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Running Head: COMP QUESTION 3 1
The School of Education and Urban Studies
A Written Response to Comprehensive Examination
Question 3
For the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor of Philosophy in Higher Education Administration
Reginald Mathes
Morgan State University
COMP QUESTION 3 2
Executive Summary
There is a significant debate in the literature regarding qualitative and
quantitative research methods (Creswell, 2011). The debate in the literature provides
assumptions from epistemological and ontological views and ultimately calls for
researchers to consider a mixed methods approach. The purpose of this analysis is to
compare and contrast quantitative and qualitative research methodologies from an
ontological and epistemological perspectives. In addition, the purpose of this analysis is
to show the relative strengths and weaknesses of each general approach. Also, within
this analyses, I illuminate why phenomenology is best suited for my study regarding the
lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs.
Furthermore, this analysis provides readers with an understanding of how I would
approach my investigation from a quantitative approach. In regards to a
phenomenological approach, I discuss my choice of research designs as well as my
particular strategies of data analyses and data collection I will use. The procedures that
I will utilize to assist me with investigating the lived experiences of African – American
students at PWIs are revealed as well. Lastly, this analysis illuminates the processes of
gathering, interpretation of findings, my role as the researcher, validity, reliability, and
trustworthiness that my study will encounter.
COMP QUESTION 3 3
Table of Contents
Executive Summary ………………………………………………………………………… 2
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
Ontological and Epistemological Perspectives ………………………………………….. 5
Epistemological Assumptions ……………………………………………………… 6
Interpretivism ……………………………………………………………………….. 6
Positivism …………………………………………………………………………….7
Ontological Assumptions ………………………………………………………………….. 8
Constructivism ……………………………………………………………………….9
Objectivism …………………………………………………………………………. 9
Strengthens and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative Research ……... 9 – 12
A Quantitative Approach …………………………………………………………………..12
Selecting Comparison Groups ……………………………………………………13
Data Collection ……………………………………………………………………..13
Data Analysis ……………………………………………………………………… 14
Interpretations and Findings …………………………………………………….. 14
A Qualitative Phenomenological Approach ……………………………………………. 15
Phenomenology ……………………………………………………………………15
COMP QUESTION 3 4
Procedures ……………………………………………………………………….. 16
Data Collection …………………………………………………………………… 17
Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………………17
Validity …………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
Peer Critiques …………………………………………………………………….. 18
Structure Resonance …………………………………………………………….. 19
Participant Verification …………………………………………………………… 19
Trustworthiness …………………………………………………………………… 20
Reliability …………………………………………………………………………………... 21
References ………………………………………………………………………………… 22
COMP QUESTION 3 5
In order to define, discover and understand social phenomena, researchers
within social science use different research methodologies. These methodologies are
generally subdivided into quantitative and qualitative research methodologies. This
analysis will discuss the scholarship in the methodology literature and compare and
contrast quantitative and qualitative research methodologies from an ontological
perspective and an epistemological perspective. In addition, I discuss the relative
strengths and weaknesses of each general approach. I contend that my research
investigation regarding the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs is
best suited for qualitative research because qualitative inquiry represents a valid mode
of social and human science investigation, without apology or comparisons to
quantitative research (Creswell, 2013). Moreover, I contend that qualitative research is
best suited for my inquiry regarding the lived experiences of African-American students
because qualitative research is the study of human behavior (Creswell, 2013).
Furthermore, I contend that a phenomenological qualitative research inquiry is
best suited for my investigation of African – American students at PWIs because the
aim of research practice should be to focus on understanding the meaning that events
have for the individuals being studied. Research suggest that understanding these
meanings is the reasons quantitative researchers have shifted from quantitative inquiry
to qualitative inquiry over the last decades (Tuli, 2010). According to Tuli (2010)
quantitative research was not assisting social scientist with understanding why things
are the way they are in the social world and why people act the ways they do. As a
consequence of this academic debate quests have emerged on both sides of the
research paradigms. Therefore, I presume that qualitative research is more beneficial
COMP QUESTION 3 6
for my investigation of the lived experiences of African – American students because it
will allow me to better understand why White faculty, staff, and students at PWIs treat
African – American students the way research has illuminated.
Ontological and Epistemological Perspectives of Quantitative and Qualitative
Research
Qualitative and Quantitative researchers make dissimilar epistemological
assumptions about the nature of scientific knowledge and how to obtain it. Research
suggest that if you favor one set of assumptions, you will conduct one type of
educational research. In contrast, if you favor another set of assumptions, you will
conduct a different type (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). Epistemological and Ontological
assumptions highlight the fact that the two types of research differ in the nature of the
data that are collected. Quantitative research is practically synonymous with positivist
research. In contrast, qualitative research is virtually synonymous with constructivist
research (Shank, 2002).
Ontology is referred to as the study of being (Crotty, 2003). Ontological
questions in social science inquiry are linked to the nature of reality (Tuli, 2010). In
contrast, epistemology is referred to as the study of efforts to gain philosophical
understanding or knowledge of the nature and scope of human knowledge (Gall, Gall, &
Borg, 2007). In regards to ontological assumptions and quantitative research
ontological assumptions contribute to objectivism for quantitative research strategies
(Bahari, 2010). After reviewing the literature on quantitative and qualitative research
methods, I discovered that it is essential for researchers to understand the philosophies
of quantitative and qualitative research paradigms because it can help clarify research
designs. In addition, research suggest that an understanding of the philosophies of
COMP QUESTION 3 7
quantitative and qualitative research assist social scientist and educational researchers
about which design will actually work for their particular study.
Furthermore, qualitative research and quantitative research are distinct in several
aspects. For example, qualitative researchers usually make knowledge claims based
on constructivist perspectives (Creswell, 2011). In contrast, quantitative research
focuses on the question of scale or depth (Bryman, 2006). Therefore, qualitative and
quantitative research approaches are inconsumable in regards to their paradigms and
worldviews and reflect epistemological and ontological assumptions (Creswell, 2003).
Moreover, research suggest that the principle orientation to the role of theory in relation
to research qualitative research focuses on inductive generation of theory. In
dissimilarity, the principle orientation to the role of theory in relation to research within
the quantitative paradigm focuses on deductive testing of theory (Bryman, 2007).
Epistemological Assumptions
Interpretivism. While reviewing the literature on the quantitative and qualitative
research paradigms, I discovered that the epistemological orientation of qualitative
research is interpretivism and the epistemological orientation of quantitative research is
positivism. Interpretivism refers to the immediate and local meanings of social actions.
In fact, Bahari (2010) states “interpretivism is an epistemology that it is necessary for
the researchers to understand differences between humans in our role as social actors”
(p.22). In fact, Bahari (2010) contends that interpretivism is also associated with
phenomenology. Therefore, I will consider myself an interpretivist since I will be
conducting research on the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs.
COMP QUESTION 3 8
Gall, Gall, and Gorg (2007) contend that interpretivism is also consistent with
constructivist epistemology. In regards to quantitative research Gall, Gall, and Borg
(2007) refer to positivism as the epistemological doctrine that physical and social reality
is independent of those who observe it, and that observations of this reality if unbiased,
constitute scientific knowledge. However, the weaknesses associated with positivism
as an epistemology have caused social science researchers to adopt the epistemology
of postpositivism.
Positivism. Positivism assumes that that there are social facts with an objective
reality apart from the beliefs of individuals (Bahari, 2010). Positivist believe that
knowledge is only of significance if it is based on observations of this external reality.
Therefore, if I was conducting research on the lived experiences of African – American
students at PWIs, I would believe the social the social world exist externally.
In addition, if I was conducting a quantitative study regarding the lived
experiences of African – American students at PWIs, I would conduct my research
independently and the properties of my research would be measured through objective
methods. For example, these methods may consist of experimental testing of theory or
hypothesis. Moreover, I would believe that there is a clear cut relationship between
things and events in the outside world and peoples knowledge of them (Staiton-Rogers,
2006). If I was conducting research regarding the lived experiences of African –
American students at PWIs in a quantitative paradigm and using a positivist
philosophical assumption, I would attempt to explain and predict what happens in the
social world by searching regularities and causal relationships between its constituent
COMP QUESTION 3 9
elements. As a quantitative researcher and a positivist, my views would be influenced
by the logic of experimental designs derived from natural science.
Ontological Assumptions
Constructivism. As a constructivist, my views of social life are the product of
social interactions and the beliefs of the social actors. Therefore, my approach to the
lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs a phenomenological
qualitative approach. Constructivism refers to beliefs that social phenomena is created
from the perceptions and the following actions of those social actors concerned with
their existence (Saunders et al., 2007). Bahari (2010) states “the core of ontological
assumptions on subjectivist approaches to social science is that reality is a projection of
human imagination” (p. 24). Therefore, as a constructivist conducting qualitative
research on the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs, I oppose the
epistemological position to positivism by presuming that social reality is constructed by
the individual who participate in it. Furthermore, as a constructivist I plan on interacting
with a specific environment that is both physical and social (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007).
Furthermore, Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) contend that constructivism is an
opposing epistemological position to positivism and it’s grounded on the assumption
that social reality is constructed by the individuals who participate in it. This form of
ontological orientation takes the form of interpretations. In addition, this ontological
orientation of qualitative research focuses on the ascriptions of meanings to the social
environment (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007). In contrast, the ontological orientation of
quantitative inquiry is objectivism.
COMP QUESTION 3 10
Objectivism. In contrast to constructivist view, as an objectivist, I would believe
that social phenomena and their meanings have an existence that is independent of
social actors (Maxwell, 2005). In addition, if I was conducting quantitative research on
the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs as objectivist using a
quantitative research approach, I would believe that social phenomena and the
categories that we use in everyday discussions have an existence that is independent
or separate from actors (Bahari, 2010). Bahari (2010) states “in brief it can be said that
objectivist view about the social world is as concrete and reas as the natural world”
(p.25). Therefore, objectivist believe that, reality is to be found in the concrete behavior
and stresses the importance of researching the nature of relationship among the
elements in their constituents (Bahari, 2010).
Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative and Qualitative Research
Research suggest that one of the strengths of qualitative research is that it
produces numbers as data and this production demonstrates an order system (Carr,
1994). In contrast, Cormack (1991) contends that the invalidity of numerical findings
does not display the significance of the phenomena being studied and are often times
neglected. In addition, Cormack (1991) presumes that another weakness of
quantitative research is its focus on a minority of respondents leaving the majority
unexplained. This weakness of quantitative inquiry distorts the evaluation of data. In
dissimilarity, the soft data collected in qualitative inquiry identity and account for any
deviant cases (Cormack, 1991).
Furthermore, research suggest that one of the main strengths of quantitative
research is that it can control or eliminate extraneous variables within the internal
COMP QUESTION 3 11
structure of the investigation (Carr, 1994). In difference, the reliability of qualitative
research is weakened by the fact the process is understanderdized and relies on
insights and the abilities of the observer, and makes the making an assessment of
reliability difficult (Duffy, 1985). Moreover, research suggest that another weakness of
qualitative research concerns the likelihood that some researchers can become
overwhelmed by the data being collected. In fact, research suggest that qualitative
researchers become confused by their inability to limit the scope of the study,
concentrating on a few manageable areas.
Quantitative research is known for its weaknesses in validity. For example,
researchers indicate that in quantitative research designs the more tightly controlled the
investigation the more difficult it is to confirm that the research situation is like real life
(Carr, 1994). Carr (1994) states:
the very components of scientific research that demand control of variables can
therefore be argued as operating against external validity and subsequent
generalizability that maintain that the more similar the research experiment is to
the natural setting the greater is the validity and thus generalizability of the
findings (p.719)
In contrast, Carr (1994) presumes that the main strength of qualitative research is in the
claim that there are fewer threats to external validity. There are fewer threats to
external validity because participants are studied in their ordinary settings and
encounter fewer controlling factors compared with quantitative research conditions.
In addition, the literature regarding qualitative methods revealed that one of the
most significant strength is that researchers become so immersed in the context and
COMP QUESTION 3 12
individual states of the research participants that they are able to give the assurance
that the data are representative of the phenomena and participants being studied (Carr,
1994). Paradoxically, I discovered in the research that one of the weaknesses of
qualitative research that researchers can become so close with the participants or the
phenomena that they threaten the validity of the study if they become unable to uphold
the distance required to define or interpret experiences in a meaningful way.
Yauch and Steudel (2003) illuminate in the literature regarding the strengths of
qualitative research is that it has the ability to probe for underlying values, beliefs, and
assumptions. In addition, Yauch and Steudel (2003) contend that another strength of
qualitative research is that it is broad and open – ended inquiry and participants can
raise issues that matter most to them. In contrast, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) contend
that one of the most significant weaknesses is the process is time consuming. In
addition, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) presume that another weakness of qualitative
research is that an important issue could be overlooked and observations and results
depend on interpretations of a positioned participant. Also, Yacuh and Steudel (2003)
contend that another weakness of qualitative research is that within this method
participants have more control over the process than they do within the quantitative
methods paradigm.
In contrast, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) assert that the most significant strength of
quantitative research is that it has the ability of rapid data collection and analysis.
According Yauch and Steudel (2003) contend that this ability to rapidly collect data and
conduct analyses allows researchers to facilitate comparisons easier. In addition,
Yacuh and Steudel (2003) indicate that quantitative research can be administered and
COMP QUESTION 3 13
evaluated quickly. In contrast, Yauch and Steudel (2003) indicate that the most
significant weakness of quantitative research is the fact that respondents may not be
able to read and understand the questions provided in surveys. In addition, their article
regarding complimentary uses of qualitative and quantitative cultural assessment
methods reveals that another weakness of quantitative research is that the
interpretation process cannot be discussed and it is left to the respondent’s discretion.
Moreover, Yacuh and Steudel (2003) asserts that one of the most well-known
weaknesses of quantitative research is that important issues could be overlooked and it
focuses only on preconceived issues and concepts. In addition, Yacuh and Steudel
(2003) indicate that quantitative weaknesses are engrained in the fact that assumptions
must be made about the appropriate group or groups to sample, depending on the view
of the culture. Furthermore, I discovered in the literature that the debate concerning
quantitative and qualitative research methods calls for an alternative research strategy
known as mixed-methods. Bahari (2010) states “mixed methods research strategies
refer to combining qualitative and quantitative methods” (p.27). In addition, Bahari
(2010) contend that “the goal of mixed method is not to take the place of the former
approach but attempts to maximize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses of
qualitative and quantitative research strategies” (p.27).
A Quantitative Approach as a Paradigm to Investigate the Lived Experiences of
African- American – Students at PWIs
Statement of the research problem. I am conducting a qualitative investigation
regarding the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs. However, if I
was going to conduct my research regarding the lived experiences of African –
COMP QUESTION 3 14
American students at PWIs, I would use a non- experimental research design.
Specifically, I would conduct a causal – comparison study (Gall, Gall, & Borg, 2007).
First, I would speculate about the causes or effects of the lived experiences of African –
American students at PWIs. My speculations would be based on previous research
findings and theory. In addition, my speculations would be based on my own
observations of the lived experiences of African – American students at PWIs. After I
have identified possible causes and effects of the phenomenon, I would incorporate
them into the statement of the research problem. In this quantitative research
paradigm, I would state the research problem in the form of a hypothesis.
Selecting Comparison Groups. In addition, I would attempt to state and test
alternative hypothesis about other factors that might explain observed differences
between two groups. In addition, I Furthermore, if I was conducting a causal –
comparative study, I would define the groups that possesses the characteristics, I wish
to study. In my case, the groups being defined would be African-American students at
two different PWIs in the metropolitan area of Baltimore, Maryland. The results of
selecting comparison groups would provide me with a sample of African – American
students at two different PWIs.
Data Collection. If I was conducting a causal – comparative study, I would use
standardized test, questionnaires, interviews or I would use naturalistic observations. In
this case, I would use an interview schedule that measures African – American
student’s experiences with racism, hidden curriculum, and discrimination at the two
different particular PWIs chosen. Next, I would code the responses into categories
derived from previous discrimination research on PWI campuses. In addition, I would
COMP QUESTION 3 15
discover a percentage agreement on their coding. This would allow me to give one
point for each discriminatory acknowledgement and strategy they mentioned.
Data Analysis. My first step in the analysis of causal-comparative data would be
to conduct an exploratory data analysis and compute descriptive statistics for each
comparison group in the study. The statistics revealed would include the group mean
and standard deviation. In my study of discrimination at PWIs, if the mean and standard
deviation for the number of times my participants experienced would be computed.
Next, I would test the statistical significance. My choice of a significance test would be
a ț test. I would use the conventional alpha level of .05 to assist me with finding the
number of t test that were statistically significant. Moreover, I would compare the mean
scores of two samples to determine whether they are significantly different from each
other. A t test for a single mean test whether a sample mean differs significantly from a
specified population mean.
Interpretation of findings. In regards to interpreting my findings, I would do
subsequent experiments in which the presumed cause or causes of the outcomes being
studied would be manipulated. For example, I would design an experiment in which
one group of African- American students would be considered the treatment group and
the other group would be considered the control group. Specifically, the treatment
group might be trained in strategies to overcome discrimination and unfair treatment
and the control group would not receive any training. If the two different groups have a
causal influence on coping with feelings of alienation and hostile racial climates, I would
expect that the treatment group would outperform the control group in regards to coping
with feelings of alienation and hostile racial climates.
COMP QUESTION 3 16
A Qualitative Phenomenological Approach for Conducting Research on the Lived
Experiences of African – American Students at PWIs.
Phenomenology. Creswell (2013) states “a phenomenological study describes
the common meaning for several individuals of their lived experiences of a concept or a
phenomenon” (p.76). In addition, Creswell (2013) asserts that phenomenologist focus
on describing what all participants have in common as they experience a phenomenon.
Therefore, I selected phenomenology as a qualitative approach to assist me with
describing what African – American students at PWIs have in common in regards to
their experiences with racism, discrimination and hostile racial climates. Also, I chose
phenomenology to assist me with discovering the common experiences African-
American students at PWIs have with hidden curriculum and colorblindness.
Moreover, phenomenology will assist me with reducing individualized
experiences with racism to a description of the universal essence. This description will
allow me to grasp the very nature of the thing (Van Manen, 1990). As a
phenomenologist, I believe the reality of an object is only perceived within the meaning
of the experience of an individual (Moustakas, 1994).
Procedures. My first step in this phenomenological study is determining if
phenomenology is best suited for this form of research. I contend that phenomenology
is best suited for my investigation of African – American students at PWIs because this
method is one in which it is important to understand several individuals’ common or
shared experiences of a phenomenon. Furthermore, I would identify and specify the
broad philosophical assumptions of phenomenology. I would write about the
combination of objective reality and individual experiences (Creswell, 2013). In order to
COMP QUESTION 3 17
fully describe how participants view the phenomenon, I would bracket out as much as
possible in regards to my own experiences.
Data Collection. I will collect data from the African – American students at PWIs
who have experienced racism, feelings of alienation and hostile racial climates through
multiple in –depth interviews (Creswell, 2013). Specifically, I would interview 5 to 25
African-American students who have all experienced hostile racial climates,
discrimination, and feelings of alienation. (Polkinghorne, 1999). In addition, I would
collect data through observations, and journals. In regards to the interviews, I would
ask two broad questions. For example, what have you experienced in terms of racism?
Furthermore, my interview questions would also consist of other open ended questions
(Creswell, 2011).
Data Analysis. In regards to my investigation concerning the lived experiences
of African – American students at PWIs, I would go through the data and highlight
significant statements, sentences and quotes provide from the results of interviews to
discover an understanding of how the participants experienced the phenomenon.
According to Moustakas (1994) step is considered horizontilization. After this process
known as horizontilization, I would develop clusters of means from the significant
statements and construct them into themes. Moreover, I would use these significant
statements and themes to write a description of what the participants experienced. The
significant statements will also be used to write an account of the context or setting that
influenced how the participants experiment the phenomenon. According to Creswell
(2013) this process is called imaginative variation or structural description.
Validity
COMP QUESTION 3 18
Validity in phenomenological research is embodied in the plausibility of the relationship
between data and concepts (Hancock, 2002). Therefore, my interpretations of the data
must be compelling and convincing. Neuman (2006) argues that a phenomenological
approach to validity focuses on plausibility and the accumulation and
interconnectedness of evidence. Neuman (2006) states “plausible means that the data
and statements about it are not exclusive; they are not the only possible claims nor are
they exact accounts of the one truth in the world” (p.126). Validity in phenomenological
research grows as I recognize a dense connectivity in disparate details. Furthermore,
as a researcher conducting a qualitative phenomenological investigation, I am
responsible for ensuring my interpretations of the data and the interpretive process is
transparent. I will use other forms of strategies to show validity in my study. These
forms include: peer critiques, structure resonance, participant verification and
triangulation.
Peer critiques. As a qualitative research, I have the opportunity to use a peer
group to critique the stages of the research, to check the descriptive validity but more
importantly to comment on the transparency of the interpretation of data and theory
building. This critiques the stages of the actual research. In addition, if I use the
method of peer critiquing to show validity, I will have my peers act as a jury that have to
be convinced by coherent arguments (Polkinghome, 1983). However, the jury must be
able to follow the process that have led to the conclusions and to accept them as valid.
Researcher does indicate that it is not easy to arrange such a critique.
Structure Resonance. As a phenomenologist, I have the option of getting other
people who have not participated in the study, but who have experienced the same
COMP QUESTION 3 19
phenomenon to comment on my findings. As the researcher, I have the opportunity to
attempt to discover if the findings reverberate with another similar group to the subjects.
Seeking alike groups may also lead to rather traditional interpretations.
Participant Verification. Another strategy that I have to show validity is to seek
if participants in the research would offer a perspective on veracity and credibility of my
interpretations. This procedure is referred to as member checking (Creswell, 2013).
However, research suggest that that this but one perspective and subjects
interpretations should not necessarily be privileged over anyone else’s. In addition,
research suggest that it is unlikely that all participants are going to agree on the extent
to which the research outcomes fit my view of reality.
Triangulation. Triangulation is a well know validation strategy in
phenomenological research. If I use triangulation as a validation strategy, I will make
use of multiple and different sources, methods, investigators, and theories to provide
verifying evidence (Creswell, 2013). Furthermore, I will use a variety of methods to
collect data and differentiate researcher’s perspectives. In addition, triangulation will
allow me to form different conceptual frames for different perspectives. Research
suggest that trustworthiness of phenomenological research is enhanced when several
people conduct the interviews as this supposedly results in a broader and more richly
nuanced picture of themes.
Trustworthiness. As a qualitative researcher conducting a phenomenological
study, I am required to demonstrate that my study can be trusted. Golafshani (2003)
states “for example, proposes that validity is more appropriately described in terms of
rigor, quality and trustworthiness” (p.602). In fact, as a potential phenomenologist, I
COMP QUESTION 3 20
Will be responsible for showing that my work is well grounded and to make clear the
premises that are being used Golafshani (2003). Furthermore, in regards to
trustworthiness, I will utilize elements of descriptive validity. As a phenomenologist, I
would recognize that research into the personal lives and experiences of people will
result in contradictory accounts because there is not a single objective reality. I would
understand that there is nothing wrong with two different accounts that give different
weights to the same events.
Reliability
As a phenomenologist, I will address reliability by obtaining detailed field notes
by employing a good-quality tape for recording and by transcribing the tape (Creswell,
2013). In addition, I will ensure the tape will be transcribed to indicate the trivial, but
often crucial, pauses and overlaps. Furthermore, I will use multiple coders to analyze
transcript data (Creswell, 2013). To ensure the reliability in my study is sufficient, I will
determine what exactly the coding are agreeing on, whether they seek agreement on
code names, the coded passages or the same passages coded the same way. In
addition, I will decide on whether to seek agreement based on codes, themes, or both
codes and themes (Creswell, 2013). To further assist me with coding, I will develop a
codebook of codes that would be stable and represent the coding analysis.
I will use NVivo as a software program to help in this coding (Creswell, 2013). As
a phenomenologist, I will read through several transcripts independently and code each
manuscript (Creswell, 2013). After I code approximately three to four transcripts, I will
examine the codes, their names, and the text segments that I coded. Therefore, a
COMP QUESTION 3 21
preliminary qualitative codebook would be developed. I would focus more on the major
codes I discovered in the database than in my exhaustive list.
Next, I would actually compare my codes. After coding, I would ask myself
whether I assigned the same code word to the passage based on my tentative
definitions in the codebook that we developed. I will seek to establish 80% agreement
of coding on the passages (Creswell, 2013). After, I collapsed codes into broader
themes, I would conduct the same process with themes, to see if the passages we all
coded as themes were consistent in the use of the same theme (Creswell, 2013). After
this process is continued through several more transcripts, I would revise the codebook
and conduct a new assessment of passages that I codded and determined if I used the
same or different codes.
COMP QUESTION 3 22
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COMP QUESTION 3 23
Shank, G. D. (2002). Qualitative Research: A Personal Skills Approach. Upper Saddle River: Merrill Prentice Hall .
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Publication. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
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COMP QUESTION 3 24
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