construction of theory collection of data · 2/1/2016 · construction of theory collection of...
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Construction of theory
Collection of data
Design of methods for gathering the data
Social Research
Empirical reality is treated as the privileged source of our theoretical
understanding of the social world –Empiricism
Vs.
Theories are treated as the privileged source of our understanding of
empirical reality - idealism
denies that one can read off theories from observations of the social world
Gilbert (2001) Researching Social Life
3
Bahamas 2.2
Greece 3.1
Italy 5.5
Spain 5.7
UK 6.3
United States 10.2
Sweden 14.4
France 15.9
USSR 17.4
Austria 18.9
Denmark 20.1
Finland 23.7
Hungary 32.0
Sri Lanka 35.8
Suicide
Rates in
Selected
Countries
4
One of the most important words in a scientist’s vocabulary
Science – from French and Latin first appeared in English in 14th
century – meaning knowledge
Now associated with specific body of knowledge or skill or a
branch of learning and in particular with theoretical and methodical
study of nature
Science is typically conceptualized as ‘an empirical enterprise in
which data are obtained and analysed in order to establish facts
about the world and to test explanations’ (Thomas, 2006)
From a positivist perspective reference to data is the “ultimate
court in which factual disagreements and theoretical disputes can
be resolved.”
An understanding of data is crucial for the researcher because of
its central role in the research process
5
Data are assumed to be given
› Researcher’s task is to collect these data and then analyse
them in various ways
› Language suggests data are simply out there waiting to be
picked up
› Researcher merely gathers them, taking care not to damage
them in the process
› E.g. survey interviewers must not ask leading questions &
observers are careful not to influence the behaviour and events
they are observing
› Idea of a theory neutral language and the separation of the
knower and the known
The Cartesian Dualism: Separation of the Subject and Object
(Thomas, A.B. (2006) Research Concepts for Management Studies. Routledge
6
Language of data construction has different connotations:
› Data are never simply there of given but are always actively
constructed as data (Thomas, 2006)
› E.g. Organizational Structures do not exist other than through
their ongoing enactment by members of the organization –
perhaps following a design created by an organizational
theorist.
› E.g. accounting numbers and other official statistics do not
occur naturally but are created by agents in particular
circumstances for particular purposes.
› Researchers do not simply report what is there but play an
active role in generating descriptions of the world and plausible
research according to conventions of scientific discourse.
7
Word data is derived from the Latin verb dare – to give and its past participle datum. A ‘piece of information’, literally ‘something given’.
Origin: Mid 17th century: Originally recorded as a term in philosophy referring to ‘things assumed to be facts or givens.
This identity with facts is retained in the modern core meaning. In the ‘standard model’ of science data are equated with observations.
Through observations there is also a link with experiment in its original meaning of experience.
Empirical data = experience data
“By implication the objects of our knowledge the things we seek to acquire knowledge of, are independent of ourselves (not imagined or supposed) and posses qualities that we may or may not be able to discover depending on the methods we use to seek knowledge of them” (Thomas, 2006:88)
Things and their properties are real and have an objective existence.
8
Fact commonly seen to refer to that which is true or real
Modern usage of the term fact or data often takes on a
strong quantitative connotation
› Data analysis until relatively recently implied statistical
manipulation of numeric information – from experiments,
surveys and observations.
› Tendency to associate data with numbers of statistics, of
measurements
Now it is common to discuss both quantitative and qualitative
data and their different forms of analysis.
9
Numerical data
advantages: it can be easy and relatively cheap to collect);
disadvantages: may not tell the whole story; may be misleading;
‘Quantitative Research’
data are usual distinguished in terms of their level of
measurement as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio data.
References usually made to processes involving data
› E.g. data analysis, data reduction, data mining, data set, etc.
Primary distinction for data itself is that between quantitative
and qualitative data.
This distinction is problematic – notion of qualitative data is
ambiguous.
10
What do the following have in common?
Applying for a passport or applying for a place on a SHU
doctoral programme
Being stopped in the street to answer a 'few questions' about
your shopping habits, product preferences or voting
intentions
A telephone caller 'wondering' whether you would participate
in a survey regarding double glazing products for your shed.
11
The approach to collect data varies
the objective is always to secure responses from an
individual with regard to certain characteristics of interest
individuals approached are
› Units of Analysis
› Observations
› Cases or Subjects
Characteristics studied are termed Variables
Responses linking individuals to the characteristics are
known as Values
Units of analysis, variables and values = 'Data'
12
Addresses three distinct issues
› Topic of Interest - as described by the variables
› Respondents - indicated by the units of analysis
› Responses - reflect the values of the variables
Variables can assume different values for different units of
analysis
› if all units of analysis have the same value it is a Constant
Diamantopoulos, A. & Schlegelmilch, B.B. (1997) Taking the Fear Out
of Data Analysis. Dryden Press
13
According to Meaning
› Facts - characteristics or situations that exist or have existed;
descriptions of individuals' behaviour
› Awareness or knowledge of some object or phenomenon
› Intentions - acts that people have in mind to do
› Attitudes and Opinions - views, preferences, inclinations or
feelings of people towards some object or phenomenon
› Motives of individuals - internal forces that channel behaviour in
a particular way
Diamantopoulos & Schlegelmilch (1997)
14 14
Types of Secondary Data
Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill, 2006
15
According to Source
Primary data - collected with specific purpose in mind
› usually gathered by researcher via
surveys, experiments, observation methods
Secondary data –data which have not been expressly
gathered for the immediate study but for some other purpose
› Published statistics, annual report, database services, etc.
According to Time Dimension
Cross-sectional Data – single point in time
Longitudinal data –relating to a number of time periods
Trend data Diamantopoulos & Schlegelmilch (1997)
16
Which of these films have you seen?
Gone with the wind Yes No
Casablanca Yes No
Some like it hot Yes No
Dumbo Yes No
What is your highest level of
educational attainment?
GCSE
A Level
HNC/HND
Degree
PG diploma
Higher degree
NOMINAL
QUESTIONS
How often during this session
have you felt stressed?
Always
Very often
Fairly often
Sometimes
Almost never
ORDINAL QUESTIONS
17
Dumbo was an excellent film
Strongly Neither agree Strongly
agree Agree nor disagree Disagree disagree
5 4 3 2 1
David Cameron’s period as Prime Minister has been;
Excellent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Appalling
Data
Categorical Quantifiable
Descriptive Discrete Continuous Ranked
Increasing precision
Saunders et al, 2006
Interval Data
18
Less likely to be conceptualized as variables– aim is to
understand the meanings of human actions
Typically data takes the form of texts or meanings derived
from textual sources
› Field notes or Interview transcripts
› Research diaries, visual materials, etc.
Qualitative data are not represented numerically and are not
analysed using statistical analytical processes
Data are categorized and examined for patterns and themes
that can be integrated into narrative accounts
19
The action of
variable A Causes / explains Change in
variable B
Positivist theorists
Interpretivism
Experience &
interpretation Stimulus Response
OR Interpretation & meaning Action
Gill & Johnson, 2010
Methodological Monism
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stimuli external
to, but
impacting upon
the actor
Inter-subjective
interpretation of
external stimuli by
the actor
Actor's rational
selection &
construction of
particular
courses of action
Norms, beliefs, values deriving
from the various cultural
contexts which the actor has
been exposed to
VERSTEHEN
Mode 1: Mode of interpretive, or emic, analysis using verstehen
Gill & Johnson, 2010
21
Epistemology Theoretical Perspectives Methodology Methods
Objectivism
Constructivism
Subjectivism
Positivism ( &post positivism)
Interpretivism
symbolic interactionism
phenomenology
hermeneutics
Critical inquiry
Feminism
Postmodernism
etc.
Experimental research
Survey Research
Ethnography
Phenomenological research
Grounded theory
Heuristic inquiry
Action research
Discourse analysis
etc.
Sampling
Measurement & scaling
Questionnaire
Observation participant, non-participant
Interview
Focus group
Case study
Document analysis
Interpretative methods
Content analysis
etc.
source: Crotty, M. (1998) The Foundations of Social Research. Sage
22 22
Traditional role of scientific method (Bacon)
1. Observation & experiment; 2. Inductive
generalizations; 3. Hypotheses; 4. Attempted
verification of hypotheses; 5. Proof or disproof; 6.
Knowledge;
Popper’s view
1. Problem (rebuff to existing theory or expectation);
2. Proposed solution (new theory); 3. Deduction of
testable propositions from new theory;
4. Tests (attempted refutations through e.g. experiments
and observations)
5. Preference established between competing theories
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• For successful communication need agreement on meaning of words
Words fixed no fixed meanings determinism pragmatism postmodernism
• Determinism & Language
• Meaning is fixed absolutely – meaning of word determined by the object it represents: there is an intimate connection between words and things
• Establish what a word means by ostensive definition • Point to an instance of the object that the word stands for • Meaning of a word corresponds to whatever it is in the world
it represents
Alan Thomas (2006) Research Concepts For Management Studies. Routledge
24
• Postmodernism & Language • Meanings are fluid & unfixed with no possibility of
anchoring hem • Determinism is connected to modernism • Modernism concerned with boundedness, framing, certainty &
knowing what a term really means • Postmodernsim / poststructuralism reject quest fro absolute
certainty and ‘truth’ • Language has no fixed meaning – can be autonomous
phenomenon with no connection to externality, no representational function
• Language is not at disposition of an autonomous self that uses it to express truths
• Fixing meanings beyond question is impossible – words are like bubbles floating free of world & cannot be captured
Alan Thomas (2006) Research Concepts For Management Studies. Routledge
25
• Pragmatism & Language • Meanings can be stabilized for all practical purposes even
though there is no absolute basis for whatever meanings
are current
• Meanings cannot be absolutely fixed nor understood as completely fluid
• Pragmatists focus on way language is used for everday purposes of living
• Words have no transcendent meaning, however, meanings are fixed for the
‘time-being’
• Term’s meaning can be understood by situating it within the contexts of its use
• Words are meaningful by reference to the contexts of their use (e.g. goal)
• “ostensive definition does not connect a word to a unique referent” – cat has
many meanings” can’t expect terms to have absolute meaning. But words do
convey meaning & in order to understand them must locate tehm in their
contexts (p.17)
Alan Thomas (2006) Research Concepts For Management Studies. Routledge
26
The concept of data - ambiguous and elusive
uncertainty (especially in social sciences) as to where data (is) are located 'ontologically'
Difficult philosophical questions- considerations of the 'real' and our relation to it
So, 'What are data?'
Conventional usage - distinguish between the world (the source of data) and textual records of features of the world (the data)
Much qualitative 'research' involves 'ambiguity' when text (an aspect of that world) is used itself as a source of data.
Texts are represented and described by other texts - relativism?
Positivism world is assumed to be directly accessible to the senses - empiricism -facts speak for themselves
problem arises when we encounter non-observables
Social constructionism -data are never 'innocent' of presuppositions - they are constructed both by the researcher and those whom the researcher studies.
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