cog5 lecppt chapter05

© 2010 by W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.

The Acquisition of Memories andthe Working-Memory System

Chapter 5Lecture Outline

Chapter 5: Working Memory

Lecture OutlineThe Modal ModelWorking MemoryEntering Long-term StorageElaborate EncodingOrganizing and MemorizingLinks Among Acquisition, Storage, and

Retrieval

Chapter 5: Working Memory

One way to frame learning and memoryAcquisitionStorageRetrieval

Analogy to creating, storing, and opening a computer file

Chapter 5: Working Memory

This view is problematic for at least two reasonsNew learning is grounded in previously

learned (stored) knowledgeEffective learning depends on how the

information will be later retrieved

The Modal Model

Information processing

Each of these systems is separate

Sperling (1960) Iconic Memory Research

Whole report procedureFlash a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds Identify as many letters as possibleParticipants typically remember 4 letters

Partial report procedureFlash a matrix of letters for 50 millisecondsParticipants are told to report bottom rowParticipants were able to report any row

requested

Sperling Sensory Memory Demonstration

A matrix of 12 letters and numbers briefly flash on the next few slides

As soon as you see the information, write down everything you can remember in its proper location

記憶大考驗 I

人究竟能記得多少呢？請隨手拿個筆和紙，我們準備開始！

X X X XX X X XX X X X

Whole Report

B 5 Q T2 H S 9O 4 M Y

X

請寫出剛剛畫面中呈現的所有字母

B 5 Q T2 H S 9O 4 M Y

X X X XX X X XX X X X

Partial Report – No Delay

X

2 V 9 RQ M 7 L

> K H 5 F <

> <

2 V 9 RQ M 7 L

> K H 5 F <

請寫出剛剛畫面中 ><所指到的字母

Sperling’s Results

Sensory Stores

Iconic store or visual sensory registerHolds visual information for 250 msec

longer Information held is pre-categoricalCapacity: up to 12 items Information fades quickly

Econ or auditory sensory register Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds

longer to enable processing

The Modal Model

The modal model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Waugh & Norman, 1965)Short-term memory (STM)Long-term memory (LTM)

The Modal Model

Working memory (WM)—a dynamic form of short-term memory

Vogel, Woodman, & Luck Results (2001)

Can retain 3-4 colors or orientations Store integrated objects, not just

features

Long-Term Memory

CapacityThus far limitless

DurationPotentially permanent

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The Modal Model

Experiments supporting the modal modelPresented a long series of words (e.g., 30)Perform free-recall afterwardLook at the position in the list (serial recall)

The Modal Model

Primacy effect Better memory for first

few items Long-term memory Memory rehearsal

allows transfer from WM to LTM

The Modal Model

Recency effect Better memory for the

last few items Based on working

memory

The Modal Model

30 seconds not enough to wipe out recency

Another task is needed to do so

The Modal Model

Recency effect the same

Memory for the rest of the list is better

Slow presentation aids pre-recency items

The Modal Model

Primacy associated with hippocampus

Working memory associated with perirhinal cortex

Working Memory

Virtually all mental activities require working memory (WM)ReadingGoal-driven behavior

Some tasks demand more WM resources than others

Individual differences in WM capacity predict some cognitive abilities

Working Memory

Digit-span taskParticipant asked to remember digits

List is increased until memory fails Maximum number is the digit span

Working Memory

ChunkingThe ability to condense informationRequires effortReduces load Does not increase WM

記憶大考驗 II

人究竟能記得多少呢？請隨手拿個筆和紙，我們準備開始！

1. 英文題

準備好了嗎……

DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBA

請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有字母

2. 數字題

準備好了嗎……

77088088252521314520

請依序寫出剛剛畫面中的所有數字

1. 英文題DADNCKUMITANTFBIETORNBADAD NCKU MIT ANT FBI ET OR NBA

2. 數字題77088088252521314520770 880 8825252 1314 520 親親你 抱抱你 爸爸餓我餓我餓 一生一世 我愛你

解答時間 !!!!!

Working Memory

One metaphor for working memory is a loading dock Mechanically transfers input to and from long-term

memory A better metaphor is a librarian

Actively categorizes, catalogs, and cross-references new material

Working Memory

Reading span Captures active nature of working memory Participant reads sentences and remembers

the last word in each sentence The number of words remembered is the

reading span

Working Memory

Operation span Another measure of working memory Is equation true or false? Remember a word Number of words remembered is the operation

span

Working Memory

Reading span and operation span correlate strongly with Test performance Reasoning Reading ability

Working Memory

Working memory is often divided into three componentsCentral executive Visuospatial buffer Articulatory rehearsal loop

Working Memory

Executive control Control sequences of

thought and action Select and launch

responses Plan and set goals Break habit or routine

Working Memory

WM is an update to the modal model It is a dynamic form of STM

Working Memory

Working memory

Long-Term Memory

Time Temporary Long-lasting

Capacity Limited Large

Access Relatively easy

Relatively hard

Entering Long-Term Storage

Two Types of RehearsalMaintenance rehearsal—recitingRelational or elaborative rehearsal—linking

Entering Long-Term Storage

Relational or elaborative rehearsal is superior

Repeated exposure does not guarantee memoryFor example, try to remember the design

details of a pennyRecite a phone number

Entering Long-Term Storage

Remembered greater than forgotten

Frontal areas

Hippocampus and adjacent areas

Entering Long-Term Storage

Shallow processing—superficial Deep processing—meaningful

Entering Long-Term Storage

54

Deeper processing ensures better recall

Entering Long-Term Storage

Incidental learning—unintentional Intentional learning—intentional

Entering Long-Term Storage

Imagine an experiment in which you cross depth of processing (three levels)Typeface task (shallow)Phonological task (intermediate)Semantic task (deep)

And intention to learn (two levels) Incidental learning Intentional learning

Entering Long-Term Storage

Entering Long-Term Storage

Depth of processing strong Intention to learn has no effect Intention to learn can lead you to choose a

deeper strategy

Elaborate Encoding

Very hard to find info

Very easy to find info

Elaborate Encoding

Depth of processing promotes recall by facilitating later retrievalConsider learning as a way to establish

indexing, a path to the informationConnections between to-be-remembered

items facilitates retrieval

Elaborate Encoding

Craik & Tulving (1975)

Example Result

Elaborate “The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken.”

Better memory

Simple “She cooked the chicken.”

Worse memory

Elaborate Encoding

Craik & Tulving (1975)

Elaborate Encoding

Elaborate sentences result in richer retrieval paths

Organizing and Memorizing

Katona (1940) argued that the key to creating connections in the to-be-remembered material is organization

We memorize well when we find order in the material

Organizing and Memorizing

Mnemonics improve memory through organization

Organizing and Memorizing

Peg-word systems: items are “hung” on a system of already well known “pegs” “One is a bun, two is a shoe…”

First-letter mnemonicsRoy G. BivKing Phillip Crossed the Ocean to Find Gold

and Silver

Organizing and Memorizing

67

Mnemonics Help

Organizing and Memorizing

The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange items into different groups. Of course one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the next step; otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo things. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run, this may not seem important but complications can easily arise. A mistake can be expensive as well. At first, the whole procedure will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then, one never can tell. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put into their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole cycle will then have to be repeated. However, that is part of life.

Organizing and Memorizing

What is the pattern?

Organizing and Memorizing

Ambiguous pictures are understood and remembered better if they are identified (Wiseman & Neisser, 1974)

Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval

Memory facilitated by organizing and understandingWhat the memorizer was doing at the time of

exposure mattersThe background knowledge of the memorizer

matters

How to train your memory

What strategies do you use for remembering?

Why do they work? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pyVxD1zE7H4 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V8S8V9VEFyI

聯覺

What color is Tuesday?

73

Links Among Acquisition, Storage, and Retrieval

Acquisition, storage, and retrieval are not easily separableNew learning is grounded in previously

learned (stored) knowledgeEffective learning depends on how the

information will later be retrieved

Chapter 5 Questions

Which group would perform the WORST on a memory test?

a) Participants engaged in shallow processing without previous warning of a memory test.

b) Participants engaged in medium processing with previous warning of a memory test.

c) Participants engaged in deep processing without previous warning of a memory test.

d) Participants engaged in deep processing with previous warning of a memory test.

Someone with a larger working memory capacity is likely to perform better than someone with a smaller working memory capacity on which of the following tasks

a) following directions

b) efficient reading

c) learning a computer language

d) all of the above

Which statement about working memory is TRUE?

a) It has unlimited storage capacity.

b) It functions as a storage container.

c) Information in it is fragile and easily lost.

d) It refers mainly to the resources that are retained over long intervals.

Which of the following statements applies to stimulus-based priming but not to expectation-based priming?

a) It has an immediate effect on attention.

b) It has a cost attached.

c) It leads to faster recognition of subsequent related stimuli.

d) It is bottom-up.

Which of the following would help improve recall of a difficult-to-understand paragraph the LEAST?

a) quizzing yourself in order to improve comprehension of the paragraph

b) chunking the sentences in the paragraph into smaller, meaningful groups

c) repeating the paragraph aloud many times

d) giving the paragraph a meaningful title

Veronica wanted to go to the grocery store but was out of paper for writing a shopping list. She came up with several possible ways to remember what she needed to buy (listed below). Which of her ideas is a simple mnemonic strategy?

a) Using the peg-word system to associate different items on the shopping list with words in an easy-to-remember rhyme.

b) Imagining what she can cook with all of the items on the list and imagining what all the food would taste like.

c) Composing a long story with all the items on her list.

d) Repeating all the items on her list multiple times.

What causes the recency effect?

a) The last words heard are still in working memory at testing.

b) The first words heard are also the first words to leave working memory.

c) Words that get more attention are better encoded into long-term memory.

d) Experimenters tend to give easier words first as warm-up.