computer architecture for a programmer
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Instruction sets,
Operation codes Operand types
peran a ress ng mo es
Registers
Main memory space utilization (Memory map)
I/O space allocation (I/O map)
Interrupt assignment and priority
I/O techniques used for various devices
I/O controller command formats
con ro er s a us orma
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Computer architecture for a
programmer
CPU
Screen Buffer
Interruptcontroller
reg s ers
ROMFDC
HDCemory map map
Interrupt levels Command
& definitionDMA channels
formats
Status
Device controller
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The operational units and their interconnectionsthat realize the architectural s ecifications. Those
hardware attributes that are transparent to theprogrammer.
Control signals
Interfaces between the computer and peripherals
Memor technolo
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Difference
For example, It is an architectural issue whether a computer will have a
.
It is organizational issue whether to implement
multiplication and division by special unit or by amec an sm a ma es repea e use o e a an su racunit to perform multiplication and division, respectively.
The organizational issue may be based on which approach
to be used depending on the speed of operation, cost & sizeof the hardware & the memory required to perform theoperation.
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Structure and Function
contain millions of electronic components. How, then, can oneclearly describe a computer? The key is to recognize thehierarchical nature of most complex systems. A hierarchicalsystem is a set of interrelated subsystems where each subsystemis a hierarchical structure.
,their interrelationships. At each level, a designer is concerned withstructure and function:
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Structure
computer are:
operation of the computer and performs its dataprocessing functions.
Main memory stores data.
Input/Output (I/O) moves data between the computerand its external environment.
S stem interconnections some mechanism thatprovides for communication among CPU, main memory,
and I/O.
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Function
The four basic functions of a computer are:
Processin data
Storing data
outside world
ontro t e operat ons a ove
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Why Study Computer Organization and Architecture?
Students need to understand:Computer architecture in order to structure a programso that it runs more efficiently on a real machine.
In selecting a system to use, they should be able tounderstand the tradeoff among various components,such as CPU clock speed vs. memory size.
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Com uter Evolution andPerformance
The evolution of computers has been characterized by
1>increasing processor speed, decreasing componentsize,
2>increasing memory size, and increasing I/O capacity and
s eed.
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Evolution of Computer
Mode of CPU architecture
Control unit design-instruction decoding
Main memory concepts Instruction cycle handling
System software
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Parallel processing
Multiprocessing
n C, 1 p n C, n pUniprogramming
1 C, 1 pMultitasking Computer network
1 C, n p
computer
e ca e processing
1 C, 1 u, n
en
, ,
Time sharing
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Accumulator
based
Stack based
Re isters based
CISC
RISC
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-decoding
Micro programmed CU
Random
logicFirmware
Hardwired CU RISC
Both
Hybrid CU
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Evolution of main memory concepts
InterleavingSpeed
Simple
Capacity
switching
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Evolution of instruction cycle handling
Instruction Instruction lookahead
prefetch + pre etc
Instruction
pipelineBranch
prediction
Superscalar
cacheac e
memory
present
Out of order
executionSpeculative
execution
Register renaming
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Evolution of I/O techni ues
Polling Interrupt mode
Data channels
Mini & micro
DMA
Front end
processor
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Machine language
Assembly
language
Operating
system
DBMSExpertEmbedded
System
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A Brief History of Computers
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator AndCom uter
Designed by John Mauchly and John PresperEckert
University of Pennsylvania 1943 to 1946
Generally regarded as the first electronic computer
normouso 30 tons
o 1500 square feet of floor space
o 18,000 tubes
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Enormous!!!
o 30 tons
o 1500 square feet of floor space
o 18,000 tubes
5000 additions per second
ec ma num er sys em
20 accumulators 10 digits
Programmed manually with switchesand cables
Disassemble in 1955
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The von Neumann Machine
The task of entering and altering programs forthe ENIAC was extremely tedious. Theprogramm ng process cou e ac tate t e
program could be represented in a form suitablefor storin in memor alon side the data. Then,a computer could get its instructions by readingthem from memory, and a program could be set
memory.
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eve ope y o n vonNeumann
Advanced Studies 1945 to1952
Prototype of all subsequent
general-purpose computers. IAS computer
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o Stored-Program concept
o
data and instructions
(ALU) capable of operating onbinary data
o Control unit, which interprets
and executes the instructions in
o Input and output (I/O)
control unit
Shown below is the eneralstructure of the IAS computer:
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Transistors replaced vacuum tubes
o Smaller
o Cheaper
o Less heat
o Same functionality
o Solid-state device made from silicon(sand)
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Fully transistorized computers commercially availablelate 1950s
NCR and RCA first to produce small transistormachines
IBM 7000
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High-level programming languages
rov s on o sys em so ware w compu ers
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Third Generation: Integrated Circuits
Single, self-contained transistor discretecomponent
Manufacturing process was very expensive andcumbersome using discrete
components
Early second generation computers contained, rans s ors expan ng o
hundreds of thousands with newer machines
1958 Integrated circuit invented
IBM System/360
DEC PDP-8
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Microelectronics
Computer consists of logic gates,
Manufactured on a semiconductor such
Many transistors can be produced on asin le wafer of silicon
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Pentium and PowerPC Evolution
Pentium Evolution
8080
o
First general purpose microprocessoro 8 bit data ath
o Used in first personal computer Altair
o Much more powerful
o 16 to Instruction cache prefetch few instructions
o 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC
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80286
o 16 Mbyte memory up form1 yte
80386
o 32 bit
o Support for multitasking
80486
and instruction pipelining
o Built in math co- rocessor
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Pentium
o ntro uce supersca ar tec n ques
o Multiple instructions executed in parallel
Pentium Pro
o Increased superscalar organization
o Aggressive register renaming
o Data flow analysis
o
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Pentium II
o MMX technology video,audio, graphics processing
Pentium III
o Additional floating pointinstructions for graphics
Pentium 4o Arabic not Roman numerals
o Additional floating point and
multimedia enhancements
Itanium
o 64 bit
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(Von Newman)
1> The computer has five different types of units:- memory,ALU, control unit, I/O unit
3> Once a program is in memory, the computer can execute it
automatically without manual intervention.4> The CU fetches & executes the instructions in sequence
one by one. This sequential execution can be modified bycertain type of instructions.
5>An instruction can modify the contents of any location inmemory. Hence a program can modify itself; instruction-execution se uence also can be modified.
A i t 1
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Assignment 1
> scuss e a van ages sa van ages ostoring programs and data in the same
memory s ore program concep . n er
what circumstances is it desirable to store
programs an a a n separa e memor es
2> Define the terms software compatibility &hardware compatibility. What role they
have played in the evolution of computers?
Date of Submission:- 24/07/2006 Date of Return:- 25/07/2006Reference Books:- 1> CAO- B Govindarajalu
2> CAO- John P Hayes
3> COA- W. Stallings
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