chapter 20 review of thoracic imaging
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Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1990, 1982, 1977, 1973, 1969 by Mosby, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Chapter 20
Review of Thoracic Imaging
Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1990, 1982, 1977, 1973, 1969 by Mosby, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Learning Objectives
List the four tissue densities seen on the chest radiograph.
Define the terms radiolucent and radiopaque. Describe how to evaluate the technical quality
of a chest radiograph. State the differences between the PA chest
film and the AP chest film.
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Copyright © 2013, 2009, 2003, 1999, 1995, 1990, 1982, 1977, 1973, 1969 by Mosby, an imprint of Elsevier Inc.
Learning Objectives (cont.)
List the anatomic structures seen on the chest radiograph.
List the steps used to interpret thoracic imaging studies.
Identify the value of the computed tomography (CT) scan, high-resolution CT scan, and CT angiography.
Describe the common radiographic abnormalities seen in the pleura, lung parenchyma, and mediastinum.
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Review of Thoracic Imaging: Introduction
Chest imaging is important part of diagnosing patients with lung disease
RT needs to be able to recognize significant radiographic abnormalities in certain situations
Plain chest radiograph is very popular, inexpensive, & reliable in most cases
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Review of Thoracic Imaging: Overview
Chest radiograph is created by passing x-ray beam through chest
X-ray beam strikes film after passing through chest; x-rays passing through lung turn film black, while x-rays absorbed by more dense tissue (e.g., bone) leave film white
Resulting chest radiograph represent various shades of gray shadows
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Review of Thoracic Imaging: Overview (cont.)
4 different tissue densities are visible on normal chest radiograph Air, fat, water, & bone
Air (lung) absorbs x-rays least & results in dark shadow (radiolucent)
Bone (ribs) absorb most x-ray energy & result in white shadow (radiopaque)
Fat & water shadows are different degrees of gray
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Tissues that absorbs the least amount of energy and appear black in an x-ray film are called:
A.Translucent
B.Radiolucent
C.Transparent
D.Radiopaque
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Digital technology has replaced traditional photographic film
Currently, most X-rays are recorded & display in digital format
Digital films have advantages: Can be manipulated to enhance interpretation Can be stored & retrieved quickly from any
location/time Can be copied, shared & transported quickly Image quality does not deteriorate over time
Review of Thoracic Imaging: Overview (cont.)
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Review of Thoracic Imaging
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All of the following are clinical indications for a chest x-ray except:
A.After an orotracheal intubation
B.Sudden onset of dyspnea
C.During cardiopulmonary resuscitation
D.Sudden drop in oxygenation
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Approach to Reading Chest Film
Disciplined approach is needed First, make sure name on film matches
patient being evaluated Second, evaluate technical quality of film
(proper patient position, x-ray penetration, etc.)
Third, systematically evaluate all anatomical structures seen on film following prescribed series of steps
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CXR Reading Technique
Is film properly label? Correct patient Date & time of film Right & left side identification
Is entire chest imaged on film? Was patient properly positioned? Were penetration & exposure settings
correct? (Quality of image) Overpenetration leaves lung shadows too dark Underpenetration causes lung shadows too white
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PA Chest Film
PA chest film is created in radiology department, usually with patient standing
X-ray beam passes from posterior to anterior (PA) with film placed against patient’s chest
Usually results in high-quality film with minimal magnification of heart shadow
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AP Chest Film
Taken with portable x-ray machine in ICU X-ray source is in front of patient & film is
behind patient AP films are often more difficult to read
because quality is not as good as PA film Heart shadow is more magnified with AP film
since heart is closer to x-ray source & farther from film
Rotation of patient is more likely
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Which of the following problems is most common during a portable AP chest x-ray?
A.Patient is not centered on the film
B.Improper side labeling
C.Cardiac shadow is reduced
D.Obscured pulmonary vessels
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Film Penetration
Improper penetration may conceal structures & important details
Proper penetration shows intervertebral disc spaces through shadow of heart
Under-exposed or under-penetrated films show an increase in chest whiteness (white-out xray)
Over-exposed or over-penetrated films leave lung parenchyma black without vascular markings
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Chest Anatomy on Film
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Normal Chest Films
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Lateral View
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Assessment of StructuresChest Wall & Mediastinum Symmetry of chest Rib fractures Bone changes Heart size Presence of free air
or fluid
Lung Evaluation
Size, density & symmetry
Lung edges in frontal & lateral films
Vascular markings Presence of free air or
fluid Consolidations &
infiltrates20
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In the PA projection the diameter of the heart should not exceed __________ of the chest.
A.three quarters
B.one third
C.half of the diameter
D.one quarter
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Advanced Chest Imaging
Computed tomography (CT) is very helpful in certain situations
CT visualizes structures cross-sectionally with great detail up to ~2 mm structures inside lung
CT scanning creates images looking like “slices” of patient’s chest (5 to 7 mm thick)
Conventional CT scanning is used to evaluate lung nodules & masses, great vessels, mediastinum, & pleural disease
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Advanced Chest Imaging (cont.)
High-resolution CT (HRCT) scanning examines 1-mm slices of lung, producing greater lung detail
High-resolution CT scanning is ideal for evaluating diffuse parenchymal lung diseases: Interstitial lung disease Emphysema Bronchiectasis
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CT Angiograms
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Magnetic Resonance Imaging
Uses radio waves from realigning Hydrogen nuclei to generate MRI image (no x-rays are used)
Most often used to image mediastinum, hilar regions, & large vessels in lung
MRI has limitations in chest medicine Cannot be used in patients with pacemaker Metal objects (i.e., gas cylinders or regular ICU
ventilators) cannot be used near MRI machine
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Ultrasound Images created by passing high-frequency
sound waves into body & detecting sound waves that bounce back (echo) from tissues of body
Ultrasonic evaluation of lung itself is rare Uses very portable equipment Commonly used to guide placement of central
& arterial catheters, & to detect & quantify pleural effusions
Very common in ICU
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Ultrasound (cont.)
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An ICU patient is suspected of having a pulmonary emboli. Which of the following radiological tests would you recommend to assess his situation?
A.Chest x-ray
B.Positron Emission Tomography
C.Magnetic Resonance Imaging
D.HRCT Angiography
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Hydrothorax
Also called pleural effusion Blunted costophrenic angle on chest x-ray
indicates pleural effusion is present About 200 ml of pleural fluid will blunt
costophrenic angle Best chest x-ray view for detecting small pleural
effusion is lateral decubitus Pus in pleural space = empyema
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Pleural Effusion
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Empyema
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Pneumothorax
Refers to collection of air in pleural space May occur spontaneously, with trauma, or
with invasive procedure May occur with mechanical ventilation; called
barotrauma in such cases Pneumothorax causes lung margin to pull
away from chest wall in affected region Presence of air can be better visualized by
comparing inspiratory vs expiratory CXR
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Blunted or rounded costophrenic angles in an AP or PA chest x-ray may suggest the presence of:
A.Patient is not centered on the film
B.Improper side labeling
C.Cardiac shadow is reduced
D.Basilar atelectasis
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Pneumothorax (cont.)
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Tension Pneumothorax
Represents serious medical emergency Occurs when air within pleural space is under
pressure Air accumulates in pleural space on
inspiration but cannot exit on exhalation Chest film will show shift of mediastinum
away from pneumothorax Requires immediate decompression with
chest tube or needle aspiration of trapped air Can lead to cardiac tamponade &
hemodynamic collapse
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Tension Pneumothorax (cont.)
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Pulmonary Infiltrates
Seen on chest radiograph when alveoli fill with watery fluid (edema), pus, blood, or fat-rich material
Seen as white shadows in lung Air-filled airways surrounded by infiltrates will
cause “air bronchograms” Air bronchograms are hallmark of infiltrates
that fill alveoli (air space disease)
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Air Bronchograms
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Right Middle Lobe Pneumonia
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Pulmonary Edema
Pulmonary edema due to left heart failure is common finding on chest radiograph
Left heart failure causes enlargement of pulmonary blood vessels in apex of lung (cephalization)
Kerley B-lines are often seen with pulmonary edema due to left heart failure
Chest radiograph often shows enlarged heart & pleural effusion with CHF
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Pulmonary Edema (cont.)
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Interstitial Disease
Chest radiograph usually shows diffuse, bilateral infiltrates
Infiltrates may look like scattered ill-defined nodules
Many different types of ILDs; 2 most common: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Sarcoidosis
Because most patients with ILD have similar findings, it does not usually establish specific diagnosis
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Interstitial Lung Disease
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Atelectasis Common finding on chest radiograph,
especially in postoperative patient When localized to subsegmental portion of
lung - called “plate atelectasis” Lobar atelectasis occurs when major
bronchus is obstructed by mucus plug, tumor, or foreign body
Signs of volume loss = elevation of hemidiaphragm & shift of hilum towards affected side
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Plate atelectasis (cont.)
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Hyperinflation
Commonly seen with emphysema If more than 7 anterior ribs above diaphragm,
hyperinflation is present Other signs of hyperinflation include:
Flattening of hemidiaphragms Large retrosternal airspace Narrowed mediastinum Increased AP diameter
Emphysema causes loss of visible blood vessels in lung
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Emphysema
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Which of the following chest x-ray findings is consistent with a tension pneumothorax
A.Tracheal deviation towards the affected side
B.Elevated hemidiaphram in the opposite side
C.Presence of a meniscus in the affected side
D.Absence of lung markings in the affected side
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Solitary Pulmonary Nodule (SPN)
Defined as parenchymal opacity smaller than 3 cm in diameter surrounded by aerated lung
Chest CT scanning offers better method for studying nodule
Nodules having central calcification are round & have smooth edge are most likely benign
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scanning is often very useful in evaluating SPN
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SPN(cont.)
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Catheters, Lines, & Tubes
Chest radiograph is obtained after placement of endotracheal tube, CVP line, or pulmonary artery catheter
Film helps confirm tube or catheter is in correct position
Tip of endotracheal tube should be 5 to 7 cm above carina with patient’s head in neutral position
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Endotracheal Tube Placement
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Catheters, Lines, & Tubes (cont.)
Tracheostomy tubes should extend half distance from stoma to carina
Tip of CVP catheter should be in superior vena cava
Pulmonary artery catheters can be seen in Pulmonary artery about 90% of time
Chest tubes should be within pleural space following contour of chest wall or diaphragm
Intra-aortic balloon pump tip should be located just below origin of Subclavian artery
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