include the date, site, and time on notes. Use large margins and write impressions in the margins. Draw diagrams.

List key words related to the observation and outline what you saw and heard. Use the keywords and the outline to write your notes.

Keep the descriptive and reflective parts of your field notes distinct.

Write down your hunches, questions, and insights after each observation.

Number the lines or paragraphs of your field notes to help you find sections when needed.

Enter your field notes into a computer program for later examination and analysis.

Interviews

Interviews are purposeful interactions in which one person obtains information from another person.

Interviews allow for data not available through observation alone.

Interviews may be formal and planned or informal and unplanned.

Interviews

Interviews may be unstructured or structured. Unstructured

Unstructured interviews are similar to conversations.

Unstructured interviews are commonly used to gain more personal information.

Interviews

Structured interviews include predetermined questions.

Phrasing structured interviews can be challenging.

Include both open-ended and closed questions.

Pilot test the questions.

Guidelines for Interviewing

Listening is the most important part of interviewing.

Don’t interrupt. Wait. Tolerate silence. The participant may

be thinking. Avoid leading questions. Keep participants focused and ask for

details.

Guidelines for Interviewing

Follow-up on what participants say and ask questions when you don’t understand.

Don’t be judgmental about participants’ views or beliefs.

Don’t debate with participants.

Collecting Data From Interviews Researchers can collect data through

taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, and audio- or videotaping the interview. Record when it is possible. Writing notes during an interview is distracting. Writing notes after an interview is difficult

because the interviewer may not remember critical information.

Transcribing tapes takes a very long time. Labeled transcripts and tapes should be stored.

Collecting Data From Interviews

Focus groups include several individuals who can contribute to the understanding of the research problem.

Everyone should have opportunities to respond during a focus group interview.

Transcribing focus group interviews may take longer to than transcribing individual interviews.

Collecting Data From Interviews

E-mail interviews are similar to an ongoing conversation.

Ethical considerations of confidentiality and anonymity are important to address in e-mail interviews.

Questionnaires Interviews are time consuming. Some researchers use

questionnaires and then follow-up questionnaires with interviews.

Questionnaires allow for larger amounts of data collection.

The nature of the data collected with questionnaires is different than data from observations.

Questionnaire Guidelines

Make questionnaire attractive. Carefully proofread

questionnaires. Avoid lengthy questionnaires. Do not ask unnecessary questions. Use structured items with a

variety of responses.

Questionnaire Guidelines

Include a section that allows respondents to include ‘other comments’. This section may provide

information for follow-up interviews.

Determine if respondents’ identities are necessary and if so, develop a mechanism to track respondents.

Examining Records

Qualitative researchers use a variety of available documents. Archival documents Journals Maps Videotape and audiotape Artifacts

Validity and Reliability

Validity in qualitative research addresses whether the data accurately measures what it was intended to measure. Trustworthiness and

understanding are terms used to describe validity in qualitative research.

Trustworthiness can be established by: Credibility: The report addresses

problems that are not easily explained. Transferability: The description provided

is such that others can identify with the setting.

Dependability: The stability of the data is addressed.

Confirmability: The neutrality and objectivity of the data are apparent.

Criteria for qualitative research validity. Descriptive validity: factual accuracy

of the account Interpretive validity: researcher

accurately interprets participants’ behaviors and actions

Theoretical validity: how well the report relates to broader theory

Evaluative validity: whether the report was created without researcher’s judgment

Generalizability (Internal and External): the degree to which research is generalizable within and outside the setting

Validity and Reliability Strategies for ensuring the validity

of qualitative research Prolong participation at the study site Persistently observe Use peer debriefing Collect additional artifacts Conduct member checks Establish structural corroboration or

coherence Establish referential adequacy

Collect detailed descriptive data Develop detailed descriptions of the

context Establish an audit trail Practice triangulation Practice reflexivity

Validity and Reliability Practical options to assure trustworthiness

Talk little; listen a lot Record observations accurately Begin writing early Let readers ‘see’ for themselves Report fully Be candid Seek feedback Write accurately

Adopted from Wolcott (1994)

Reliability Qualitative researchers address

reliability by examining the techniques they are using to collect data.

Generalizability is less a concern for qualitative researchers than it is for quantitative researchers. Qualitative researchers are more concerned with relevance.

chapter 14: qualitative data collection

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