charu_cr_notes%28only if u feel cr is biting u%29

8/12/2019 Charu_CR_Notes%28Only if u Feel CR is Biting U%29

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3 Parts of CR Question:1. Stimulus2. Question Stem3. Answer Options

Analyzing the Stimulus:

1. ypes of Stimulus:! Argument: Argument will ha"e premises an# $on$lusion.! %a$t Set: %a$t set will ha"e only premises an# will &O ha"e any $on$lusion.

2. 'earn to i#entify premises an# (ain Con$lusion) *nterme#iate $on$lusion:

! Premise *n#i$ators:+e$ause) sin$e) for) for e,ample) for the reason that) in that

) gi"en that) as in#i$ate# -y) #ue to) owing to this $an -e seen from)e /now this -y

! Con$lusion *n#i$ators: herefore) hen$e) $onse0uently) as a result) so) a$$or#ingly Clearly) must -e that) shows that) $on$lu#e that) follows that) for this reason

! Con$lusion Premise in#i$ators:'oo/ for some patterns su$h as:

herefore) sin$e ) . hus) -e$ause ) . 4en$e) #ue to ) .*n all a-o"e patterns is premise 5e"i#en$e6 an# is $on$lusion.

! A##itional Premise *n#i$ators:%urthermore) (oreo"er) +esi#es) *n a##ition) hat7s more

! Counter Premise *n#i$ators:

+ut) et) 4owe"er) On the other han#) A#mitte#ly) *n $ontrast) Although 8"en though) Still) hereas) *n spite of) 9espite) After all

! Con$lusion Premise *#entifi$ation (etho#:Sometimes $on$lusion or premises are not pre$e#e# -y in#i$ator wor#s.o ta$/le this /in# of situation if you thin/ suppose ; is $on$lusion then put

herefore; or hus; in front of that an# see whether argument ma/es sense.%or premise i#entifi$ation put Sin$e; or gi"en that; -efore .

3. 'earn to rea# fine print:Rea#ing fine print is (OS important on tough CR 0uestions. &e"er generalize.

Quantity *n#i$ators:All) e"ery) most) many) some) se"eral) few) sole) only)not all) none


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(ost F ?1 to 1>> 5a maEority;6Some are not F > to 5also &ot All;6(ost are not F > to > 5at least one;6&one F >

wo of the termsGAll an#NoneGare "ery pre$ise an# thus one or -oth appear in almoste"ery inferen$e$hain. hey represent $onstant states with no un$ertainty. he other terms $o"er a wi#earray ofpossi-ilities) an# for that reason they $an) at times) -e more #iffi$ult to manipulate.

%ormal 'ogi$: 5Re"ersi-le an# *rre"ersi-le relationships6Re"ersi-le Relationships &on!re"ersi-le Relationships&one 5H !!I!! J6 All 5 !! J 6Some 5some6 (ost 56

9ou-le!arrow 5H !! J6

Con#itional Reasoning:*f o$$urs then must o$$ur. *n this senten$e) is $alle#sufficient condition.

is $alle# necessary condition.9iagrammati$ally it is #enote# -y .

*f suffi$ient $on#ition is true then ne$essary $on#ition is true.*f ne$essary $on#ition is not true then suffi$ient $on#ition $an not -e true. 5Contra!positi"e of a-o"e statement6

One thing must -e note# that this is &O a $ausal relationship that is suffi$ient $on#ition

#oes not $ause ne$essary $on#ition.

e must -e a-le to fin# out ne$essary an# suffi$ient $on#ition in the argument.Kenerally following wor#s intro#u$e ne$essary an# suffi$ient $on#itions.

Suffi$ient $on#ition &e$essary Con#ition*f henhen Onlyhene"er Only if8"ery (ustAll Re0uire#

Any LnlessPeople who 8,$ept*n or#er to Lntil

ithout

Lnless 80uation:

*n the $ase of unless); e,$ept); until); an# without); a spe$ial two!step


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pro$ess $alle# the Lnless 80uation is applie# to the #iagram:

1. hate"er term is mo#ifie# -y unless); e,$ept); until); or without;-e$omes the ne$essary $on#ition.

2. he remaining term is negate# an# -e$omes the suffi$ient $on#ition.

%or e,ample) $onsi#er the following:Lnless a person stu#ies) he or she will not re$ei"e an AM.Sin$e unless; mo#ifies a person stu#ies); Stu#y; -e$omes the ne$essary$on#ition. he remain#er) he or she will not re$ei"e an AM); is negate# -y#ropping the not; an# -e$omes he or she will re$ei"e an AM.; hus) thesuffi$ient $on#ition is AM); an# the #iagram is as follows:Suffi$ient &e$essaryAM Stu#y

8ither =ohn or =im will atten# the party.his senten$e means that:

5&ot =ohn6 =im

5&ot =im6=ohn

Cause 8ffe$t Reasoning:Causality o$$urs when one e"ent is sai# to ma/e another o$$ur.here are se"eral wor#s use# -y test ma/ers to in#i$ate $ausality:

Cause# -y

+e$ause ofResponsi-le forReason for'ea#s to*n#u$e# -yPromote# -y9etermine# -yPro#u$e# -yPro#u$t ofPlaye# a role inas a fa$tor in

*s an effe$t of

Causal premise #oes not usually $ontain error -ut $ausal $on$lusion most often has error.

S$enarios that $an lea# to $ausality error:1. One e"ent o$$urs -efore the other.

hen one e"ent o$$urs -efore another e"ent) many people fall into the


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trap of assuming that the first e"ent $ause# the se$on# e"ent. his nee# notalways -e true.

2. wo or more e"ents o$$ur at the same time.hen two e"ents o$$ur simultaneously) many people assume that one

e"ent $ause# the other. hile one e"ent $oul# ha"e $ause# the other) thetwo e"ents $oul# -e the result of a thir# e"ent) or the two e"ents $oul#simply -e $orrelate# -ut one #oes not $ause the other.

*n e"ery argument with $ausal $on$lusion it is -elie"e# that the state# $ause is the only$ause whi$h is responsi-le for the effe$t an# no other $ause is responsi-le.

hene"er we fin# $ausal relationship in $on$lusion of the argument) most often it isfollowe# -y strengthen or wea/en 0uestion.

Causal $on$lusion $an -e atta$/e# in "arious ways: 5ea/en the $ausal $on$lusion6

1. %in# alternate $ause for the state# effe$t.2. Show that e"en when the $ause o$$urs effe$t #oes not o$$ur.3. Show that although effe$t o$$urs $ause #i# not o$$ur.


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un#ermines the author7s position.his type of answer $hoi$e appears more fre0uently as an in$orre$t answer thanany other type. 4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in'SA answer $hoi$es:#epen#ing on the am-iguous use of a /ey term;

it $onfuses two #ifferent meanings of the wor# Nsol"e7 ;relies on interpreting a /ey term in two #ifferent ways;e0ui"o$ates with respe$t to a $entral $on$ept;allows a /ey term to shift in meaning from one use to the ne,t;fails to #efine the term;

2. Source Argument:

Also /nown as an a# hominem) this type of flawe# argument atta$/s the person5or sour$e6 instea# of the argument they a#"an$e. +e$ause the 'SA is$on$erne# solely with argument forms) a spea/er $an ne"er "ali#ly atta$/ the

$hara$ter or moti"es of a person instea#) a spea/er must always atta$/ theargument a#"an$e# -y a person. 4ere is an e,ample:he anti!smo/ing "iews e,presse# -y Senator Smith shoul# -eignore#. After all) Smith himself is a smo/er;A sour$e argument $an ta/e #ifferent forms) in$lu#ing the following:1. %o$using on the moti"es of the sour$e.2. %o$using on the a$tions of the sour$e 5as in the a-o"e e,ample6.*n the real worl#) you will often hear sour$e arguments use# -y $hil#ren an#politi$ians 5the two -eing ali/e in a num-er of ways) of $ourse6.4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in 'SA answer$hoi$es:ma/es an atta$/ on the $hara$ter of opponents;it is #ire$te# against the proponent of a $laim rather than against the$laim itself;he #ire$ts his $riti$ism against the person ma/ing the argument ratherthan #ire$ting it against the argument itself;it #raws $on$lusions a-out the merit of a position an# a-out the $ontentof that position from e"i#en$e a-out the position7s sour$e;assuming that a $laim is false on the groun#s that the person #efen#ingit is of 0uestiona-le $hara$ter;

3. Circular Reasoning:

*n $ir$ular reasoning the author assumes as true what is suppose# to -e pro"e#.Consi#er the following e,ample:his essay is the -est -e$ause it is -etter than all the others.;

*n this e,ample the premise an# the $on$lusion are i#enti$al in meaning. As we/now) the $on$lusion shoul# always follow from the premise. *n the e,amplea-o"e) the premise supports the $on$lusion) -ut the $on$lusion e0ually supports


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the premise) $reating a $ir$ular; situation where you $an mo"e from premise to$on$lusion) an# then -a$/ again to the premise) an# so on. 4ere is anothere,ample: * must -e telling the truth -e$ause *7m not lying.;

4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in 'SA answer

$hoi$es:it assumes what it see/s to esta-lish;argues $ir$ularly -y assuming the $on$lusion is true in stating thepremises;presupposes the truth of what it sets out to pro"e;the argument assumes what it is attempting to #emonstrate;it ta/es for grante# the "ery $laim that it sets out to esta-lish;it offers) in pla$e of support for its $on$lusion) a mere restatement ofthat $on$lusion;

4. rrors of Conditional Reasoning:

&ote that the authors $an either mista/e a ne$essary $on#ition for a suffi$ient$on#ition) or mista/e a suffi$ient $on#ition for a ne$essary $on#ition:

A+ is true

(ista/en Re"ersal: +A is true.

(ista/en &egation: A+ is true.

Confuses a ne$essary $on#ition for a suffi$ient $on#ition:

it treats something that is ne$essary for -ringing a-out a state of affairs

as something that is suffi$ient to -ring a-out a state of affairs;from the assertion that something is ne$essary to a moral or#er) theargument $on$lu#es that that thing is suffi$ient for an element of themoral or#er to -e realize#;

Confuses a suffi$ient $on#ition for a ne$essary $on#ition:

$onfuses a suffi$ient $on#ition with a re0uire# $on#ition;*t is interesting to note the fre0uen$y with whi$h the wor#s suffi$ient; 5or itssynonym assure#;6 or ne$essary; 5or its synonym re0uire#;6 are use# whenanalyzing the answer $hoi$es use# to #es$ri-e $on#itional reasoning. his

o$$urs -e$ause those wor#s perfe$tly $apture the i#ea an# it is #iffi$ult to a"oi#using at least one of those wor#s when #es$ri-ing $on#itionality. his is a hugea#"antage for you: if you i#entify a stimulus with $on#itional reasoning an# areas/e# a %law 0uestion) you $an 0ui$/ly s$an the answers for the one answerthat $ontains suffi$ient); ne$essary); or -oth.

!. "ista#en Cause and ffect:


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1. Assuming a $ausal relationship on the -asis of the se0uen$e of e"ents.mista/es the o-ser"ation that one thing happens after another for proofthat the se$on# thing is the result of the first;mista/es a temporal relationship for a $ausal relationship;2. Assuming a $ausal relationship when only a $orrelation e,ists.

$onfusing the $oin$i#en$e of two e"ents with a $ausal relation -etweenthe two;assumes a $ausal relationship where only a $orrelation has -eenin#i$ate#;3. %ailure to $onsi#er an alternate $ause for the effe$t) or an alternate $ausefor -oth the $ause an# the effe$t.fails to e,$lu#e an alternati"e e,planation for the o-ser"e# effe$t;o"erloo/s the possi-ility that the same thing may $ausally $ontri-ute-oth to e#u$ation an# to goo# health;)>>>per year) an# then ta/ing that money an# using it to re-uil#the e#u$ational system.;Politi$ian +: +ut what you7re saying is that e"eryone shoul# pay higherta,es) an# so your proposal is unfair.;*n the e,ample a-o"e) Politi$ian + re$asts Politi$ian A7s argument unfairly.Politi$ian A in#i$ate# the ta, in$rease woul# apply to those with in$omes o"er2>)>>> where Politi$ian + #istorts that to e"eryone shoul# pay higher ta,es.;4ere are e,amples of how this error of reasoning is #es$ri-e# in 'SA answer$hoi$es:refutes a #istorte# "ersion of an opposing position;mis#es$ri-ing the stu#ent representati"e7s position) there-y ma/ing iteasier to $hallenge;portrays opponents7 "iews as more e,treme than they really are;#istorts the proposal a#"o$ate# -y opponents;

&. 'nternal Contradiction:


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As #is$usse# in the answer /ey to the pre"ious $hapter) an internal $ontra#i$tion5also /nown as a self!$ontra#i$tion6 o$$urs when an author ma/es $onfli$tingstatements. he e,ample use# was:

8"eryone shoul# Eoin our $ountry $lu-. After all) it7s an e,$lusi"e

group that lin/s many of the influential mem-ers of the $ommunity.;he self!$ontra#i$tion o$$urs when the spea/er says 8"eryone shoul# Eoin;an# then follows that -y saying that it is an e,$lusi"e group.; 8,$lusi"e) -y#efinition) means that some people are e,$lu#e#.

(. Appeal )allacies:

hile there are a num-er of appeal; falla$ies that appear in tra#itional logi$5Appeal to %ear) Appeal to %or$e) Appeal to ra#ition) et$.6) the following threeare the most appli$a-le to the 'SA:

1. Appeal to AuthorityAn Appeal to Authority uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt topersua#e the rea#er. he flaw in this form of reasoning is that theauthority may not ha"e rele"ant /nowle#ge or all the informationregar#ing a situation) or there may a #ifferen$e of opinion amonge,perts as to what is true in the $ase. 4ere is an e,ample:

orl#!renowne# neurologist 9r. Samuel 'anghorne says that8+rite ooth Strips are the -est for whitening your teeth. So)you /now if you -uy 8+rite you will soon ha"e the whitestteeth possi-le;he primary #efe$t in this argument is its use of a neurologist as anauthority figure in an area of #entistry. hile 9r. 'anghorne $anreasona-ly -e appeale# to in matters of the -rain) #ental $are woul# -e$onsi#ere# outsi#e the s$ope of his e,pertise.

2. Appeal to Popular OpinionAppeal to &um-ers

his error states that a position is true -e$ause the maEority -elie"es it to-e true. As you /now) arguments are $reate# -y pro"i#ing premises thatsupport a $on$lusion. An appeal to popular opinion #oes not present alogi$al reason for a$$epting a position) Eust an appeal -ase# on num-ers.

3. Appeal to 8motionAn Appeal to 8motion o$$urs when emotions or emotionally!$harge#language is use# in an attempt to persua#e the rea#er. 4ere is ane,ample:Offi$er) please #o not gi"e me a ti$/et for spee#ing. *n the lastmonth *7"e -een fire# from my Eo-) /i$/e# out of my apartment)an# my $ar -ro/e #own. * #on7t #eser"e this


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*. Sur+ey rrors:

he ma/ers of the 'SA -elie"e that sur"eys) when $on#u$te# properly)pro#u$e relia-le results. 4owe"er) sur"eys $an -e in"ali#ate# when either of thefollowing three s$enarios arise:

1. he sur"ey uses a -iase# sample.2. he sur"ey 0uestions are improperly $onstru$te#.*f a sur"ey 0uestion is $onfusing or mislea#ing) the results of the poll$an -e ina$$urate.3. Respon#ents to the sur"ey gi"e ina$$urate responses.

Some of the answer $hoi$es are wor#e# in similar way.

uses e"i#en$e #rawn from a small sample that may well -eunrepresentati"e;generalizes from an unrepresentati"e sample;states a generalization -ase# on a sele$tion that is not representati"e of

the group a-out whi$h the generalization is suppose# to hol# true;

1,. rrors of Composition and -i+ision:

Composition an# #i"ision errors in"ol"e Eu#gments ma#e a-out groups an#parts of a group.An error of $omposition o$$urs when the author attri-utes a $hara$teristi$ ofpart of the group to the group as a whole or to ea$h mem-er of the group. 4ereis an e,ample:8"ery party * atten# is fun an# e,$iting. herefore) my life is fun an#e,$iting.;

whole 5or ea$h mem-er of the whole6 to a part of the group. 4ere is ane,ample:he Lnite# States is the wealthiest $ountry in the worl#. hus) e"eryAmeri$an is wealthy.;

11. )alse Analogy:

As #is$usse# in the answer /ey to the pro-lem set in the pre"ious $hapter) ananalogy is a $omparison -etween two items. A %alse Analogy o$$urs when theauthor uses an analogy that too #issimilar to the original situation to -e

appli$a-le. 4ere is an e,ample:

=ust as a hea"y rainfall $an -e $leansing) the -est approa$h to maintaina healthy relationship is to store up all your petty grie"an$es an# thenunloa# them all at one time on your partner.;

he $omparison in the e,ample fails to $onsi#er that a hea"y rainfall an# anemotionally $harge# situation are fun#amentally #ifferent.


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12. )alse -ilemma:

A %alse 9ilemma assumes that only two $ourses of a$tion are a"aila-le whenthere may -e others. 4ere is an e,ample:

Re$ent a$$i#ents within the oil in#ustry ha"e ma#e safety of operationa $riti$al pu-li$ safety issue. +e$ause the in#ustry $annot -e e,pe$te# topoli$e itself) the go"ernment must step in an# ta/e a$tion.;

he argument a-o"e falsely assumes that only two $ourses of a$tion e,ist:in#ustry self!poli$ing or go"ernment a$tion. +ut this ignores other $ourses ofa$tion) su$h as $onsumer wat$h#og groups.

&um-ers an# Per$entages:

(is$on$eption T1: *n$reasing 9e$reasing per$entages automati$ally lea# to in$reasing #e$reasing num-ers.his hol#s only if the total num-er remains same.

(is$on$eption T2: 'arge num-ers automati$ally mean large per$entages) an# smallnum-ers automati$ally mean small per$entages.

*n 2>>3) Pors$he sol# Eust o"er 1B)>>> $ars in the Lnite# States. hile 1B)>>> is $ertainlya large num-er) it represente# only a-out 1? of 1U of total L.S. $ar sales in 2>>3.Remem-er) the size of a num-er #oes not re"eal anything a-out the per$entage thatnum-er represents unless you /now something a-out the size of the o"erall total that

num-er is #rawn from.

(is$on$eption T3: 'arge per$entages automati$ally mean large num-ers) an# smallper$entages automati$ally mean small num-ers.

his mis$on$eption is the re"erse of (is$on$eption T2. A figure su$h as >U soun#simpressi"ely large) -ut if you ha"e >U of ?) that really isn7t too impressi"e) is itD

or#s use# to intro#u$e numeri$al i#eas:AmountQuantity

SumotalCountally

or#s use# to intro#u$e per$entage i#eas:Per$entProportion


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%ra$tionRatio*n$i#en$e'i/elihoo#Pro-a-ility

SegmentShare

Keneral Strategy:

1. 9etermine whether the stimulus $ontains an argument or if it is only a set of fa$tualstatements.2. *f the stimulus $ontains an argument) i#entify the $on$lusion of the argument. *f thestimulus $ontains a fa$t set) e,amine ea$h fa$t.3. Carefully rea# an# i#entify the 0uestion stem. 9o not assume that $ertain wor#s are

automati$ally asso$iate# with $ertain 0uestion types.


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Opposite answers 5 hese answer options are e,a$tly opposite of what is state#6Re"erse answers 5stimulus states: (any people ha"e some type of se$urity system intheir home. Answer option re"erses mo#ifiers some an# many6.

(ain Point Questions:

his 0uestion type is su-$ategory of (LS +8 RL8 0uestions.Question Stems for this type of 0uestions loo/ li/e:hi$h one of the following most a$$urately e,presses the main$on$lusion of the argumentD;hi$h one of the following most a$$urately e,presses the $on$lusionof the Eournalist7s argumentD;hi$h one of the following most a$$urately restates the main point ofthe passageD;he main point of the argument is that;

his $an also appear as %ill in the -lan/ at the en#:herefore) VVVVVVVVVV.;4en$e) in the new $entury) the sta-ility of a nation7s $ultural i#entitywill li/ely VVVVVVVVVV.;hus) in many $ases) -y $riminals7 $hara$terization of theirsituations) VVVVVVVVVV.;&oti$e the wor#s therefore) thus whi$h in#i$ate that we must supply the $on$lusion.'oo/ at the $lues re"ealing #ire$tion of the argument or author7s intent.

Corre$t Answers:(LS +8 RL8 M Capture (ain point of the argument. Kenerally $orre$t answer isparaphrase# $on$lusion.

*n$orre$t Answers:9o not represent author7s main point or re!state the premises.*f re0uire#) use $on$lusion i#entifi$ation metho#.

ea/en the Argument Questions:1. %o$us on $on$lusion an# premises of the argument.2. Almost all $orre$t responses for wea/en the argument impa$t the $on$lusion.3. Answer $hoi$es are a$$epte# as gi"en) e"en if they -ring in new information. his

is L&'*W8 must -e true main point 0uestions where we $an eliminate theoptions if new information is present.


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@. *n$orre$t answers: *n$orre$t answers are either opposite answers 5Strengthen orneutral 6) Shell Kame 5*n ea/en 0uestions) the Shell Kame is usually use# toatta$/ a $on$lusion that is similar to) -ut slightly #ifferent from) the one presente#in the stimulus6) Out of s$ope answers.

. Answer $hoi$e 586 is a great pla$e for the test ma/ers to pla$e an attra$ti"e

wrong answer -e$ause 586 is the last answer that a stu#ent will rea#) an# the$ontents of 586 re"er-erate; in the test ta/er7s min# an# -egin to soun#reasona-le. *n that same "ein) answer $hoi$e 5A6 is a great pla$e to put the $orre$tanswer if the stimulus is e,$ee#ingly #iffi$ult to un#erstan# or if the 0uestionstem is e,tremely unusual. hyD +e$ause most test ta/ers use the first answer$hoi$e in a #iffi$ult pro-lem to get a han#le on what they are rea#ing an# the typeof answers they will see. *f a pro-lem is tough) it $an -e #iffi$ult to imme#iatelyi#entify answer $hoi$e 5A6 as $orre$t. hen) -y the time they ha"e rea# all fi"eanswers) they are prone to ha"e forgotten the #etails of the first answer $hoi$e.

B. &e"er eliminate the answer Eust -e$ause it loo/s o##.

. o wea/en $on#itional $on$lusion) atta$/ the ne$essary $on#ition -y showing thatne$essary $on#ition nee# not o$$ur for suffi$ient $on#ition to o$$ur.

1>. Personalize the argument.

Strengthen the argument =ustify the $on$lusion Assumption Question:

*n strengthen the argument 0uestions the $orre$t answer $hoi$e woul# support theargument slightly or greatly. *n Eustify the $on$lusion 0uestions when $orre$t answer$hoi$e is a##e# as a##itional premise then it supports the $on$lusion 1>> U. Assumptionis simply unstate# premise.

Strengthen the argument:

1. Strengthen the argument 0uestion stem uses following wor#s:Strengthen) support) helps) most Eustifies

2. 'i/e wea/en 0uestions all the answer $hoi$es are assume# to -e true e"en if they-ring in some new information. Question stem in#i$ates this -y stating whi$h ofthe following if true

3. %in# $on$lusion an# premises. (ost often there will -e some gap of logi$. Corre$tanswer $hoi$e -ri#ges that gap.


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1. *#entify the $on$lusion an# premises of the argument.2. Corre$t answer to this type of 0uestions generally $ontains any new information

that is use# in $on$lusion an# not present in premises. *n a##ition) it #oes not$ontain information $ommon to -oth premises an# $on$lusion.

Assumption Questions:

1. *n terms of suffi$ient an# ne$essary $on#itions) relationship of assumption an#$on$lusion $an -e shown as:

*f $on$lusion is true then assumption must -e true.

Con$lusion Assumption

Contra! positi"e of a-o"e statement gi"es us what we $all 9enial est;.

5 Assumption6 5Con$lusion6

hus if assumption is negate#) argument -rea/s.

2. Xarious possi-le 0uestion stems for assumption 0uestions are:hi$h one of the following is an assumption re0uire# -y the argumenta-o"eD;hi$h one of the following is an assumption upon whi$h the argument#epen#sD;he argument assumes whi$h one of the followingD;he $on$lusion in the passage a-o"e relies on whi$h one of the

following assumptionsD;he position ta/en a-o"e presupposes whi$h one of the followingD;he $on$lusion $ite# #oes not follow unless;

3. (ost useful strategy on assumption 0uestions is: %irst) narrow #own to as manyanswer options as you $an. hen use assumption negation te$hni0ue. &egate theremaining options to $hoose the $orre$t one. Corre$t answer shoul# -rea/ theargument on negation.hile negating the statements it is important to un#erstan# logi$al opposite an#polar opposite.

8.g. * went to -ea$h e"ery#ay last wee/.

'ogi$al &egation: * #i# not go to -ea$h e"ery#ay last wee/. his means that theree,ists at least one #ay on whi$h * #i# not go to -ea$h last wee/.

Polar opposite:* #i# not go to -ea$h any #ay last wee/.


16/23

&egating $on#itional statements:

Statement: *f A o$$urs then + o$$urs. A +

'ogi$al &egation: *f A o$$urs then + #oes not o$$ur. A+

Only one answer hurts the argument on negation. *f two or more options are

foun# to hurt the argument then you ha"e #inge# the 0uestion) go -a$/ an# re!$he$/.


17/23

he argument #eri"es its $on$lusion -y;hi$h one of the following #es$ri-es the te$hni0ue of reasoning use#a-o"eD;hi$h one of the following is an argumentati"e strategy employe# inthe argumentD;

he argument employs whi$h one of the following reasoningte$hni0uesD;Aiesha respon#s to A#am7s argument -y;

2. 8,amine the stru$ture of argument -efore pro$ee#ing to answer $hoi$es.Prephrasing on this type of 0uestions mostly #oesn7t wor/. Lse PO8.

3. (etho# of Reasoning! Argument Part 0uestions: hese 0uestions essentially as/you what role a part of argument plays in the argument. 5his is "ery similar to+ol# %a$e Question6. Question stems for this type of 0uestions loo/ li/e:he $laim that in"entors sometimes ser"e as their own engineers playswhi$h one of the following roles in the argumentD;he statement Nthin/ing ma$hines $losely mo#ele# on the -rain are also

li/ely to fail7 ser"es whi$h one of the following roles in ang7s argumentD;he assertion that a later artist tampere# with Xeronese7s painting ser"es whi$hone of the following fun$tions in the $urator7s argumentD;

>M s$ore you so ri$hly #eser"e. +ut these 0uestions seemto $ause a lot of an,iety among test!ta/ers an# test!ta/ers!to!-e. hyD * thin/ that it is-e$ause these 0uestions are strange an# un$harte#. Approa$hing the +% 0uestion is a -it


18/23

li/e trying to rea# 9ostoe"s/y) in Russian) while stum-ling aroun# in the #ar/) in a roomfull of holes. *t7s #isorienting an# $onfusing an# generally unpleasant. here are no $learreferen$es an# no #e$ent gui#es. e fear the un/nown. e try to a"oi# what we #o notun#erstan#. +ut gi"en our $ommon goal) let7s get to /now the +% 0uestion. 'et7s $ome toun#erstan# it. *f we /now it an# un#erstan# it) then we $an /ill it.

hen you see one of these 0uestions in your a$tual K(A) the first thing you shoul# #ois $ongratulate yourself on ha"ing #one well enough to ha"e -rought the +% $hallengeupon yourself in the first pla$e. *n the final analysis &O getting a +% 0uestion or two#uring the e,am is #efinitely ORS8 than getting them. So) you7re alrea#y #oingsomething right. he /ey is to use what you /now to split the answer $hoi$es. 4ere7s myapproa$h:516 Read the argument. Rea# it 0ui$/ly) as you as/ yourself) hat7s the point hereD;

526 Identify the Main Conclusion. ou7"e got to i#entify the main $on$lusion to

pro$ee#Gthe main $on$lusion is your port of entry; into the +% 0uestion. So) fin# main$on$lusion as 0ui$/ly as possi-le an# note whether it is one of the -ol#e# phrases.536 Go directly to the answer choices. 9o not) * repeat 9O &O) spen# any timetrying to figure out what roles the -ol#e# phrases play within the argument without somei#ea of the terms that are -eing offere# in the answer $hoi$es. *t7s a waste of pre$ioustime.*% the main $on$lusion *S one of the -ol#e# phrases) then fin# the answer $hoi$es thatoffer that option for the respe$ti"e -ol#e# phrase 5first or se$on#6. A signifi$ant num-erof +% 0uestions $an -e answere# $orre$tly with this information A'O&8. *f there is onlyone $hoi$e that mat$hes up with the -ol#e# main $on$lusion then you7re #one. (ar/ itan# mo"e on.

Otherwise

!4a"e a 0ui$/ loo/ through the $hoi$es to #is$o"er what the terms in play 5see -elow6.

5


19/23

Y PremiseGa theory or proposition upon whi$h an argument is -ase# or from whi$h a$on$lusion is #rawnY FactGinformation generally -elie"e# to -e true OR /nown to -e trueGusuallya#"an$e# as e"i#en$e to support a premiseY EvidenceGspe$ifi$ type of fa$t offere# in support of a theory or premise

Y ContextGa frame of referen$e of "alue in the interpretation of aspe$ts of an argumentor the argument7s $omponentsY ConsiderationGa fa$tor 5fa$t6 to -e ta/en into a$$ount in forming a Eu#gment or#e$isionY PositionGa point of "iew or attitu#e a-out an issue or 0uestionY AssumptionGa position or -elief that is ta/en to -e true) without proofY PrincipleGa -asi$ or essential truth 5stronger an# -roa#er than a fa$t6.Y udgmentGan opinion forme# from a $onsi#eration of the fa$ts.5@6 &ow) ta/e ea$h of the remaining $hoi$es one -y one) mat$hing similar parts of ea$hanswer $hoi$e to their respe$ti"e +% phrase) then #is$riminate -etween the #issimilar

parts of ea$h answer $hoi$e an# their respe$ti"e +% phrase. hat shoul# ta/e you the restof the way home.!ets"s face a typical #F CR $uestion%

Environmental organi&ations want to preserve the land surrounding the 'ilgrinn'ilderness Area from residential development( hey plan to #o this -y pur$hasingthat lan# from the farmers who own it. hat plan is ill!$on$ei"e#: if the farmers #i# selltheir lan#) they woul# sell it to the highest -i##er) an# #e"elopers woul# out-i# any other-i##ers. On the other han#) these farmers will never actually sell any of the land)provided that farming it remains via*le( +ut farming will not remain "ia-le if thefarms are left unmo#ernize#) an# most of the farmers la$/ the finan$ial resour$esmo#ernization re0uires. An# that is e,a$tly why a more sensi-le preser"ation strategywoul# -e to assist the farmers to mo#ernize their farms to the e,tent nee#e# to maintain"ia-ility.;*n the argument as a whole) the two *oldfaceproportions play whi$h of the followingrolesD

A. he first presents a goal that the argument reEe$ts as ill!$on$ei"e# the se$on# ise"i#en$e that is presente# as groun#s for that reEe$tion.+. he first presents a goal that the argument $on$lu#es $annot -e attaine# the se$on# isa reason offere# in support of that $on$lusion.C. he first presents a goal that the argument $on$lu#es $an -e attaine# the se$on# is aEu#gment #isputing that $on$lusion.9. he first presents a goal) strategies for a$hie"ing whi$h are -eing e"aluate# in theargument the se$on# is a Eu#gment pro"i#ing a -asis for the argument7s a#"o$a$y of aparti$ular strategy.


20/23

8. he first presents a goal that the argument en#orses the se$on# presents a situationthat the argument $onten#s must -e $hange# if that goal is to -e met in the foreseea-lefuture.

Main Conclusion% A more sensi-le preser"ation strategy woul# -e to assist the farmersto mo#ernize their farms to the e,tent nee#e# to maintain "ia-ility.;So) we #i#n7t lu$/out an# get the answer Eust -y ha"ing i#entifie# the main $on$lusion. &o pro-lem.+erms in play%

A. 516 A goal 5that the argument reEe$ts6526 8"i#en$e 5as groun#s for the reEe$tion6+. 516 A goal 5that the argument Eu#ges as unattaina-le6526 Kroun#s 5support for that Eu#gment6C. 516 A goal 5that the argument Eu#ges as attaina-le6

526 A refutation 5of that Eu#gment69. 516 A goal 5with the strategies for attainment in 0uestion in the argument6526 Reasoning 5for supporting O&8 of the note# strategies68. 516 A goal 5en#orse# -y the argument6526 A fa$tor 5effe$ting the timely attainment of that goal6

+a$/ to the +ol#!%a$e# phrases to determine their relationship to the mainconclusion:

+% 1: Preser"ation of the ilgrinn lan# 5that7s a goal6 FJ he plan is ill!$on$ei"e# 5notthe goal) -ut the plan6 FJ So) the goal is preser"ation of the lan# 5%irst +%6 an# that7salso part of the main $on$lusion FJ First #F is a goal with which the argument*asically agrees FJ A an# + are gone.

+% 2: 9oesn7t really relate to the main $on$lusion) so

Return to the answer $hoi$es an# $onsi#er se$on# +% #es$ription in remaining $hoi$esGC) 9) an# 8 FJ 8 implies that the argument suggests $hanging the approa$h to a goal itsays nothing a-out $hanging a situation of any sort FJ 8 is gone. hat lea"es us with Can# 9.Rea# Choi$e C in its entirety:

516 Says the first +% presents a goal that the argument $on$lu#es $an -e attanine#. &ote,a$tlyGthe argument a$tually $on$lu#es that a different strategy is needed to attainthe goal) not simply that the goal is attaina-le 5so this part of this $hoi$e #oesn7t mat$hthe argument6.


21/23

526 Says the se$on# +% in the argument is a Eu#gment #isputing whether the goal $an -eattaine#. &O) #efinitely notGthe se$on# +% in the argument suggests a reason why onestrategy won7t su$$ee#) -ut has nothing to #o with whether the goal $an -e attaine# 5thispart of this $hoi$e #oesn7t mat$h the argument) at all6 FJ C is gone.

&ow loo/ at the remaining $hoi$e) to ma/e sure it fits:516 Koal) strategies for a$hie"ing un#er $onsi#eration 58S6.526 -asis 5Eu#gement6 for supporting an alternati"e to the earlier plan aime# at a$hie"ingthe same goalGpreser"ation of ilgrinn lan# 58S6.9oneGmar/ it an# mo"e on. hat7s it.

'et7 /now some -asi$ terms to a$e the +% CRs of K(A:

Principle%something fun#amental that we #o not 0uestion. his woul# -e somewhatstronger than a fa$t -e$ause it is not spe$ifi$ to a limite# num-er of $ases -ut instea#)apply to a -roa#er range of s$enarios 5an# often #eeper in meaning6. %or instan$e) youwill not tal/ a-out the prin$iple that $rime is in$reasing in large $ities. *nstea#) it is a fa$twhi$h applies to large $ities. 4owe"er) you will tal/ a-out the prin$iples of Physi$s or thefun#amental prin$iples of 4uman Rights. Prin$iples $on"ey a stronger $onnotation thanmere fa$ts.

Fact: something ta/en as true at fa$e "alue 5stats) histori$al e"ents6

Evidence: what is use# to support a $on$lusion 5e,amples) stats) histori$al e"ents6.Although these may in$lu#e fa$ts) it is usually stronger than fa$ts -e$ause they are #ire$telements nee#e# for the $on$lusion to stan# whereas fa$ts are not ne$essary for the latterto stan#

Pre,evidence: his is a -it of a stret$h. *t will not often -e on the test -ut it seems "erysimilar to Z-a$/groun#Z information as #es$ri-e# -elow.

#ac-ground: 8lements nee#e# to put the e"i#en$e into $onte,t -ut whi$h) as stan# alonepie$es of information) might not $onstitute what is $alle# an evidencene$essary to arri"eat a $on$lusion. %or instan$e) *lood tests performed on one thousand persons mayreveal that ./0 of those persons were 1I2 infected( 1owever) the *ac-ground

information could *e that the test was performed in more under,informed regions of

the world where AI34 -nowledge is at a minimum( As you $an see) the fa$t that thetest was performe# in more un#er!informe# regions is not in an# of itself an e"i#en$e-e$ause it #oes not allow us to $ome to a $on$lusion. *nstea#) the 3?U stats) as a stan#!alone pie$e of info) is what will lea# us to the $on$lusion we want. 4owe"er) the-a$/groun# info is also $ru$ial an# $annot -e omitte# it is re0uire# -a$/groun# info.


22/23

Consideration%Something whi$h was ta/en into a$$ount or gi"en some thought -eforearri"ing at the $on$lusion.

Premise%%or K(A purpose) Premise an# 8"i#en$e are the same.Assumption%Lnstate# information whi$h will lin/ the argument to a logi$al $on$lusion.

ithout this) the argument falls apart.

Inference: Something that might not -e e,pli$itly state# or pro"e#. %or instan$e) youmay say that ?U of K(A test!ta/ers ha"e o"er 3. e $an reasona-ly infer thatAnthony will get more than 3 on his K(A -ase# on the fa$t gi"en.

Argument%Central to e"ery CR 0uestion is the argument. An argument is an or#ere# lineof reasoning $ompose# of premises) assumptions) an# a $on$lusion. Ln#erstan#ing theelements of an argument is essential to performing well in this se$tion.

Conclusion%

he $on$lusion is the en#point of the line of reasoning of an argument. hin/ of it as theresult of the argument. he line of reasoning lea#ing to a $on$lusion is often where errorsin logi$ are ma#e. Con$lusion $an -e #efine# as the last #e#u$tion or $laim

One of the new 0uestion types in K(A CA is the -ol#e# 0uestion in Criti$alReasoning Se$tion. *n su$h argument) one or two senten$es in stimulus are -ol#e#. Asample 0uestion loo/s li/e this.he 0uestion following re0uires you to i#entify the logi$al relationship -etween the-ol#fa$e# senten$es) or how it relates to a parti$ular position 5the author agree or#isagree6.+ol#fa$e 0uestion is totally new on $omputer!-ase# test) -ut is easy to ta$/le. All youha"e to #o is to un#erstan# the argument: i#entify the $on$lusion) e"i#en$e) an# thereasoning from e"i#en$e to $on$lusion. Sometime) you are re0uire# to $riti0ue the"ali#ity of the argument.

#F CRs 'rap,5p%

1. *#entify the $on$lusion. As/ yourself what the $on$lusion is) what the author trying topro"e) or what the author7s main point is.2. 'oo/ for the e"i#en$e that the author uses to support or argue against a position.3. Sear$h for argument indicator to #etermine the relationship -etween e"i#en$e an#$on$lusion.Conclusion Indicators

4o thus therefore as a result

conse$uently accordingly hence imply

conclude that follows that means that infer that

Premise Indicators

because since for as

If assume suppose evidence


23/23

on the basis of the reason is that may be derived from in that

Counter,evidence Indicators

actually despite admittedly except even though nonetheless nevertheless although

however In spite of do may

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