chapter 6 a tour of the cell. overview: the importance of cells all organisms are made of cells the...

Chapter 6

A Tour of the Cell

Overview: The Importance of Cells• All organisms are made of cells• The cell is the simplest collection of matter

that can live• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function• All cells are related by their descent from earlier cells

Microscopy• Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too small to

see with the naked eye• In a light microscope (LM), visible light passes through

a specimen and then through glass lenses, which magnify the image

• The minimum resolution of an LM is about 200 nanometers (nm), the size of a small bacterium

LE 6-2

Measurements1 centimeter (cm) = 10–2 meter (m) = 0.4 inch1 millimeter (mm) = 10–3 m1 micrometer (µm) = 10–3 mm = 10–6 m1 nanometer (nm) = 10–3 µm = 10–9 m

10 m

1 mHuman height

Length of somenerve andmuscle cells

Chicken egg

0.1 m

1 cm

Frog egg1 mm

100 µm

Most plant andanimal cells

10 µmNucleus

1 µm

Most bacteria

Mitochondrion

Smallest bacteria

Viruses100 nm

10 nmRibosomes

Proteins

Lipids1 nm

Small molecules

Atoms0.1 nmU

naid

ed e

ye

Ligh

t mic

rosc

ope

Elec

tron

mic

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ope

• LMs can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the size of the actual specimen

• Various techniques enhance contrast and enable cell components to be stained or labeled

• Most subcellular structures, or organelles, are too small to be resolved by a LM

LE 6-3a

Brightfield (unstained specimen)

50 µmBrightfield (stained specimen)

Phase-contrast

• Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs) are used to study subcellular structures

• Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing images that look 3D

• Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a beam of electrons through a specimen

• TEMs are used mainly to study the internal ultrastructure of cells

Isolating Organelles by Cell Fractionation• Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates the

major organelles from one another• Ultracentrifuges fractionate cells into their component

parts• Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the

functions of organelles

LE 6-5a

Homogenization

HomogenateTissuecells

Differential centrifugation

LE 6-5b

Pellet rich innuclei andcellular debris

Pellet rich inmitochondria (and chloro-plasts if cellsare from a plant)

Pellet rich in“microsomes”(pieces of plasmamembranes andcells’ internalmembranes) Pellet rich in

ribosomes

150,000 g3 hr

80,000 g60 min

20,000 g20 min

1000 g(1000 times theforce of gravity)

10 min

Supernatant pouredinto next tube

Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions

• The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic

• Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells

• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells

Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells• Basic features of all cells: – Plasma membrane– Semifluid substance called the cytosol– Chromosomes (carry genes)– Ribosomes (make proteins)

• Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus• In a prokaryotic cell, DNA is in an unbound region

called the nucleoid• Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles

LE 6-6

A typicalrod-shapedbacterium

A thin section through thebacterium Bacilluscoagulans (TEM)

0.5 µm

Pili

Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasmamembrane

Cell wall

Capsule

Flagella

Bacterialchromosome

• Eukaryotic cells have DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope

• Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than

prokaryotic cells• The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets

limits on the size of cells

LE 6-7

Total surface area(height x width xnumber of sides xnumber of boxes)

6

125 125

150 750

1

11

5

1.2 66

Total volume(height x width x lengthX number of boxes)

Surface-to-volumeratio(surface area volume)

Surface area increases whileTotal volume remains constant

• The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of the cell

• The general structure of a biological membrane is a double layer of phospholipids

LE 6-8

Hydrophilicregion

Hydrophobicregion

Carbohydrate side chain

Structure of the plasma membrane

Hydrophilicregion

Phospholipid Proteins

Outside of cell

Inside of cell 0.1 µm

TEM of a plasma membrane

A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell• A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that

partition the cell into organelles• Plant and animal cells have most of the same

organelles

LE 6-9a

Flagellum

Centrosome

CYTOSKELETON

Microfilaments

Intermediate filaments

Microtubules

Peroxisome

Microvilli

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER

Rough ER Smooth ER

MitochondrionLysosome

Golgi apparatus

Ribosomes:

Plasma membrane

Nuclear envelope

NUCLEUS

In animal cells but not plant cells: LysosomesCentriolesFlagella (in some plant sperm)

Nucleolus

Chromatin

LE 6-9b

Roughendoplasmicreticulum

In plant cells but not animal cells: ChloroplastsCentral vacuole and tonoplastCell wallPlasmodesmata

Smoothendoplasmicreticulum

Ribosomes(small brown dots)

Central vacuole

MicrofilamentsIntermediatefilamentsMicrotubules

CYTOSKELETON

Chloroplast

Plasmodesmata

Wall of adjacent cell

Cell wall

Nuclearenvelope

Nucleolus

Chromatin

NUCLEUS

Centrosome

Golgiapparatus

Mitochondrion

Peroxisome

Plasmamembrane

Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes

• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell

• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins

The Nucleus: Genetic Library of the Cell• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is

usually the most conspicuous organelle• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating

it from the cytoplasm

LE 6-10

Close-up of nuclearenvelope

Nucleus

Nucleolus

Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:Inner membraneOuter membrane

Nuclear pore

Porecomplex

Ribosome

Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

1 µm

Rough ER

Nucleus1 µm

0.25 µm

Surface of nuclear envelope

Ribosomes: Protein Factories in the Cell• Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and

protein• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations:– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or

the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

LE 6-11

Ribosomes

0.5 µm

ER Cytosol

Endoplasmicreticulum (ER)

Free ribosomes

Bound ribosomes

Largesubunit

Smallsubunit

Diagram ofa ribosome

TEM showing ERand ribosomes

Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

• Components of the endomembrane system:– Nuclear envelope– Endoplasmic reticulum– Golgi apparatus– Lysosomes– Vacuoles– Plasma membrane

• These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles

The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells

• The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope

• There are two distinct regions of ER:– Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes– Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface

LE 6-12

Ribosomes

Smooth ER

Rough ER

ER lumenCisternae

Transport vesicle

Smooth ER Rough ER

Transitional ER

200 nm

Nuclearenvelope

Functions of Smooth ER• The smooth ER– Synthesizes lipids– Metabolizes carbohydrates– Stores calcium– Detoxifies poison

Functions of Rough ER• The rough ER– Has bound ribosomes– Produces proteins and membranes, which are

distributed by transport vesicles– Is a membrane factory for the cell

• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae

• Functions of the Golgi apparatus:– Modifies products of the ER– Manufactures certain macromolecules– Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center

LE 6-13

trans face(“shipping” side ofGolgi apparatus) TEM of Golgi apparatus

0.1 µm

Golgi apparatus

cis face(“receiving” side ofGolgi apparatus)

Vesicles coalesce toform new cis Golgi cisternae Vesicles also

transport certainproteins back to ER

Vesicles movefrom ER to Golgi

Vesicles transport specificproteins backward to newerGolgi cisternae

Cisternalmaturation:Golgi cisternaemove in a cis-to-transdirection

Vesicles form andleave Golgi, carryingspecific proteins toother locations or tothe plasma mem-brane for secretion

Cisternae

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats,

polysaccharides, and nucleic acids• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle organelles and

macromolecules, a process called autophagy

Animation: Lysosome Formation

LE 6-14a

Phagocytosis: lysosome digesting food

1 µm

Plasmamembrane

Food vacuole

Lysosome

Nucleus

Digestiveenzymes

Digestion

Lysosome

Lysosome containsactive hydrolyticenzymes

Food vacuolefuses withlysosome

Hydrolyticenzymes digestfood particles

LE 6-14b

Autophagy: lysosome breaking down damaged organelle

1 µm

Vesicle containingdamaged mitochondrion

Mitochondrionfragment

Lysosome containingtwo damaged organelles

Digestion

Lysosome

Lysosome fuses withvesicle containingdamaged organelle

Peroxisomefragment

Hydrolytic enzymesdigest organellecomponents

Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

• Vesicles and vacuoles (larger versions of vacuoles) are membrane-bound sacs with varied functions

• A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles

• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis• Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater

protists, pump excess water out of cells• Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells,

hold organic compounds and water

Video: Paramecium Vacuole

Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another

• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration• Chloroplasts, found only in plants and algae, are the

sites of photosynthesis• Mitochondria and chloroplasts are not part of the

endomembrane system• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells• They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner

membrane folded into cristae• The inner membrane creates two compartments:

intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix• Some metabolic steps of cellular respiration are

catalyzed in the mitochondrial matrix• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that

synthesize ATP

LE 6-17

Mitochondrion

Intermembrane space

Outer membrane

Inner membrane

Cristae

Matrix

100 nmMitochondrialDNA

Freeribosomes in themitochondrialmatrix

Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy• The chloroplast is a member of a family of organelles

called plastids• Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as

well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis

• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae

• Chloroplast structure includes:– Thylakoids, membranous sacs– Stroma, the internal fluid

LE 6-18

Chloroplast

ChloroplastDNA

RibosomesStroma

Inner and outermembranes

Granum

Thylakoid1 µm

Peroxisomes: Oxidation• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments

bounded by a single membrane• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen peroxide and convert it

to water

LE 6-19

Chloroplast

Peroxisome

Mitochondrion

1 µm

Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell

• The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm

• It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring many organelles

• It is composed of three types of molecular structures:– Microtubules– Microfilaments– Intermediate filaments

Roles of the Cytoskeleton: Support, Motility, and Regulation

• The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its shape

• It interacts with motor proteins to produce motility• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel along “monorails”

provided by the cytoskeleton• Recent evidence suggests that the cytoskeleton may

help regulate biochemical activities

LE 6-21a

Vesicle

Receptor formotor protein

Microtubuleof cytoskeleton

Motor protein(ATP powered)

ATP

Microtubules• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in diameter

and about 200 nm to 25 microns long• Functions of microtubules:– Shaping the cell– Guiding movement of organelles– Separating chromosomes during cell division

LE 6-22

0.25 µm

Microtubule

Centrosome

Centrioles

Longitudinal sectionof one centriole

Microtubules Cross sectionof the other centriole

• Cilia and flagella share a common ultrastructure:– A core of microtubules sheathed by the plasma

membrane– A basal body that anchors the cilium or flagellum– A motor protein called dynein, which drives the

bending movements of a cilium or flagellum

Animation: Cilia and Flagella

• How dynein “walking” moves flagella and cilia:– Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and release the

outer microtubules– Protein cross-links limit sliding– Forces exerted by dynein arms cause doublets to

curve, bending the cilium or flagellum

LE 6-25a

Dynein “walking”

Microtubuledoublets ATP

Dynein arm

• Microfilaments that function in cellular motility contain the protein myosin in addition to actin

• In muscle cells, thousands of actin filaments are arranged parallel to one another

• Thicker filaments composed of myosin interdigitate with the thinner actin fibers

Video: Cytoplasmic Streaming

LE 6-27a

Muscle cellActin filament

Myosin filament

Myosin arm

Myosin motors in muscle cell contraction

• Localized contraction brought about by actin and myosin also drives amoeboid movement

• Pseudopodia (cellular extensions) extend and contract through the reversible assembly and contraction of actin subunits into microfilaments

LE 6-27b

Cortex (outer cytoplasm):gel with actin network

Amoeboid movement

Inner cytoplasm: solwith actin subunits

Extendingpseudopodium

Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities

• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the plasma membrane

• These extracellular structures include:– Cell walls of plants– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells– Intercellular junctions

Cell Walls of Plants• Plant cell walls may have multiple layers:– Primary cell wall: relatively thin and flexible– Middle lamella: thin layer between primary walls of

adjacent cells– Secondary cell wall (in some cells): added between

the plasma membrane and the primary cell wall• Plasmodesmata are channels between adjacent plant

cells

LE 6-28Centralvacuole of cell

PlasmamembraneSecondarycell wall

Primarycell wall

Middlelamella

1 µm

Centralvacuole of cell

Central vacuoleCytosol

Plasma membrane

Plant cell walls

Plasmodesmata

Plants: Plasmodesmata• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate plant cell

walls• Through plasmodesmata, water and small solutes (and

sometimes proteins and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)

• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins and other macromolecules

• Functions of the ECM:– Support– Adhesion– Movement– Regulation

LE 6-29a

EXTRACELLULAR FLUID ProteoglycancomplexCollagen

fiber

Fibronectin

Integrin Micro-filaments

CYTOPLASM

Plasmamembrane

Intercellular Junctions• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems

often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact

• Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact

Animals: Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap Junctions

• At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells together into strong sheets

• Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

Animation: Tight Junctions

Animation: Desmosomes

Animation: Gap Junctions

LE 6-31

Tight junctions preventfluid from moving across a layer of cells

Tight junction

0.5 µm

1 µm

0.1 µm

Gap junctionExtracellularmatrix

Spacebetweencells

Plasma membranesof adjacent cells

Intermediatefilaments

Tight junction

Desmosome

Gapjunctions