cognition & meta cognition
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COGNITION
&METACOGNITIONGroup members:
M . Ali
M. Kamran Haider
M.M.Hameed Faizi
Mazhar Iqbal
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Cognition
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Cognition
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INTRODUCTION TO
COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
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1. Cognitive Psychology Defined
Cognitive Psychology
The study of how people perceive, learn,
remember, and think.
Examples How people perceive various shapes
Why they remember some facts and forget others
How they learn language
Cognition (Ashcraft, 2002) The collection of mental processes and activities
used in perceiving, learning, remembering,
thinking, and understanding, and the act of using
those processes
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?
If you wanted to understand how people
think which method would you use?What would you focus on?
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?
What can humans do that
computers can not?
What can computers do that
humans can not?
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3. Research Methods in Cognitive
Psychology
How does scientific investigation work? Theory development
Hypotheses formulation Hypotheses testing
Data gathering
Data analysis
Ecological validity The degree to which particular findings in one
context may be considered relevant outside of thatcontext
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3. Research Methods in Cognitive
Psychology
1. Controlled laboratory experiments
Characterization
An experimenter conducts research in a laboratorysetting in which he controls as many aspects of theexperimental situation as possible
Advantages
Enables isolation of causal factors Excellent means of testing hypotheses
Disadvantages Often lack of ecological validity
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3. Research Methods in
Cognitive Psychology
2. Psychobiological research
Characterization Studies the relationship between cognitive
performance and cerebral events and structures Examples: postmortem studies, animal studies,
studies in vivo (PET, fMRI, EEG)
Advantages hard evidence of cognitive functions by relating
them to physiological activity Disadvantages Often very expensive; risk of making inferences
about normal functions based on abnormal brainfunctioning
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3. Research Methods in Cognitive
Psychology
3. Self-reports
Characterization Participants reports of own cognition in progress or
as recollected
Advantages Introspective insights from participants point of
view, which may be unavailable via other means
Disadvantages
Inability to report on processes occurring outsideconscious awareness
Data gathering may influence cognitive processbeing reported
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3. Research Methods in Cognitive
Psychology
4. Case studies
Characterization Intensive study of a single individual
Advantages Richly detailed information about individuals,
including information about historical and currentcontexts
Very good for theory development Disadvantages Small sample; questionable generalization to other
cases
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3. Research Methods in Cognitive
Psychology
5. Naturalistic observation
Characterization
Observing real-life situations, as in classrooms,work settings, or homes
Advantages
High ecological validity
Disadvantages
Lack of experimental control
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3. Research Methods in
Cognitive Psychology
6. Computer Simulations and ArtificialIntelligence
Characterization Simulation: Attempt to make computers simulate
human cognitive performance
AI: Attempt to make computers demonstrateintelligent cognitive performance (regardless of its
resemblance to human cognitive processing)Advantages Clear testing of theoretical models and predictions
Disadvantages
Limits of hardware and software
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4. Key Themes in Cognitive
Psychology
1.Data without a theory is meaningless, theorywithout data is empty
Example: observation that peoples ability torecognize faces is better than their ability to recallfaces This is an interesting generalization but it does not
explain why there is such a difference
A theory providesAn explanation of data
Basis for prediction of other data
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4. Key Themes in Cognitive
Psychology
2.Cognitive processes interact with each otherand with noncognitive processes
Even though cognitive psychologists often try tostudy specific cognitive processes in isolation,they know that cognitive processes work together
Examples
Memory processes depend on perceptual processes Thinking depends on memory
Motivation interacts with learning
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4. Key Themes in Cognitive
Psychology
3. Cognition needs to be studied through a variety
of scientific methods
There is no one right way to study cognition
Cognitive psychologists need to learn a
variety of different kinds of techniques to studycognition
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4. Key Themes in Cognitive
Psychology
4.Basic research in cognitive psychology maylead to application, applied research may lead
to basic understanding
Basic research often leads to immediateapplication Example: finding that learning is superior when it is
spaced out over time rather than crammed into a shorttime interval
Applied research often leads to basic findings Example: eyewitness testimony research has enhanced
our basic understanding of memory systems and of theextent to which humans construct their own memories
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Cognitive Development:
Believed that intelligence was not random, but
was a set of organized cognitive structures
that the infant actively constructed
This construction occurs through the
adaptation to the environment
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Stages of Development
The development of qualitatively different
cognitive structures occurred through the
processes of assimilation and accommodation.
When a qualitative change occurs, the
infant/child enters a new stage of development
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Stage 1:
Sensori-Motor (Birth-Age 2)
Intellectual functioning is organized aroundsensing information and performing actionsaccordingly.
This is entirely unconscious, self-unaware, andnon-symbolic cognition.
6 substages of development
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Sensori-Motor Substage 1:
Reflexes (0-1 month)
Reflexes are the behavioural foundation uponwhich more complex behaviours are based
Development occurs as the reflex behavioursare applied to a wider variety of stimuli andevents (assimilation)
Example: Sucking
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Sensori-Motor Substage 1:
Reflexes (0-1 month)
With continued experience, the reflexive
behaviours become modified(accommodation)
The infant then enters the second substage
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Sensori-Motor Substage 2:
Schemes (1-4 months)
Sensori-Motor Schemes:
An organized pattern of action (or behaviour) with
which the infant interacts and comes to know theworld.
Examples: Sucking and Grasping
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Sensori-Motor Substage 2:
Schemes (1-4 months)
Coordination or integration of previouslyindependent schemes
For example, the coordination of sensory
information, such as visual and auditory
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Sensori-Motor Substage 2:
Schemes (1-4 months) Walker & Gibson (1983)
3.5 Months
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Sensori-Motor Substage 3:
Procedures (4-8 months)
According to Piaget, substage 2 schemes are
directed inward
That is, grasps for the sake of its grasping than
on the effect it has on the world
In this substage, schemes get directed
outward
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Sensori-Motor Substage 3:
Procedures (4-8 months)
The schemes develop into procedures of
interesting actions that produce interesting
effects in the world
For example, banging on a pot with a wooden
spoon
Consequently, the procedure gets repeated Sounds like operant learning - infants do this at 2
mos.
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Sensori-Motor Substage 4:
Intentional Behaviour (8-12 mos) In previous substage, infant accidentallyproduces some outcome then repeats it
In this substage, infant wants to produce aparticular outcome then figures out the action
Uses one scheme as a means to obtain its goalor end of exercising another scheme
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Sensori-Motor Substage 5:
Experimentation (12-18 mos)
Trial-and-error exploration of the world to find
new and different ways of acting on it.
Before this substage, the infant produces
known actions that will produce mostly known
outcomes
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Sensori-Motor Substage 5:
Experimentation (12-18 mos) Here the infant produces new actions andobserves the effects
Example, pulling the rug to get an out-of-reachobject
Perhaps, the precursor of tool use
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Sensori-Motor Substage 6:
Representation (18-24 mos) Before this substage, all actions, objects
and outcomes occur externally
In this substage, the infant begins to thinkabout and acting on the world internally
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Sensori-Motor Substage 6:
Representation (18-24 mos) Example: Naming an object that is not currently present but is
just thought of.
Deferred Imitation Infant witnesses an action but does not reproduce it
Reproduces the witnessed action at a later time
Pretend or Symbolic Play
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Object Permanence
Understanding that objects exist independent of ourability to perceive them
In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects
Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task
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Object Permanence
Understanding that objects exist independent of ourability to perceive them
In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects
Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task
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Object Permanence
Understanding that objects exist independent of ourability to perceive them
In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects
Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task
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Object Permanence
Understanding that objects exist independent of ourability to perceive them
In substage 4, infants can search for hidden objects
Limitations in this ability: A-not-B Task
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A-not-B Task
Infant seems to understand the permanenceof the object only in relation to their own
action
Can handle this task by substage 5, but only ifthe object is visible when moved
Waits until substage 6 until infant can handlethis task with invisible displacements
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Recent Work on Cognition
during Sensori-Motor Stage Object Permanence
Baillargeon (1987)
Found that not until
4.5 months of age
(substage 3) did
infants increaseattention to the
impossible event
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Stage 2: Pre-operational
(2-6 yrs) Limitations
Egocentrism: All
representation of the
world is from onesown perspective
- Centration: Focuses on
only one aspect of a
problem at a time
- Animism: Thinks that
inanimate objects have
qualities of living things
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Stage 3: Concrete Operational
(6-12 yrs) Child is more logical and able to complete task not
able to in Pre-Operation period.
Thinking is still with real or concrete objects and actions, and
not yet abstract thinking
Conservation of Number is mastered by age 6
Conservation of Length & Weight is mastered by age8 or 9
Class Inclusion - A subclass cannot be larger than thesuperordinate class that includes it
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Class Inclusion
11 circles: 8 white and 3 yellow
Ask child where there are more circles or more whichitems
Pre-Operational:
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Class Inclusion
11 circles: 8 white and 3 yellow
Ask child where there are more circles or more which
items
Concrete Operational:
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Stage 3: Concrete Operational
(6-12 yrs) Relations between
classes
Seriation - ordering
Transitivity - Tell infant, A
is bigger than B and B is
bigger than C. Then askwhat is the relation
between A and C
A
B
B
C
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Stage 3: Concrete Operational
(6-12 yrs) Infants and Children
may be more
competent thanproposed
For example, Number
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Stage 4: Formal Operational
The ability to think logically about things thatare only possible and not necessarily real (or
concrete) -- abstract thinking
Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Not everyone reaches this stage:
Studies have indictated that science and mathstudents better at this
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What is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognitive psychology is the study of mental
processes
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What is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognitive Psychology versus
Behaviorism
Behavioral Psych: how S maps onto R
Cognitive Psych: what happens in the mindBoth can use formulas to map S onto R
The difference is level of complexity
Environment MindS
R
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What is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognitive Psychology versus
Neurobiology
Neurobiology: how does the brain do it?
Cognitive Psych: how does the mind do it?Both can use neurons to describe mind
The difference is behavior (the big picture)
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What is Cognitive Psychology?
Metaphor: mind = Windows
Behaviorists: What happens when I press Alt-Tab? Cool! It switched to
my last open application!! But how does that work? Neurobiologists:
Check this out, the harddrive and the RAM are bothconnected to the motherboard! But what does that mean?
Cognitive Psychologists: Pressing Alt-Tab switches me between applications, and I
know that Windows uses STM Lets propose a model ofWindows where it stores which apps are open in STM, andwhen a user hits Alt-Tab, it switches between open apps.
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What is Cognitive Psychology?
Cognitive Psychology versus
Artificial Intelligence (AI)
AI: whats the best way to do this?
Cognitive Psych: how do humans do this? Both try to model some form of mind
The difference is fidelity
Brain is optimal: If AI truly wants to find optimality they
should study Cognitive Psychology.
Why study Cognitive
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Why study Cognitive
Psychology
Understanding the mind
Education
Medicine
TherapyArtificial Intelligence
Tool/Interface Design
Gaming/Entertainment
Etc.
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What is involved in Cognition
The book lists:
Perception, Attention, Memory, Problem-Solving,
Language, Reasoning, & Decision-making
This is not a comprehensive list of mentalprocesses
These processes are not independent of one
another
E.g. attention may be part of perception; language
may be part of memory and decision-making, etc.
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COMPLEXITY OFCOGNITION
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Figure 1.1 (p. 3) - Complexity of CognitionSarah is walking toward her friend, who is waving in the distance. She is aware
of her friend, but has little awareness of the stranger who is passing on her right,
even though he is much closer.
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What we are aware of
The complexities of
cognition are usually
hidden from our
consciousness.
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The Magic of Cognition
In our lives we are likely to NEVER encounter
the same retinal input twice!
EVER!
We will learn about categorization and invariant
representation
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The Magic of Cognition
The Stroop effect
We have automatic reading routines
It is hard to stop well-practiced routines from
executing This is the difference between experts and
novices
Complexity of Perception; Expectations
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Figure 1.5 (p 8) - Hemholtzs unconcious inferenceThe display in (a) looks like (b) a gray rectangle in front of a light triangle; but itcould be (c) a gray rectangle and a six-sided figure that are lined up appropriately.
Complexity of Perception; Expectations
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The Magic of Cognition
These types of phenomena give us a hint as to
how cognition works
E.g. Do you process all of the information that falls onyour retina?
It may be that we have a perfect representation of the world
It may be that we make gross estimations based on prior
experience
DEMO
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THINK CRITICALLY
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Think Critically
Beware cognitive myths
We only use 10% of our brain
Group brainstorming
Left vs right hemisphere Left is an accountant, right is a hippie
Phrenology
C
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Think Critically
Beware vacuous Statements
the Stroop effect shows that some stimuli can
affect our behavior by forc ing themselves on
our consc iousn ess, even if we are activelytrying to ignore them.
Thi k C i i ll
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Think Critically
Beware old theories
E.g. Chomskys Poverty of Stimu lusargument
has been rebuked recently; Perfors, Tenenbaum,
& Regier (2006) have shown that with the rightapproach it is possible to retrieve grammar rules
from the data available to children
Thi k C iti ll
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Think Critically
Correlation does not imply causation
100% of people who eat pickles die
Therefore, eating pickles is bad for you
Thi k C iti ll
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Think Critically
Davachi [states that] memory is better if theperirhinal cortex is activated when the word isbeing learned
Does this mean that Perirhinal cortex is involved in memory?
Everything is involved in memory Is it involved in associative learning?
Not necessarily. It could be activated during the place task forany number of reasons
Maybe Ss found it amusing to place words, and theperirhinal cortex is actually the amusement center;maybe being amused correlates with better memory
Thi k C iti ll
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Think Critically
Cognition is far from being solved
Ask questions
Use your intuition
Do thought experimentsUse multiple sources of information
Think for yourselves
How would you design the mind?
O th b i ht id
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On the brighter side
This is a young field, but we understand a lot
about cognition already
At this point we are already able to predict
Learning curves for procedural and declarativememories
How forgetting works (interference and decay)
How some memories can prime other memories
How cognitive mechanisms interactAnd much much more
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Play with different combinations of these words andyou'll be forming mental pictures of metacognition.
Thinking about knowing ...
Learning about thinking ...
Control of learning ... Knowing about knowing ...
Thinking about thinking ...
September 15, 2013Metacognition71
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September 15, 2013Metacognition72
Its like arguing with yourself.
- Scott (11/09)
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September 15, 2013Metacognition73
Metacognition = Argumentation turn inward.
D fi iti
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Definitions
September 15, 2013Metacognition
74
Metacognition - literally beyond knowing,knowing what one knows and doesnt know -
promoting a students ability to self-monitor
levels of understanding and predict how well(s)he will do on a particular task.
Self-regulation - students monitoring their own
comprehension and assessing their own
abilities without teacher help.
M t iti
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Metacognition
Thinking about thinking(Blakely, 1990; Livingston, 1997)
Flavell (1977)
Child cognition
Developmental changes in
Metamemory
MetacomprehensionMetacommunication
M t iti
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Metacognition
Knowledge and active control over ones owncognitive processes when engaged in learning
metacognitive knowledge
metacognitive regulation
Metacogniti e Kno ledge
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Metacognitive Knowledge
Knowledge about human learning and informationprocessing
Knowledge about the learning task at hand and
its corresponding processing demands
Knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive
strategies and their appropriate use
Metacognitive Regulation
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Metacognitive Regulation
processes that can be applied in order to controlcognitive activities and achieve cognitive goals
planning and monitoring cognitive activities and
further revision depending on the result of these
activities
Elements of Metacognition
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Elements of Metacognition
Metamemory
Knowledge about memory systems and memory
strategies
Metacomprehension Learners awareness about what he/she knows /
does not know
Elements of Metacognition
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Elements of Metacognition
Self-regulation
Learners adjustment to errors
Covers social interaction
Schema TrainingHelps learners to develop their own cognitive
structures from understanding information and
experiences
Metacognition
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Metacognition
Students perception of themselves has an impactof their performance, achievements and self-
management of their own learning.
Metacognition influences the students orientation to
learning tasks and problem solving.
Performing the task or solving the problem
influences their belief in their personal and
academic abilities, therefore metacognition allowsstudents to believe in themselves.
Metacognitive Strategies
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Metacognitive Strategies
Blakely & Spence (1990)Connecting new information to former knowledge
Selecting thinking strategies deliberately
Planning, monitoring and evaluating thinkingprocesses
Utilising these strategies a learner can identify a problem,research alternative solutions, evaluate and decide on a final
solution.
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Metacognitive Explanation
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Metacognitive Explanation
Involves the teacher
Talking through the problem, start to ask the
student for suggestions
Thinking aloudObserving the process of solving a problem
Scaffolded Instruction
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Scaffolded Instruction
Exploring problems with little help from theteacher
Teachers role is to support
Teacher should intervene if the student isexperiencing difficulties
What do you think would happen if?
How can you check to see if you are correct or not?
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Co operative Learning
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Co-operative Learning
Utilises the social aspect of learning
Breaking the class into pairs or small groups
Head to Hands
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Head-to-Hands
Carry out a practical application
Manipulate and test learning
Helps students maintain motivation towards
their learning
A Distributed View of Metacognition
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A Distributed View of Metacognition
Managing ressources
Processes involved in internal cognitive
functioning
Objects and processes in ones immediateenvironment
A Distributed View of Metacognition 5
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tenets
1. The complexity of deciding what to do next ismade considerably less complex than the
general problem of rational choice.
2. Humans lean on environmental structure forcognitive support.
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A Distributed View of Metacognition
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A Distributed View of Metacognition
For students operating in well designedenvironments the activity of maintaining
coordination, of monitoring, repairing, and
deciding what to do next may not be a fullyconcious process, and certainly need not
require attention to ones current internal
thinking process.
A Distributed View of Metacognition
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A Distributed View of Metacognition
Cognition is distributed between agent andenvironment
When there is conscious awareness of
mental activity, the aspect of cognition beingattended to may be the externalisation of that
thought.
Cognitively Effective Design
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Cognitively Effective Design
Principles of good pedagogyProviding cues, prompts, hints, indicators and
reminders
The manner of displaying them has an effect onhow and when students notice them.
Cognitively Effective Design
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Cognitively Effective Design
The effectiveness of a structure or processmeasures the probability that subjects will
comprehend, perceive, extract the meaning, or use
the structure correctly.
a) use the interface, hence not reject it outright as
being too complex to be useful
b) use the display to obtain the result the users
want because the display makes it easier to
understand the options and their relations better
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Thank You For Your Attention
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