d/ v v - cascadilla press · this file contains all of tables, figures, and diagrams from the...

This file contains all of tables, figures, and diagrams fromThe Sounds of Spanish: Analysis and Application, by RobertM. Hammond, published by Cascadilla Press.

All pages are cropped down to a small page size, so if youprint from Acrobat using “fit to page” it will enlarge theprintout. This will make transparencies clearer.

TTTThhhheeee SSSSoooouuuunnnnddddssss ooooffff SSSSppppaaaannnniiiisssshhhh:::: AAAAnnnnaaaallllyyyyssssiiiissss aaaannnndddd AAAApppppppplllliiiiccccaaaattttiiiioooonnnn,,,, bbbbyyyy RRRRoooobbbbeeeerrrrtttt MMMM.... HHHHaaaammmmmmmmoooonnnndddd,,,, ppppaaaaggggeeee 6666

© 2001 Cascadilla Press. This page may be printed or reproduced for classroom use.Requests for any commercial use must be directed to Cascadilla Press, P.O. Box 440355,Somerville, MA 02144, USA. Web site: http://www.cascadilla.com.

Figure 1.1. Basic organization of the rule-based generative phonology model

Phonological Representation

⇑⇓

Rule System

⇑⇓

Phonetic Representation

Figure 1.2. An example of an SPE-based generative phonological rule

/d/ → [#] / V___V

Table 2.1. Spelling/pronunciation non-correspondences in American Spanish

Words Problematic letters

astahasta

“h”

susurrozarzuelacerrarcicatriz

“s”, “z”, “c”

jeringarjinetegentegimnasio

“j”, “g”

bacavacatubotuvo

“b”, “v”

Table 2.2. Boundary symbols used in this book

Boundary symbol Type of transcription Example

/.../[...]

PhonemicPhonetic

casacasa

/kasa/[kása]

Boundary symbol Type of boundary Example

CV.CV#...###...##

SyllableWordPhrase (breath group)

casala casaEstá en la casa.

ca.sa#la#ca.sa###es.tá#en#la#ca.sa##

Table 2.3. Silent letters of Spanish orthography

Example Silentletter

Lettertranscription

Wordtranscription

1. hasta2. ahogar

“h”“h”

[Ø] (none)[Ø]

[ás.ta][a.o.ƒár]

3. guerra4. guitarra

“u”“u”

[Ø][Ø]

[gé.0a][gi.tá.0a]

5. quedar6. quitar

“u”“u”

[Ø][Ø]

[ke.#ár][ki.tár]

Table 2.4. The Spanish letter “x” representing two sounds in Spanish

Example Letter Lettertranscription

Wordtranscription

1. examen2. extraer

“x”“x”

[ƒs][ks]

[eƒ.sá.men][eks.tra.ér]

Table 2.5. Spanish spelling/transcriptiondifferences in seseo and distinción dialects

Word Letter Phonetic transcription

distinción seseo

1. sapo2. casas

“s”“s”

[sá.po][ká.sas]

3. zarzuela4. caza5. paz

“z”“z”“z”

[Tar.Twé.ka][ká.Ta][páT]

[sar.swé.ka][ká.sa][pás]

6. centro7. cine

“c”“c”

[Té7.tro][Tí.ne]

[sé7.tro][sí.ne]

Table 2.6. Miscellaneous Spanish spelling/transcriptionproblems frequently encountered by English speakers

Example Problematicletter

Lettertranscription

Wordtranscription

1. guapo2. antiguo

“u”“u”

[w][w]

[gwá.po][a7.tí.ƒwo]

3. vergüenza4. pingüino

“ü”“ü”

[w][w]

[ber.ƒwén.sa][piN.gwí.no]

5. jeringar6. jinete7. jarabe8. jorobar9. junto

“j”“j”“j”“j”“j”

[h][h][h][h][h]

[he.riN.gár][hi.né.te][ha.rá.Be][ho.ro.Bár][hú7.to]

10. gente11. gimnasio

“g”“g”

[h][h]

[hé7.te][him.ná.syo]

12. baca13. tubo

“b”“b”

[b][B]

[bá.ka][tú.Bo]

14. vaca15. tuvo

“v”“v”

[b][B]

[bá.ka][tú.Bo]

Figure 3.1. Path of the airstream during the production of egressive speech sounds

1. Diaphragm

2. Lung

3. Bronchial tube

4. Trachea

5. Larynx

6. Pharynx

Figure 3.2. Facial cross-section illustrating the location of some of the moreimportant anatomical structures involved in the production of human speech sounds

1. Lower teeth

2. Upper teeth

3. Lower lip

4. Upper lip

5. Oral cavity

6. Velum

7. Nasal cavity

8. Naso-pharynx

9. Pharyngeal cavity

10. Laryngeal cavity

Figure 4.1. The five vowel phonemes of Spanish with key wordsshown according to their relative articulation position in the oral cavity

/i/ si/u/ su

/e/ se/o/ so

/a/ la

Figure 4.2. The eleven vowel phonemes of American English with key wordsshown according to their relative articulation position in the oral cavity

/iy/ beat

/I/ bit/uw/ boot

/U/ book

/ey/ bait

/E/ bet/√/ but

/ow/ boat

/ç/ bought

/Q/ bat /A/ bot

Figure 4.3. The nine regions of the oral cavity

high-front high-central high-back

mid-front mid-central mid-back

low-front low-central low-back

Figure 4.4. Pairs of tense and lax vowel phonemes in American English

/iy/ [+tense]

/I/ [–tense]/uw/ [+tense]

/U/ [–tense]

/ey/ [+tense]

/E/ [–tense]/ow/ [+tense]

/ç/ [–tense]

Table 4.1. Some additional vowel contrasts found in standard European French

Oral versusnasalized vowels

/E/ Mid front lax oral vowelversus

/E/ Mid front lax nasalized vowel

fait [fF] ‘fact’ versus fin [fÔ] ‘end’

Rounded versusnon-rounded oral

vowels

/i/ High front tense non-rounded oral vowelversus

/ü/ High front tense rounded oral vowelversus

/u/ High back tense rounded oral vowel

si [sí] ‘if’ versus su [sÍ] ‘known’ versus sous [sú] ‘under’

Rounded versusnon-rounded

nasalized vowels

/E/ Mid front non-rounded lax nasalized vowelversus

/œ/ Mid front rounded lax nasalized vowel

brin [brÔ] ‘blade’ versus brun [br–] ‘brown’

Figure 5.1. The structure of the Spanish syllable

(Onset) Nucleus (Coda)pgq

Table 5.1. Spanish syllable structures

Syllable type Example Transcription

1. V #a.mar# [a.már]

2. CV #me.sas# [mé.sas]

3. CCV #pla.cer# [pka.sér]

4. CCCVC #clien.te# [k¥yé7.te]

5. VC #al.go# [ák.ƒo]

6. VCC #abs.tracto [abs.trák.to]

7. CVC #co.mer# [ko.mér]

8. CCVC #pues# [pwés]

9. CCVCC #claus.tro# [kkáws.tro]

Table 5.2. The six active articulators and their descriptors

Active articulator Descriptors

Lower lip Bilabials Labio-dentals

Tongue blade Apical Laminal Frontal

Tongue body Dorsal Pre-dorsalPost-dorsal

Velum Nasal Uvular

Tongue root Pharyngeal

Vocal folds Laryngeal(or glottal)

Table 5.3. Places of articulation, descriptors, and principal active articulators

Place of articulation Descriptors Activearticulator

Spanish example

Upper lipUpper front teeth

BilabialLabio-dental

Lower lip bocafijar

Between upper & lower front teethBehind upper front teethAlveolar ridgeAlveolar ridge/ pre-palatal areaAnterior portion of hard palateCentral or posterior area of hard palate

Interdental

DentalAlveolarRetroflex

Palato-alveolar

Palatal

Tongue blade cita (whenpronounced [Tí.ta])díarabosed

Anterior area of soft palatePosterior area of soft palate

VelarPost-velar

Tongue body gatojarro (whenpronounced [Xá.ro])

Secondary occlusion in oral cavityUvula

Uvular

Velum mata

jarro (whenpronounced [{á.ro])

Posterior wall of pharynx Pharyngeal Tongue root (none)

Glottis Glottal Vocal folds jarro (whenpronounced [há.ro])

Table 5.4. Stricture types with the cavities where strictures occurand the active articulator associated with each group

Class ofsounds

Stricturetype

Cavity Primaryarticulator

Spanishexamples

1. GlidesMinimal

Laryngeal Vocal folds (none)

obstructionPharyngeal Tongue root (none)

of airflow OralTongue blade [y]

Tongue body [w]

2a. Lateral liquids

Lateral release Oral Tongue blade [k]

2b. Non-lateral liquids

Many Oral Tongue blade [r], [0]

3. Nasals Secondary articulatorin oral cavity

Nasal Velum [m], [n]

Radical closeLaryngeal Vocal folds [h]

approximation Pharyngeal Tongue root (none)

4. Fricatives between articulator

Tongue blade [s]and place of Tongue body [x]articulation

Lower lip [f]

5. AffricatesOcclusive onset

OralTongue blade [c]

followed by fricativerelease Lower lip (none)

Laryngeal Vocal folds (none)Total occlusion by Pharyngeal Tongue root (none)

6. Stopsarticulator in direct

Tongue blade [t], [d]contact with place of

Oral Tongue body [k], [g]articulationLower lip [p], [b]

Table 5.5. Spanish stop phonemes which exploit a voicing contrast

Stopphoneme

Voicing Primaryarticulator

Place ofarticulation

/p//b/

VoicelessVoiced

Lower lipLower lip

Upper lipUpper lip

/t//d/

VoicelessVoiced

Tongue bladeTongue blade

Upper teethUpper teeth

/k//g/

VoicelessVoiced

Tongue bodyTongue body

VelumVelum

Figure 6.1. Relative airstream obstruction and the five families of sounds

Maximum obstruction

Medium obstruction

Minimum obstruction

OBSTRUENTS↑

NASALS

LIQUIDS

GLIDES↓

VOWELS

Figure 6.2. Subdivision of three principal categories of obstruentsaccording to the parameter of airstream obstruction

Greater obstruction↑

Medium obstruction↓

Lesser obstruction

STOPS↑

AFFRICATES↓

FRICATIVES

Figure 6.3. The five vowel phonemes of Spanish

/i//u/

/e//o/

Table 7.1. Different pronunciations of the American English phoneme /t/

Word Phoneticrealization of /t/

Phonetic descriptionof /t/

stem [t] Plain, unaspirated

ten [th] Aspirated

strip [;] Retroflexed

atom [R] Flapped (tapped)

panty [≤] Nasal flap

hit [t/] Glottalized

button [/] Glottal stop

tents [Ø] Zero (deleted)

Figure 7.1. Aspiration rule for the American English phoneme /t/

/t/ → [th] / $ ___1 2 3 4 5 6

Figure 7.2. A phonological model and its three major components

PHONEMES → (PHONOLOGICAL RULES) → (ALLOPHONES)

Table 7.2. English examples illustrating notion of distinctiveness

Original word Interchanged sounds New word

pit /pIt/ /p/ and /b/ bit /bIt/tip /tIp/ /t/ and /d/ dip /dIp/

back /bQk/ /k/ and /g/ bag /bQg/

cheap /ciyp/ /c/ and /j/ jeep /jiyp/

sun /s√n/ /n/ and /m/ sum /s√m/

rot /®At/ /®/ and /l/ lot /lAt/

peat /piyt/ /iy/ and /I/ pit /pIt/boot /buwt/ /uw/ and /ow/ boat /bowt/

Figure 7.3. Classical Latin vowel phonemes

/ƒ//…/

/¬//«/

Table 7.3. Vowel length in American English

Word Phonemicrepresentation

Phoneticrealization

Environment

1. cap2. cab

/kQp//kQb/

[khGp][khG:b]

Before /p/Before /b/

3. cat4. cad

/kQt//kQd/

[khGt][khG:d]

Before /t/Before /d/

5. back6. bag

/bQk//bQg/

[bGk][bG:g]

Before /k/Before /g/

7. batch8. badge

/bQc//bQj/

[bGc][bG:j]

Before /c/Before /j/

9. bus10. buzz

/b√s//b√z/

[bHs][bH:z]

Before /s/Before /z/

11. safe12. save

/seyf//seyv/

[séyf][séy:v]

Before /f/Before /v/

Figure 7.4. Oral vowel phonemes of Brazilian Portuguese

/i/ /u/

/E/ /o/

/i//u/

/e//o/

Table 7.4. Minimal pairs showing thephonemic function of /s/ and /z / in English

Phoneticrepresentation

suezoo

/suw//zuw/

[súw][zúw]

busbuzz

/b√s//b√z/

[bHs][bH:z]

peacepeas

/piys//piyz/

[píys][píy:z]

Table 7.5. The phones [s] and [z] in some dialects of American Spanish

1. casa2. mesa3. caza

/kasa//mesa//kasa/

[ká.sa][mé.sa][ká.sa]

4. zapato /sapato/ [sa.pá.to]

5. mismo6. desde7. isla8. rasgo

/mismo//desde//isla//0asgo/

[míz.mo][déz.#e][íz.ka][0áz.ƒo]

Table 7.6. Pronunciation of representativewords in lleísta and yeísta Spanish dialects

Word lleísta dialects yeísta dialects

llave /¥abe/ /&abe/

calle /ka¥e/ /ka&e/

llegar /¥egar/ /&egar/

caballo /kaba¥o/ /kaba&o/

halla /a¥a/ /a&a/

haya /a&a/ /a&a/

callo /ka¥o/ /ka&o/

cayo /ka&o/ /ka&o/

Table 7.7. Phonemic and phonetic representationsof /k/ before palatals in all standard Spanish dialects

el llavero /ek#&abero/ [e¥.&a.Bé.ro]

el yate /ek#&ate/ [e¥.&á.te]

el ñame /ek#ñame/ [e¥.ñá.me]

al llegar /ak#&egar/ [a¥.&e.ƒár]

al llevar /ak#&ebar/ [a¥.&e.Bár]

Table 7.8. Complementary distributionof two allophones of American English /p/

spin /spIn/ [spIn]

pin /pIn/ [phIn]

pop /pAp/ [phAp]

Table 7.9. Free variation of two allophones of Spanish /n/

Phoneticrepresentations

pan /pan/ [pán] or [páN]

hablan /abkan/ [á.Bkan] or [á.BkaN]

fin /fin/ [fín] or [fíN]

/i//u/

/e//o/

Table 7.10. The consonant phonemes of Spanish

Bi-lab.

Lab-den.

Int-den.

Den. Alv. Al-pal.

Pal. Vel. Pos.vel.

Voicelessstops

/p/ /t/ /k/

Voicedstops

/b/ /d/ /g/

Voicelessaffricate

Voicelessfricatives

/f/ /T/ /s/ (/x/ /X/ /h/)

Voicedfricatives

/&/ /%/

Nasals /m/ /n/ /ñ/Liquids /k/

/r//0/

Glides /y/ /w/

Figure 7.7. The eleven vowel phonemes of American English

/I//uw/

/E//√/

/Q/ /A/

Table 7.11. The consonant phonemes of American English

Bi-lab.

Lab-den.

Int-den.

Den. Alv. Al-pal.

Pal. Vel. Pos.vel.

Voicelessstops

/p/ /t/ /k/

Voicedstops

/b/ /d/ /g/

Nasals /m/ /n/ /N/

Voicelessfricatives

/f/ /T/ /s/ /9/ /h/

Voicedfricatives

/v/ /#/ /z/ /:/

Voicelessaffricate

Voicedaffricate

Liquids /l//®/

Glides /y/ /!/

Figure 8.1. The thirteen vowel sounds found inthe speech of many speakers of American English

[ˆ]/uw/

/√//ow/

/Q/ /A/

Table 8.1. Semantic distinctions in Spanish adjectives,nouns, and verbs lost due to improper unstressed vowel reduction

Lexical item Correct pronunciation Improper pronunciation

bonitobonita

[bo.ní.to][bo.ní.ta]

*[bo.ní.t´]*[bo.ní.t´]

casocasa

[ká.so][ká.sa]

*[ká.s´]*[ká.s´]

hablohabla

[á.Bko][á.Bka]

*[á.Bk´]*[á.Bk´]

Table 8.2. Phonetic transcriptions of the correct and *incorrect(diphthongized) pronunciations of the four non-low Spanish vowels

Lexical item Correct pronunciation Improper pronunciation

si [sí] *[síy]

su [sú] *[súw]

se [sé] *[séy]

so [só] *[sów]

Figure 8.2. The six vowel sounds of Spanish shownaccording to their relative articulation position in the oral cavity

/i//u/

[E]/o/

Figure 8.3. Facial cross-section showing the articulation of the Spanish vowel /a/

Figure 8.4. Facial cross-section showing the articulation of the Spanish vowel /e/

Figure 8.5. Facial cross-section showing the articulation of the Spanish vowel [E]

Figure 8.6. Facial cross-section showing the articulation of the Spanish vowel /o/

Figure 8.7. Facial cross-section showing the articulation of the Spanish vowel /i/

Table 8.3. Examples of the letter “i”in Spanish words when always pronounced as [i]

Word Position within word Pronunciation of “i”

invitar Word-initial, before a consonant [i]n.vi.tar

colibrí Word-final, following a consonant co.li.br[í]

colibríinvitar

Word-medially, between twoconsonants

co.l[i].bríin.v[i].tar

Table 8.4. Examples of the letter “i” intautosyllabic pre-vocalic and post-vocalic environments

Word Correctpronunciation

Incorrectpronunciation

1. farmacia2. caigo3. siete4. veinte5. acción6. oigo

far.ma.[sya][káy].go[syé].te[béy7].teac[syón][óy].go

*far.ma.[si.a]*[ka.i]go*[si.e].te*[be.i7].te*ac[si.on]*[o.i].go

7. ciudad8. cuidado

[syu].dad[kwi].dado

*[si.u].dad*[ku.i]da.do

9. yo10. hierba

[&ó][&Fr].ba

*[i.o]*[i.Er].ba

Table 8.5. Examples of the letter “i” in pre-vocalic andpost-vocalic environments varying according to stress

Word Vowel and stresscombination

Correctpronunciation

1. fiara2. panadería3. farmacia3. caigo4. maíz6. bailamos

ƒ + áí + ¿ƒ + ¿á + ƒ¿ + í¿ + ƒ

[fyá].rapa.na.de.[rí.a]far.ma.[sya][káy].goma.[ís][bay].la.mos

7. siete8. esquíe9. bienestar10. seis11. leído12. aceituna

ƒ + éí + ¬ƒ + ¬é + ƒ¬ + í¬ + ƒ

[syé].tees.[kí.e][bye].nes.tar[séys][ke.í].doa.[sey].tu.na

13. rió14. río15. principio16. oigo17. oí18. oigamos

ƒ + óí + ∆ƒ + ∆ó + ƒ∆ + í∆ + ƒ

[0yó][0í.o]prin.ci.[pyo][óy].go[o.í][oy].ga.mos

19. diurna20. ciudad21. cuida22. cuidado

ƒ + úƒ + »» + í» + ƒ

[dyúr].na[syu].dad[kwí].da[kwi].da.do

Figure 8.8. Facial cross-section showing the articulation of the Spanish vowel /u/

Table 8.6. Examples of the letter “u” inSpanish words when always pronounced as [u]

Word Position within word Pronunciation of “u”

ubicar Word-initial, before a consonant [u].bi.car

tribu Word-final, following a consonant tri.b[u]

tradujepulpo

Word-medially, between twoconsonants

tra.d[ú].jep[ú]l.po

Table 8.7. Examples of the letter “u” intautosyllabic pre-vocalic and post-vocalic environments

Word Correctpronunciation

Incorrectpronunciation

1. continua2. aula3. pues4. deuda5. cuota6. bou

con.ti.[nwa][áw].la[pwés][déw].da[kwó].ta[bów]

*con.ti.[nu.a]*[a.u].la*[pu.es]*[de.u].da*[ku.o].ta*[bo.u]

7. cuidado8. ciudad

[kwi].da.do[syu].dad

*[ku.i].da.do*[si.u].dad

9. hueso10. huele

[%é].so[%é].le

*[u.e].so*[u.e].le

Table 8.8. Examples of the letter “u” in pre-vocalicand post-vocalic environments varying according to stress

1. continuara2. continúa3. continuará3. aula4. ataúd6. taurino

» + áú + ¿» + ¿á + »¿ + ú¿ + »

con.ti.[Nwá].racon.ti.[nú.a]con.ti.[Nwa].rá[áw].laa.[ta.ú#][taw]ri.no

7. duende8. continúe9. buenísimo10. deuda11. reúne12. feudal

» + éú + ¬» + ¬é + »¬ + ú¬ + »

[dwé7].dekon.ti.[nú.e][bwe].ní.si.mo[déw].da[0e.ú].ne[few].dal

13. cuota14. actúo15. continuo

» + óú + ∆» + ∆

[kwó].taac[tú.o]con.ti.[nwo]

16. cuida17. cuidado18. diurna19. ciudad

» + í» + ƒƒ + úƒ + »

[kwí].da[kwi].da.do[dyúr].na[syu].dad

Figure 9.1. Facial cross-section comparing thearticulation of the palatal glide [y] and of the vowel [i]

Table 9.1. Spanish lexemes with the pre- or post-consonantal grapheme“i” preceding and following “e”, “o”, or “a”, or preceding the vowel “u”

Word Phonetic transcription

1. siete2. veinte3. acción4. oigo5. farmacia6. caigo

[syé.te][bey7.te][ak.syón][óy.ƒo][far.má.sya][káy.ƒo]

7. ciudad [syu.#á#]

Table 9.2. Spanish lexemes with the grapheme “i”bearing a written accent or when it follows the letter “u”

1. esquíe2. leído3. río4. oí5. panadería6. maíz

[es.kí.e][ke.í.#o][0í.o][o.í][pa.na.#e.rí.a][ma.ís]

7. cuidado [kwi.#á.#o]

TTTThhhheeee SSSSoooouuuunnnnddddssss ooooffff SSSSppppaaaannnniiiisssshhhh:::: AAAAnnnnaaaallllyyyyssssiiiissss aaaannnndddd AAAApppppppplllliiiiccccaaaattttiiiioooonnnn,,,, bbbbyyyy RRRRoooobbbbeeeerrrrtttt MMMM.... HHHHaaaammmmmmmmoooonnnndddd,,,, pppppppp.... 111111111111----111111112222

Table 9.3. Lexical items where{consonant + [y] + vowel} sequences occur in Spanish

Consonantcluster

Followingvowel

Example Phonetictranscription

/p/ + /y//p/ + /y//p/ + /y//p/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

pianopiepiojopiular

[pyá.no][pyé][pyó.ho][pyu.kár]

/b/ + /y//b/ + /y//b/ + /y//b/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

viajeviejovioviuda

[byá.he][byé.ho][byó][byú.#a]

/m/ + /y//m/ + /y//m/ + /y//m/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

miasmamielmiopemiura

[myás.ma][myék][myó.pe][myú.ra]

/f/ + /y//f/ + /y//f/ + /y//f/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

fianzafiestafiofiucia

[fyán.sa][fyés.ta][fyó][fyú.sya]

/T/ + /y//T/ + /y//T/ + /y//T/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

ciáticocierrabendiciónciudad

[Tyá.ti.ko][Tyé.0a][be7.di.Tyón][Tyu.#á#]

/t/ + /y//t/ + /y//t/ + /y//t/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

tiaratienesintiótiuque

[tyá.ra][tyé.ne][si7.tyó][tyú.ke]

/d/ + /y//d/ + /y//d/ + /y//d/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

dialectodietadiodiurno

[dya.kék.to][dyé.ta.][dyó][dyúr.no]

/l/ + /y//l/ + /y//l/ + /y//l/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

liarliebrejulioliudo

[¥yár][¥yé.Bre][hú.¥yo][¥yú.#o]

/r/ + /y//r/ + /y//r/ + /y/

[a][e][o]

memoriaariesprimario

[me.mó.rya][á.ryes][pri.má.ryo]

/0/ + /y//0/ + /y//0/ + /y/

[a][e][o]

riachoriesgorio

[0yá.co][0yés.ƒo][0yó]

/n/ + /y//n/ + /y//n/ + /y/

[a][e][o]

Antonianiegodemonio

[a7.tó.ñya][ñyé.ƒo][de.mó.ñyo]

/s/ + /y//s/ + /y//s/ + /y//s/ + /y/

[a][e][o][u]

ciáticocierracocióciudad

[syá.ti.ko][syé.0a][ko.syó][syu.#á#]

/k/ + /y//k/ + /y//k/ + /y/

[a][e][o]

psiquiatraquierequiosco

[si.kyá.tra][kyé.re][kyós.ko]

/g/ + /y//g/ + /y//g/ + /y/

[a][e][o]

guiaralguienguió

[gyár][ák.ƒyen][gyó]

/x/ + /y//x/ + /y//x/ + /y/

[a][e][o]

magiasugieroescogió

[má.xya][su.xyé.ro][es.ko.xyó]

/h/ + /y//h/ + /y//h/ + /y/

[a][e][o]

magiasugieroescogió

[má.hya][su.hyé.ro][es.ko.hyó]

(Table 9.3. continued)

Table 9.4. Spanish lexical items with [C1C2GV]sequences in word-initial and syllable-initial positions

Consonantcluster

/pr/ + /y//pk/ + /y/

prietopliego

[pryé.to][p¥yé.ƒo]

/br/ + /y//bk/ + /y/

brialbiblia

[bryál][bí.B¥ya]

/fr/ + /y//fk/ + /y/

friegoCantinfliar

[fryé.ƒo][ka7.tiM.f¥yár]

/tr/ + /y/ triunfo [tryúM.fo]

/dr/ + /y/ vidrio [bí.#ryo]

/kr/ + /y//kk/ + /y/

crianzacliente

[kryán.sa][k¥yé7.te]

/gr/ + /y//gk/ + /y/

griegomangliar

[gryé.ƒo][maN.g¥yár]

Table 9.5. Representative examples of cognatevocabulary items with English [CyV] and Spanish [CV] sequences

English word{C+[y]+V}

Spanish cognate{C+V}

1. popular popular

2. distribution distribución

3. regular regular

4. pure puro

5. puberty pubertad

6. vocabulary vocabulario

7. future futuro

8. music música

9. Cuba Cuba

10. argue argüir

11. futile fútil

12. salutation salutación

13. monument monumento

14. museum museo

15. granulate granular

Figure 9.2. Facial cross-section comparing thearticulation of the labio-velar glide [w] and of the vowel [u]

Table 9.6. Spanish lexemes with the pre- and post-consonantal grapheme“u” preceding and following “e”, “o”, or “a” or preceding the vowel “i”

1. dueño2. suave3. cuota4. deuda5. autor6. bou

[dwé.ño][swá.Be][kwó.ta][déw.#a][aw.tór][bów]

7. cuidado [kwi.#á.#o]

Table 9.7. Spanish lexemes with the grapheme “u”bearing a written accent and when it follows the vowel “i”

1. continúe2. continúa3. actúo4. reúne5. ataúd

con.ti.[nú.e]con.ti.[nú.a]ac[tú.o][0e.ú].nea.[ta.ú#]

6. ciudad [syu].dad

Table 9.8. Lexical items where{consonant + /w/ + vowel} sequences occur in Spanish

Consonantcluster onset

Followingvowel

/p/ + /w//p/ + /w/

[a][e]

puarpuerta

[pwár][pwér.ta]

/b/ + /w//b/ + /w//b/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

buharrobuenobuitre

[bwá.0o][bwé.no][bwí.tre]

/m/ + /w//m/ + /w/

[a][e]

muarémueco

[mwa.ré][mwé.ko]

/f/ + /w//f/ + /w//f/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

fuacatazofuentefui

[fwa.ka.tá.so][fwé7.te][fwí]

/T/ + /w//T/ + /w//T/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

zuavozuecozuiza

[Twá.Bo][Twé.ko][Twí.Ta]

/t/ + /w//t/ + /w//t/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

tuatúatuertotuina

[twa.tú.a][twér.to][twí.na]

/d/ + /w//d/ + /w//d/ + /w//d/ + /w/

[a][e][o][i]

dualduendeduodécimoduita

[dwák][dwé7.de][dwo.#é.si.mo][dwí.ta]

/l/ + /w//l/ + /w//l/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

luanluegoLuis

[kwán][kwé.ƒo][kwís]

/r/ + /w//r/ + /w/

[a][e]

peruanociruela

[pe.rwá.no][si.rwé.ka]

/0/ + /w//0/ + /w//0/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

ruanaruegoruido

[0wá.na][0wé.ƒo][0wí.#o]

/n/ + /w/ [e] nuera [Nwé.ra]

/s/ + /w//s/ + /w//s/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

zuavozuecozuiza

[swá.Bo][swé.ko][swí.sa]

/c/ + /w//c/ + /w//c/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

chualchuecochuita

[cwák][cwé.ko][cwí.ta]

/ñ/ + /w/ [e] pañuelo [pa.ñwé.ko]

/¥/ + /w/ [e] llueve [¥wé.Be]

/&/ + /w/ [e] llueve [&wé.Be]

/k/ + /w//k/ + /w//k/ + /w//k/ + /w/

[a][e][o][i]

cuatrocuerpocuotacuidar

[kwá.tro][kwér.po][kwó.ta][kwí.#ár]

/g/ + /w//g/ + /w//g/ + /w//g/ + /w/

[a][e][o][i]

guapogüélfosantiguogüipil

[gwá.po][gwék.fos][a7.tí.ƒwo][gwi.pík]

/x/ + /w//x/ + /w//x/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

Juanajuevesjuicio

[xwá.na][xwé.Bes][xwí.syo]

/h/ + /w//h/ + /w//h/ + /w/

[a][e][i]

Juanajuevesjuicio

[hwá.na][hwé.Bes][hwí.syo]

(Table 9.8. continued)

Table 9.9. Spanish lexical items with [C1C2GV]sequences in word-initial or syllable-initial positions

Cluster Example Phonetictranscription

/pr/ + [w]/pk/ + [w]

pruebaPluesti

[prwé.Ba][pkwés.ti]

/br/ + [w]/bk/ + [w]

bruetaabluente

[brwé.ta][a.Bkwé7.te]

/fr/ + [w]/fk/ + [w]

fruirfluente

[frwír][fkwé7.te]

/tr/ + [w] trueco [trwé.ko]

/dr/ + [w] druida [drwí.#a]

/kr/ + [w]/kk/ + [w]

cruelclueca

[krwék][kkwé.ka]

/gr/ + [w]/gk/ + [w]

gruesoigluar

[grwé.so][i.ƒkwár]

Figure 10.1. Segmental sonority

Obstruents Nasals Liquids Glides Vowels →

1 2 3 4 5

Figure 10.2. The structure of the Spanish syllable

(Onset) Nucleus (Coda)pgq

Table 10.1. The nine different Spanish syllable templates

Syllable type Example Transcription

1. V #a.brir# [a.Brír]

2. CV #ca.sas# [ká.sas]

3. CCV #bra.vo# [brá.Bo]

4. CCCVC #in.fluen.cia# [iM.fkwén.sya]

5. VC #en.trar# [e7.trár]

6. VCC #abs.tracto [aBs.trák.to]

7. CVC #an.dar# [a7.dár]

8. CCVC #brin.dis# [brí7.dis]

9. CCVCC #claus.tro# [kláws.tro]

Table 10.2. Possible syllable onsets in Spanish

Syllable onset Example

1. Ø a.brir

2. C co.mer

3. CC pla.cer

4. CCC prue.ba

Table 10.3. Words illustrating the twelvepossible {consonant + liquid} Spanish syllable onsets

CC onset Examples

Word-initial Word-internal

1. /pr/ pra.do im.pre.sion.an.te

2. /pk/ pla.cer im.pli.car

3. /br/ bre.gar em.bra.gue

4. /bk/ blan.co tem.blar

5. /tr/ tré.bol re.tra.to

6. /dr/ dro.ga po.drar

7. /kr/ cris.tal in.cre.í.ble

8. /kk/ cla.ve a.cla.rar

9. /gr/ gra.ve a.gra.de.cer

10. /gk/ glo.ria in.glés

11. /fr/ fre.gar en.friar

12. /fk/ flor in.fluen.cia

Table 10.4. The structure of all Spanish CC syllable onsets

Onset Nucleus

Consonant1 Consonant2

/p//b//f//t//d//k//g/

/k//r/

[y][w]

Syllable nucleus

Table 10.5. Possible CCC syllable onsets in Spanish

CCC onset Example Phonetictranscription

1. /pr/ + /y/ prieto [pryé.to]

2. /pr/ + /w/ prueba [prwé.Ba]

3. /pk/ + /y/ ampliar [am.p¥yár]

4. /pk/ + /w/ Pluesti [pkwés.ti]

5. /br/ + /y/ embriagar [em.brya.ƒár]

6. /br/ + /w/ brueta [brwé.ta]

7. /bk/ + /y/ biblia [bí.B¥ya]

8. /bk/ + /w/ abluente [a.Bkwé7.te]

9. /tr/ + /y/ triunfar [tryuM.fár]10. /tr/ + /w/ trueco [trwé.ko]

11. /dr/ + /y/ vidrio [bí.#ryo]

12. /dr/ + /w/ druida [drwí.#a]

13. /kr/ + /y/ criar [kryár]

14. /kr/ + /w/ cruel [krwék]

15. /kk/ + /y/ cliente [k¥yé7.te]

16. /kk/ + /w/ clueca [kkwé.ka]

17. /gr/ + /y/ griego [gryé.ƒo]

18. /gr/ + /w/ grueso [grwé.so]

19. /gk/ + /y/ mangliar [maN.g¥yár]

20. /gk/ + /w/ igluar [i.ƒkwár]

21. /fr/ + /y/ friego [fryé.ƒo]

22. /fr/ + /w/ fruir [frwír]

23. /fk/ + /y/ Cantinfliar [ka7.tiM.f¥yár]

24. /fk/ + /w/ fluidez [flwi.#és]

Table 10.6. The structure of Spanish CCC syllable onsets

Onset Nucleus

Consonant1 Consonant2 Consonant3

/p//b//f//t//d//k//g/

[w]Syllable nucleus

Table 10.7. Possible Spanish syllable nuclei

Example Phonetic transcription

asar [a.sár]

edad [e.#á#]

izar [i.sár]

oler [o.kér]

unir [u.nír]

Table 10.8. Possible syllable codas in Spanish

Syllable coda Example

1. Ø a.brir

2. C co.mer

3. CC abs.tracto

Table 10.9. Examples of Spanish word-final single consonant codas

Example Phoneme incoda position

Phonetictranscription

1. pan2. pared3. comer4. papel5. tos

/n//d//r//k//s/

[pán][pa.ré#][ko.mér][pa.pék][tós]

6. ley7. bou

/y//w/

[kéy][bów]

8. paz /T/ [páT]

9. reloj /h/ or /x/ [0e.kó]

Table 10.10. Single consonant word-internal Spanish syllable codas

Consonant Example Phonemictranscription

1. /y/2. /w/

peineauto

/peyne//awto/

[péy.ne][áw.to]

3. /r/4. /k/

cartaselva

/karta//sekba/

[kár.ta][sék.Ba]

5. /m/6. /n/

sombraandar

/sonbra//andar/

[sóm.bra][a7.dár]

7. /s/8. /p/9. /b/10. /t/11. /d/12. /k/13. /g/14. /f/15. /T/

astaaptoabsortoatletaadmitiractoindignoafganoizquierdo

/asta//apto//absorto//atkéta//admitir//ákto//indigno//afgano//iTkyerdo/

[ás.ta][áp.to][aB.sór.to][at.ké.ta][a#.mí.tir][ák.to][i7.díƒ.no][af.ƒá.no][iT.kyér.#o]

Table 10.11. The structure of the possible single consonant Spanish syllable codas

Word-internalconsonant coda

Word-finalconsonant coda

Syllable nucleus

/y//w//r//k//n//m//p/

/b//f/(/T/)/t//d//s//k//g/

/y//w//r//k//n/

/d//s/

(/<h/x>/)

Table 10.12. A survey of CC word-internal Spanish syllable codas

Codaconsonants

1. /y/ + /s/2. /w/ + /s/

aislarclaustro

[ays.kár][kkáws.tro]

3. /r/ + /s/4. /k/ + /s/

perspicazsolsticio

[pers.pi.kás][soks.tí.syo]

5. /n/ + /s/ monstruo [móns.trwo]

6. /b/ + /s/7. /k/ + /s/

abstractoextenso

[aBs.trak.to][eks.tén.so]

8. /y/ + /n/ veinte [béy7.te]

9. /w/ + /k/ auxilio [awk.sí.¥yo]

10. /w/ + /n/ aunque [áwN.ke]

Table 10.13. The structure of Spanish CC syllable codas

Nucleus Coda

Consonant1 Consonant2

Syllable nucleus

/y//w//r//n//b/

Table 11.1. The stressed Spanish graphemes“i” and “u” in contact with non-high vowel phonemes

1. panadería2. maíz

í + ¿¿ + í

pa.na.de.[rí.a]ma.[ís]

3. esquíe4. leído

í + ¬¬ + í

es.[kí.e][le.í].do

5. río6. oí

í + ∆∆ + í

[0í.o][o.í]

7. continúa8. ataúd

ú + ¿¿ + ú

con.ti.[nú.a]a.[ta.ú#]

9. continúe10. reúne

ú + ¬¬ + ú

con.ti.[nú.e][0e.ú].ne

11. actúo ú + ∆ ac[tú.o]

Table 11.2. Spanish words with two contiguous vowel sounds in whichneither is pronounced as a glide in formal and semi-formal speech registers

Vowelletters

Phonemecombination

1. “aa” /aa/ Sahara [sa.á.ra]

2. “ae” /ae/ saeta [sa.é.ta]

3. “ao” /ao/ Laos [ká.os]

4. “ea” /ea/ teatro [te.á.tro]

5. “oa” /oa/ loar [ko.ár]

6. “ee” /ee/ leer [ke.ér]

7. “eo” /eo/ leonés [ke.o.nés]

8. “oe” /oe/ poeta [po.é.ta]

9. “oo” /oo/ moho [mó.o]

Table 11.3. Spanish words with two contiguous vowels inwhich the graphemes “i” and “u” are pronounced as glides

Vowelletters

Phonemecombination

1. “ie”2. “ei”3. “io”4. “oi”5. “ia”6. “ai”

/ye//ey//yo//oy//ya//ay/

sieteveinteacciónoigofarmaciacaigo

[syé.te][béy7.te][ak.syón][óy.ƒo][far.má.sya][káy.ƒo]

7. “ue”8. “eu”9. “uo”10. “ou”11. “ua”12. “au”

/we//ew//wo//ow//wa//aw/

dueñodeudacuotabousuaveautor

[dwé.ño][déw.#a][kwó.ta][bów][swá.Be][aw.tór]

13. “iu”14. “ui”

/yu//wi/

ciudadcuidado

[syu.#á#][kwi.#á.#o]

Figure 11.1. The five vowel phonemes of Spanish shown according to theclassifications of ‘high’ and ‘non-high’

Highvowels

/i//u/

Non-highvowels

Table 11.4. Distinctive features for Spanish vowel and glide phonemes

[feature] Vowels Glides

/i/ /e/ /a/ /o/ /u/ /y/ /w/

[high] + – – – + + +

[low] – – + – – – –

[back] – – – + + – +

[round] – – – + + – +

Table 11.5. Spanish words with two contiguous vowels acrossword boundaries that are affected by the glide-formation rule

Vowel lettersand phonemes

Example Phonemictranscription

1. “ie” /ie/2. “ei” /ei/3. “io” /io/4. “oi” /oi/5. “ia” /ia/6. “ai” /ai/

mi edadse interesasi olvidasentó y gritómi amigola irlandesa

/mi#edad//se#interesa//si#okbida//sento#i#grito//mi#amigo//ka#irkandesa/

[mye.#á#][sey7.te.ré.sa][syok.Bí.#a][se7.toy.ƒri.tó][mya.mí.ƒo][kayr.ka7.dé.sa]

7. “ue” /ue/8. “eu” /eu/9. “uo” /uo/10. “ou” /ou/11. “ua” /ua/12. “au” /au/

su edadse ubicacaos u ordenlo urgentesu avela humedad

/su#edad//se#ubika//kaos#u#orden//ko#urhente//su#abe//ka#umedad/

[swe.#á#][sew.Bí.ka][ka.o.swor.#en][kowr.hé7.te][swá.Be][kaw.me.#á#]

13. “iu” /iu/14. “ui” /ui/

mi únicosu interés

/mi#uniko//su#interes/

[myú.ni.ko][swi7.te.rés]

Table 11.6. Combinations of high vowels adjacent to non-highvowels across word boundaries that escape the glide-formation rule

Vowelletters

Phonemes Example Phonetictranscription

1. “íe”2. “eí”3. “ío”4. “oí”5. “ía”6. “aí”7. “íu”

/ie//ei//io//oi//ia//ai//iu/

recibí estufasse hinchaperdí originalesbusco higosrecibí anillosla indiarecibí uvas

[0e.si.Bí.es.tú.fas][se.í8.ca][per.#í.o.ri.hi.ná.kes][bús.ko.í.ƒos][0e.si.Bí.a.ní.&os][ka.í7.dya][0e.si.Bí.ú.Bas]

8. “úe”9. “eú”10. “úo”11. “oú”12. “úa”13. “aú”14. “úi”

/ue//eu//uo//ou//ua//au//ui/

bambú esféricose hundebambú olvidadolo hundebambú antiguola hundebambú importante

[bam.bú.es.fé.ri.ko][se.ú7.de][bam.bú.ok.Bi.#á.#o][ko.ú7.de][bam.bú.a7.tí.ƒwo][ka.ú7.de][bam.bú.im.por.tá7.te]

Table 11.7. Spanish diphthongs within words

Diphthong Example Phonetic transcription

1. [ye]2. [ey]3. [yo]4. [oy]5. [ya]6. [ay]

sieteveinteacciónoigofarmaciacaigo

[syé.te][béy7.te][ak.syón][óy.ƒo][far.má.sya][káy.ƒo]

7. [we]8. [ew]9. [wo]10. [ow]11. [wa]12. [aw]

dueñodeudacuotabousuaveautor

[dwé.ño][déw.#a][kwó.ta][bów][swá.Be][aw.tór]

13. [yu]14. [wi]

ciudadcuidado

Table 11.8. Examples of Spanish triphthongsthat appear across word boundaries

Words Triphthong

1. cambia invitaciones2. inopia humana3. estudie irlandés4. pie ulceroso5. cambió historia6. limpió uñones

[yay][yaw][yey][yew][yoy][yow]

7. antigua instalación8. antigua unión9. fue imposible10. fue urgente11. antiguo impulso12. antiguo ultraje

[way][waw][wey][wew][woy][wow]

Syllabification Rule #1:

A single consonant is always assigned to the onset position of thefollowing syllable, i.e., [VCV] → [V.CV].

Table 11.9. Spanish words with single intervocalic consonants

Word Transcription andsyllabification

1. ata2. eje3. ira4. oso5. uso6. haba

[á.ta][é.he][í.ra][ó.so][ú.so][á.Ba]

7. bife8. casa9. mata10. mayo11. lago12. carro13. calle14. macho

[bí.fe][ká.sa][má.ta][má.&o][ká.ƒo][ká.0o][ká.&e][má.co]

15. patada16. barato

[pa.tá.#a][ba.ra.to]

17. calabaza [ka.ka.Bá.sa]

A sequence of two contiguous consonants is syllabified according tothe following criteria:

A. The two contiguous consonants are divided, with the first beingassigned to the coda of the preceding syllable and the second to theonset position of the following syllable, i.e., [VCCV] [VC.CV],except if the two consonants consist of one of twelve indivisibleSpanish consonant clusters.

B. If these two contiguous consonants are one of the twelve indivisibleSpanish consonant clusters, then they are both assigned to the onsetposition of the following syllable, i.e., [VCCV] → [V.CCV].

Table 11.10. Spanish words with two intervocalicconsonants that are assigned to different syllables

1. auto2. peine

[áw.to][péy.ne]

3. alto4. archivo

[ák.to][ar.cí.Bo]

5. hampa6. indigno7. innato

[ám.pa][i7.díƒ.no][in.ná.to]

8. cesto [sés.to]

9. apto10. abdicar11. afgano12. azteca13. atmósfera14. admitir15. acto16. lección17. agnóstico

[áp.to][aB.#i.kár][af.ƒá.no][aT.té.ka][at.mós.fe.ra][a#.mi.tír][ák.to][kek.syón][aƒ.nós.ti.ko]

Table 11.11. Spanish words with two intervocalicconsonants assigned to the onset position of the following syllable

IndivisibleCC onset

1. /pr/2. /pk/3. /br/4. /bk/5. /tr/6. /dr/7. /kr/8. /kk/9. /gr/10. /gk/11. /fr/12. /fk/

apretaraplastarebrioobligarretratopodraracreditaraclararagradeceriglesiarefreírreflejo

[a.pre.tár][a.pkas.tár][é.Bryo][o.Bki.ƒár][0e.trá.to][po.#rár][a.kre.#i.tár][a.kka.rár][a.ƒra.#e.sér][i.ƒké.sya][0e.fre.ír][0e.fké.ho]

A sequence of three adjacent consonants is divided according to thefollowing criteria:

A. The first two of three contiguous consonants are assigned to thecoda of the preceding syllable and the third to the onset position of thefollowing syllable, i.e., [VCCCV] → [VCC.CV], except if the last twoconsonants consist of one of the twelve indivisible Spanish consonantclusters.

B. If the second two of three contiguous intervocalic consonants areone of the twelve indivisible Spanish consonant clusters, then they areboth assigned to the onset position of the following syllable and thefirst consonant serves as the coda of the preceding syllable, i.e.,[VCCCV] → [VC.CCV].

Table 11.12. Spanish [CCC] clusters that are syllabified [CC.C]

1. aislar2. veinte3. aunque4. auxilio

[ays.kár][béy7.te][áwN.ke][awk.sí.¥yo]

5. perspicaz6. solsticio

[pers.pi.kás][soks.tí.syo]

7. instintivo8. transporte

[ins.ti7.tí.Bo][trans.pór.te]

9. extenso10. obstáculo

[eks.tén.so][obs.tá.ku.ko]

Table 11.13. Spanish [CCC] clusters that are syllabified [C.CC]

IndivisibleCC onset

1. /pr/ impresionante [im.pre.syo.ná7.te]

2. /pk/ implicar [im.pki.kár]

3. /br/ embrague [em.Brá.ƒe]

4. /bk/ temblar [tem.bkár]

5. /tr/ entrar [e7.trár]

6. /dr/ esdrújula [es.#rú.hu.ka]

7. /kr/ increíble [iN.kre.í.Bke]

8. /kk/ incluso [iN.kkú.so]

9. /gr/ engrosar [eN.gro.sár]

10. /gk/ inglés [iN.gkés]

11. /fr/ enfriar [eM.fri.ár]

12. /fk/ influjo [iM.fkú.ho]

In sequences of four consecutive consonants, the first two segments arealways assigned to the coda position of the preceding syllable and theremaining two consonants become the onset of the following syllable,i.e., [VCCCCV] → [VCC.CCV].

Table 11.14. Spanish words with four intervocalic consonants

1. instrumento2. construcción3. transplante

[ins.tru.mé7.to][kons.truk.syón][trans.pká7.te]

4. extracto5. abstracto6. obstrucción

[eks.trák.to][aBs.trák.to][oBs.truk.syón]

Contiguous vowel phonemes across word boundaries are assigned todifferent syllables unless they form a diphthong or triphthong.

Table 11.15. Representative Spanish lexical items withcontiguous vowel graphemes and their correspondingphonemic and phonetic transcriptions in formal discourse

1. Sahara2. teatro3. moho4. leonés5. leer

/saara//teatro//moo//keones//keer/

[sa.á.ra][te.á.tro][mó.o][ke.o.nés][ke.ér]

6. esquíe7. leído8. río9. continúe10. actúo11. ataúd

/eskie//keido//0io//kontinue//aktuo//ataud/

[es.kí.e][ke.í.#o][0í.o][ko7.ti.nú.e][ak.tú.o][a.ta.ú#]

12. siete13. acción14. farmacia15. deuda16. cuota17. autor

/syete//aksyon//farmasya//dewda//kwota//awtor/

[syé.te][ak.syón][far.má.sya][déw.#a][kwó.ta][aw.tór]

18. ciudad19. cuidado

/syudad//kwidado/

Figure 11.2. Steps to follow to syllabify andphonetically transcribe Spanish breath groups

1. Erase or remove all word boundaries from the breath group.

2. Phonetically transcribe the breath group with word boundaries removed.

3. Resyllabify the phonetic transcription following Syllabification Rules #1–5 as if it were one single word.

Table 11.16. Differences in the number of symbols betweenphonetic symbols and letters of the Spanish alphabet

Letterof alphabet

Phonemicsymbol(s)

Standard Spanishphonetic symbol(s)

1. “h” /Ø/ [Ø]

2. “x” /ks/ or /gs/ [ks] or [ƒs]

3. “ch”4. “rr”5. “ll”

/c//0//&/ or /¥/

[c][0][&] or [¥]

6. “u” after “g” and before “e” or “i”

/Ø/ [Ø]

Table 11.17. Spanish lexemes withoutone-to-one letter-to-sound correspondences

Standardorthography

Orthographicsyllabification

Syllabification ofphonetic transcription

1. alcohol al.co.hol [ak.ko.ók]

2. texto3. examen

tex.toe.xa.men

[téks.to][eƒ.sá.men]

4. carro5. calle6. calle7. muchacho

ca.rroca.lleca.llemu.cha.cho

[ká.0o][ká.&e][ká.¥e][mu.cá.co]

gue.rragui.ta.rra

[gé.0a][gi.tá.0a]

Figure 12.1. Relative airstream obstruction and the five families of sounds

Maximum obstruction

Medium obstruction

Minimum obstruction

OBSTRUENTS↑

NASALS

LIQUIDS

GLIDES↓

VOWELS

Figure 12.2. Subdivisions of obstruents according tothe parameter of relative airstream obstruction

Greater obstruction↑

Medium obstruction↓

Lesser obstruction

STOPS↑

AFFRICATES↓

FRICATIVES

Figure 12.3. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of ////p////

Table 12.1. Phonetic distribution of Spanish ////p////

Phoneticenvironment

Lexicalitem

Word-initial poco [p]o.co

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial tope to.[p]e

Syllable-final apto a[p].to

Table 12.2. Distribution of Spanish and English /p/ phonemes

Phonetic environment English Spanish

After /s/ in same syllable spin [p] ******

Syllable-final hopeless [p] apto [p]

Breath-group-final top [p] or [p|] ******

Word-final (within breath group) top [p] ******

Syllable-initial impose [ph] tope [p]

Figure 12.4. Facial cross-section illustrating the position of thearticulatory apparatus in the production of Spanish dental /t/

Table 12.3. Phonetic distribution of Spanish /t/

Phoneticenvironment

Lexicalitem

Word-initial tomo [t]o.mo

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial mata ma.[t]a

Syllable-final atmósfera a[t].mós.fe.ra

Table 12.4. Examples of possible miscommunicationdue to inappropriate tapping of Spanish /t/ and /d/

Incorrectpronunciation(with /t/ and/d/ tapping)

Semanticinterpretation(due to /t , d/tapping)

1. moto2. pata3. lata

/moto//pata//káta/

*[mó.Ro]*[pá.Ra]*[ka.Ra]

moroparaLara

[mó.to][pá.ta][ká.ta]

4. modo5. todo6. cada

/modo//todo//kada/

*[mó.Ro]*[tó.Ro]*[ká.Ra]

morotorocara

[mó.#o][tó.#o][ká.#a]

Table 12.5. Distribution of Spanish and English /t/ phonemes

After /s/ in same syllable stop [t] ******

Syllable-final atlas [t] atmósfera [t]

Breath-group-final bat [t] or [t|] ******

Word-final (within breath group) cat [t] ******

Syllable-initial intact [t h] intención [t]

Intervocalic position (with stresson preceding vowel)

water [R] mata [t]

Figure 12.5. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /k/

Table 12.6. Phonetic distribution of Spanish /k/

Phoneticenvironment

Lexicalitem

Word-initial como [k]o.mo

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial pequeño pe.[k]e.ño

Syllable-final actuar a[k].tuar

Table 12.7. Orthographic Representations of Spanish /k/

Phoneticenvironment

Spelling Example Phonetictranscription

Before /a/Before /o/Before /u/Before consonant

“c”“c”“c”“c”

cartacomoculpaclave

[k]ar.ta[k]o.mo[k]ul.pa[k]la.ve

Before /e/Before /i/

“qu”“qu”

quedarquitar

[k]e.dar[k]i.tar

Table 12.8. Distribution of Spanish and English /k/ phonemes

After /s/ in same syllable skin [k] ******

Syllable-final active [k] activo [k]

Breath-group-final back [k] or [k|] ******

Word-final (within breath group) back [k] ******

Syllable-initial include [kh] saca [k]

Figure 12.6. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /c/

Table 12.9. Phonetic distribution of Spanish /c/

Phoneticenvironment

Lexicalitem

Word-initial chico [c]i.co

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial mucho mu.[c]o

Syllable-final ****** ******

Table 12.10. Distribution of Spanish /c/ and English /ch/ phonemes

Before stressed vowel chin [ch] chico [c]

Syllable-initial pinching [ch] mucho [c]

Word-final much [c] ******

Breath-group-final much [c] ******

Syllable-final matchless [c] ******

Figure 13.1. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /b/

Table 13.1. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /b/

Phonetic environment Lexical item Phonemic transcription

Word-initial bobola bocaen boca

/bobo//ka#boka//en#boka/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel rabo /0abo/

Syllable-initial afterconsonant

convenceralbaembrague

/konbenser//akba//embrage/

Syllable-final obtener /obtener/

Table 13.2. The phonetic realizations of the principal allophones of Spanish /b/

Phonetic environment Lexicalitem

Phonemictranscription

Word-initial bobola bocaen bocael boboun bobo

/bobo//ka#boka//en#boka//ek#bobo//un#bobo/

[bó.Bo][ka.Bó.ka][em.bó.ka][ek.Bó.Bo][um.bó.Bo]

Word-final ****** ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel rabo /0abo/ [0á.Bo]

convencer /konbenser/ [kom.ben.sér]

Syllable-final obtener /obtener/ [oB.te.nér]

Table 13.3. Environments of the principalphonetic realizations of the phoneme /b/

Surfacerealization

Environment Example Phonetictranscription

Stop[b]

1. After a pause2. After a nasal

bocaun baúlconvencer

[bó.ka][um.ba.úk][kom.ben.sér]

Fricative[B]

3. Elsewhere el bobola bocaraboobtener

[ek.Bo.Bo][ka.Bó.ka][0á.Bo][oB.te.nér]

Table 13.4. Pronunciation of the Spanish graphemes “b” and “v”

Word Phonemictranscription

1. baca2. vaca

/baka//baka/

[bá.ka][bá.ka]

3. tubo4. tuvo

/tubo//tubo/

[tú.Bo][tú.Bo]

Table 13.5. Distribution of the phonetic variantsof standard Spanish and English /b/ phonemes

Word-initial bit [b] vaca [b]

Word-final tab [b] ******

Breath-group-final tab [b] ******

Syllable-initial after vowel abuse [b] rabo [B]

Syllable-initialafter consonant

imbed [b] convencer [b]alberca [B]

Syllable-final abstract [b] obtener [B]

Figure 13.2. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /d/

Table 13.6. Distribution of the Spanish phoneme /d/

Word-initial dedola damacon dolor

/dedo//ka#dama//kon#dokor/

Word-final verdad /berdad/

Syllable-initial after vowel nada /nada/

mandaraldeael díaun día

/mandar//akdea//ek#dia//un#dia/

Syllable-final admitir /admitir/

Table 13.7. The phonetic realizations of theprincipal standard Spanish allophones of the phoneme /d/

Word-initial dedola damalos díasun díael día

/dedo//ka#dama//kos#dias//un#dia//ek#dia/

[dé.#o][ka.#á.ma][kos.#í.as][un.dí.a][ek.dí.a]

Word-final verdad /berdad/ [ber.#á#]

Syllable-initial after vowel nada /nada/ [ná.#a]

mandaraldeaarderesdrújula

/mandar//akdea//arder//esdruhuka/

[man.dár][ak.dé.a][ar.#ér][es.#rú.hu.ka]

Syllable-final admitir /admitir/ [a#.mi.tír]

Table 13.8. Environments of the principalphonetic realizations of the phoneme /d/

Surfacerealization

Stop[d]

1. After a pause2. After a nasal3. After /k/

darun díaaldea

[dár][u7.dí.a][ak.dé.a]

Fricative[#]

4. Elsewhere arderlos dedosnadaadmitir

[ar.#ér][kos.#é.#os][ná.#a][a#.mi.tír]

Figure 13.3. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /g/

Table 13.9. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /g/

Word-initial gagola gataun gato

/gago//ka#gata//un#gato/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel lago /kago/

vengoel gatoun gato

/bengo//ek#gato//un#gato/

Syllable-final agnóstico /agnostiko/

Table 13.10. The phonetic realizations of the principal allophones of Spanish /g/

Phoneticenvironment

Lexicalitem

Word-initial gagola gataun gato

/gago//ka#gata//un#gato/

[gá.ƒo][ka.ƒá.ta][uN.gá.to]

Word-final ****** ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel lago /kago/ [ká.ƒo]

vengoalgoengordar

/bengo//akgo//engordar/

[béN.go][ák.ƒo][eN.gor.#ár]

Syllable-final agnóstico /agnostiko/ [aƒ.nós.ti.ko]

Table 13.11. Environments of the principal phoneticrealizations of the phoneme /g/ in standard Spanish

Surfacerealization

Stop[g]

1. After a pause2. After a nasal

gatoun gato

[gá.to][uN.gá.to]

Fricative[ƒ]

3. Elsewhere el gatola gatalagoalgoagnóstico

[ek.ƒá.to][ka.ƒá.ta][ká.ƒo][ák.ƒo][aƒ.nós.ti.ko]

Table 13.12. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /g/

Word Grapheme(s) Phonetic transcription

gu + egu + i

[gé.0a][gi.tá.0a]

3. guapo4. antiguo5. gato6. golpe7. gusto8. gloria9. grande

g + uag + uog + ag + og + ug + consonantg + consonant

[gwá.po][a7.tí.ƒwo][gá.to][gók.pe][gús.to][gkó.rya][grá7.de]

Figure 14.1. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /f/

Table 14.1. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /f/

Word-initial foca /foka/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel gafas /gafas/

enfermo /enfermo/

Syllable-final afgano /afgano/

Table 14.2. Distribution patterns of theprincipal phonetic realizations of the phoneme /f/

Word Dialects without[∏] and [v]allophones

Dialects with [∏] and[v] in complementarydistribution

Dialects with [∏]and [v] in freevariation

focagafasenfermoafligir

[fó.ka][gá.fas][eM.fér.mo][a.fki.hír]

afgano [af.ƒá.no] [av.ƒá.no] [af.ƒá.no] or [av.ƒá.no]

fuertefui

[fwér.te][fwí]

[∏wér.te][∏wí]

[fwér.te] or [∏wér.te][fwí] or [∏wí]

Figure 14.2. Facial cross-section illustrating the position ofthe articulatory apparatus in the production of lamino-alveolar /s/

Figure 14.3. Facial cross-section illustrating the configurationof the vocal apparatus in the production of apico-alveolar /s/

Figure 14.4. Facial cross-section illustrating the position of thearticulatory apparatus in the production of alveolar retroflex /S/

Table 14.3. Distribution of Spanish coronal /S/

Word-initial sol /Sok/

Word-final tos /toS/

Syllable-initial after vowel masa /maSa/

Syllable-initial after consonant mensaje /menSahe/

Syllable-final espesa /eSpeSa/

Table 14.4. Coronal /S/ voicing assimilation in /S/-retention dialects

Environment Word Phonemictranscription

Word-initial sol /Sok/ [sók]

Syllable-initial after vowel masa /maSa/ [má.sa]

mensaje /menSahe/ [men.sá.he]

Word-final before vowel los ojos /koS#ohoS/ [ko.só.hos]

Word-final beforeconsonant

tos ferinalos tíostos gravelos díaslos huevos

/toS#ferina//koS#tioS//toS#grabe//koS#diaS//koS#%eboS/

[tos.fe.rí.na][kos.tí.os][toz#ƒrá.Be][koz.#í.as][koz.%é.Bos]

Syllable-final beforeconsonant

astalascadesdeislamismo

/aSta//kaSka//deSde//iSka//miSmo/

[ás.ta][kás.ka][déz.#e][íz.ka][míz.mo]

Figure 14.5. Consonant strength scale of voicelessallophones of Spanish lamino-alveolar /s/ and apico-alveolar /s/

[s] → [s] → [s] → [h] → [h] → [h] → [Ø]Strong ←→ Weak

Figure 14.6. Different free-variant articulations oflamino-alveolar /s/ along a consonant strength continuum

Strongest /s/↑↓

Weakest /s/

[ká.sas][ká.sas][ká.sas][ká.sah][ká.sah][ká.sah]

[ká.saØ]

Table 14.5. Pronunciation of lamino-alveolar /s/ andapico-alveolar /s/ in phonetic environments of retention in weakening dialects

Environment Word Phonemictranscription

Word-initial sol /Sok/ [sók]

Syllable-initial after vowel masa /maSa/ [má.sa]

Syllable-initial after consonant mensaje /menSahe/ [men.sá.he]

Table 14.6. Pronunciation of lexemes with lamino-alveolar /s/ and apico-alveolar/s/ in retention, aspiration, or deletion environments in weakening dialects

Word(s) Free-variant phonetic transcriptions

Breath-group-final

/s/ retention /s/ aspiration /s/ deletion

gatos [gá.tos] [gá.toh] [gá.toØ]

Word-final before vowel

los ojos [ko.só.hos] [ko.hó.hoh] [ko.Øó.hoØ]

Word-final before consonant

tos ferinalos tíostos gravelos díaslos huevos

[tos.fe.rí.na][kos.tí.os][tos.grá.Be][kos.#í.as][kos.%é.Bos]

[toh.fe.rí.na][koh.tí.oh][toh.grá.Be][koh.#í.ah][koh.%é.Boh]

[toØ.fe.rí.na][koØ.tí.oØ][toØ.ƒrá.Be][koØ.#í.aØ][koØ.%é.BoØ]

Syllable-final before consonant

astalascadesdeislamismo

[ás.ta][kás.ka][dés.#e][ís.ka][mís.mo]

[áh.ta][káh.ka][déh.#e][íh.ka][míh.mo]

[áØ.ta][káØ.ka][déØ.#e][íØ.ka][míØ.mo]

Table 14.7. Phonetic variants of the phoneme /s/in weakening and voicing assimilation dialects

Retention[s]

Aspiration[h]

Deletion[Ø]

Retention/Voicing[z]

Aspiration/Voicing[˙]

Deletion[Ø]

Table 14.8. Examples of Spanish lexemes with differentallophones of /s/-weakening/voicing assimilation dialects

Word(s) Phonetic representations

los días [kos.#í.as][koz.#í.as]

[koh.#í.ah][ko˙.#í.ah]

[koØ.#í.aØ][koØ.#í.aØ]

desde [dés.#e][déz.#e]

[déh.#e][dé˙.#e]

[déØ.#e][déØ.#e]

Table 14.9. Orthographic representations ofthe phoneme /S/ in Spanish seseo dialect areas

Orthographicrepresentation

Examples

“s” sato, compás, masa, isla

“z” zapato, paz, caza, juzgar

“ce” cena, cerca, veces, paces

“ci” cigarro, cine, oficina, cinta

Table 14.10. Orthographic representations ofthe phoneme /S/ in Spanish distinción dialect areas

Orthographicrepresentation

Examples

“s” sato, compás, masa, isla

Figure 15.1. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /x/

Figure 15.2. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /X/

Table 15.1. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /h/

Word-initial gente /hente/

Syllable-initial after vowel eje /ehe/

Syllable-initial after consonant álgebra /akhebra/

Word-final (reloj) (/0ekoh/)

Table 15.2. Orthographic representationsof the Spanish phonemes /h/, /x/, and /X/

Spelling Examples

“j” bajar, jerga, jinete, cajón, jugar

“g” before “e” gente, escoger, genio, general, gemir

“g” before “i” gimnasio, gitano, dirigir, afligido, agitar

Figure 15.3. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /T/

Table 15.3. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /T/

Word-initial cerca /Terka/

Word-final paz /paT/

Syllable-initial after vowel cenicero /TeniTero/

Syllable-initial after consonant alzar /akTar/

Syllable-final izquierdo /iTkyerdo/

Table 15.4. Voicing assimilation of the phoneme /T/

Position Word Phonemictranscription

Word-initial zorro /To0o/ [Tó.0o]

Syllable-initial after vowel caza /kaTa/ [ká.Ta]

alzar /akTar/ [ak.Tár]

Word-final before vowel paz árabe /paT#arabe/ [pa.Tá.ra.Be]

Word-final beforeconsonant

paz cubanapaz chilenapaz vascamaíz largoen vez de

/paT#kubana//paT#cikena//paT#baska//maiT#kargo//en#beT#de/

[paT.ku.Bá.na][paT.ci.ké.na][paD.Bás.ka][ma.íD.kár.ƒo][em.béD.#e]

Syllable-finalbefore consonant

aztecamezclamezquitanoviazgoazremaznarjuzgar

/aTteka//meTkka//meTkita//nobiaTgo//aTre//maTnar//xuTgar/

[aT.té.ka][méT.kka][meT.kí.ta][no.ByáD.ƒo][áD.re][maD.nár][xuD.ƒár]

Table 15.5. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /T/

Spelling Examples

“z” before vowels zapato, (zeta), (zirconio), zona, azúcar

Final “z” paz, vez, lápiz, maíz, atroz

“ce” cena, cerca, cebolla, centro, cereza

“ci” cita, cine, cisne, cinco, ciruela

Figure 16.1. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /&/

Table 16.1. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /&/

Word-initial yeso /&eso/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel hoyuelomayo

/o&ueko//ma&o/

Syllable-initial after consonant inyección /in&eksion/

Figure 16.2. Consonant strength scale of allophones of the Spanish phoneme /&/

[Ø] ← [y] ← [y] ← [y] ← [&] ← [&] → [:] → [9] → [y] → [Y]Weak ←→ Strong

Table 16.2. Phonetic description of allophones of the phoneme /&/

Phonetic symbol Phonetic description

1. [Ø] Deletion or phonetic zero

2. [y] Severely weakened voiced palatal glide

3. [y] Weakened voiced palatal glide

4. [y] Voiced palatal glide

5. [&] Weakened voiced palatal slit fricative

6. [&] Voiced palatal slit fricative

7. [:] Voiced palato-alveolar grooved fricative

8. [9] Voiceless palato-alveolar grooved fricative

9. [y] Voiced palatal affricate

10. [Y] Voiceless palatal affricate

Table 16.3. Different phonetic realizations ofmayo, caballo, and hierba in ≥eísmo and ≤eísmo

Representative lexical items

mayo caballo hierba

[má.:o][má.9o][má.yo][má.Yo][má.jo][má.co]

[ka.Bá.:o][ka.Bá.9o][ka.Bá.yo][ka.Bá.Yo][ka.Bá.jo][ka.Bá.co]

[&ér.Ba]

Table 16.4. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /&/

Spelling Examples

“y” haya, yeso, rayita, arroyo, yunque, inyección,cónyuge, enyesado, conyugal, enyugar

“ll” llana, llenar, allí, llorar, lluvia, conllevar, enllantar

“hi” before “e” hielo, hierba, hiedra, hiena, hierro

“hi” before “a” hiato, hialografía, hialino, hialúrgico, hialurgia

“hi” before “o” hiogloso, hioides

Figure 16.3. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /%/

Table 16.5. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /%/

Word-initial hueso /%eso/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel nahuatl /na%atk/

Syllable-initial after consonant deshuesar /des%esar/

Figure 16.4. Consonant strength scale of allophones of the Spanish phoneme /%/

[w] ← [%] ← [%] ← [%] → [ƒw] → [gw]Weak ←→ Strong

Table 16.6. Phonetic description of allophones of the phoneme /%/

1. [w] Voiced labio-velar glide

2. [%] Severely weakened voiced bilabio-velar slit fricative

3. [%] Weakened voiced bilabio-velar slit fricative

4. [%] Voiced bilabio-velar slit fricative

5. [ƒw] Voiced rounded bilabio-velar slit fricative

6. [gw] Voiced rounded bilabio-velar stop

Table 16.7. Different phonetic realizations ofthe lexeme hueso found among Spanish speakers

Representative lexical items

hueso los huesos

[wé.so][%é.so][%é.so][%é.so][gw é.so]********

[kos.wé.sos][kos.%é.sos][kos.%é.sos][kos.%é.sos]************[kos.ƒwé.sos]

Table 16.8. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /%/

Spelling Examples

“hu” native vocabulary hueso, huida, huerta, hueco, huérfano

“w” borrowings whisky, Wáshington, wáter, Hawaii, Wili

Figure 17.1. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /m/

Table 17.1. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /m/

Word-initial más /mas/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel cama /kama/

Syllable-initial after consonant almendra /akmendra/

Syllable-final before nasal consonant gimnasio /himnasyo/

Table 17.2. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /m/

Spelling Examples

Word-initial más, medir, mismo, montaña, muerto

Syllable-initialafter vowel

cama, remar, imitar, omitir, humedad

almendra, mismo, inmediato,hermano, asma

Figure 17.2. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /n/

Table 17.3. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /n/

Word-initial nada /nada/

Word-final pan /pan/

Syllable-initial after vowel bueno /bueno/

Syllable-initial after consonant asno /asno/

Syllable-final insistirhombresembrarimpresiónumbral

/insistir//onbre//senbrar//inpresion//unbrak/

Table 17.4. Phonetic symbols used to represent differentSpanish nasal allophones and their phonetic descriptions

[m] (voiced) bilabial nasal

[M] (voiced) labio-dental nasal

[n] (voiced) laminal interdental nasal

[7] (voiced) apico-dental nasal

[n] (voiced) apico-alveolar nasal

[|] (voiced) laminal retroflex nasal

[8] (voiced) laminal palato-alveolar nasal

[ñ] (voiced) laminal palatal nasal

[N] (voiced) dorso-velar nasal

Table 17.5. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /n/ preceding bilabial consonants

Word(s) Phonemicrepresentation

imposibleimbécilenvidiainmediato

/inposibke//inbesik//enbidya//inmedyato/

[im.po.sí.Bke][im.bé.sik][em.bí.#ya][im.me.#yá.to]

un pocoun burroun vasoun maestro

/un#poko//un#bu0o//un#baso//un#maestro/

[um.pó.ko][um.bú.0o][um.bá.so][um.ma.és.tro]

Table 17.6. Progressive and regressive assimilation in Spanish

Word(s) Phonemicrepresentation

Phoneticrealization

condición /n/ phonemeis alveolar.

/kondisyon/

/d/ phoneme is a stop.

/n/ becomes dental via regressivenasal place assimilation. D444d[ko7.di.syón] a111A/d/ remains a stop due to progressiveassimilation of [–cont] of /n/.

un día /n/ phoneme isalveolar.

/un#dia/

/d/ phoneme is a stop.

/n/ becomes dental via regressivenasal place assimilation. D444d[u7.dí.a] a111A/d/ remains a stop due to progressiveassimilation of [–cont] of /n/.

Table 17.7. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /n/ preceding labio-dental consonants

Word(s) Phonemic representation Phonetic representation

énfasisenfriar

/enfasis//enfryar/

[éM.fa.sis][eM.fryár]

un fuegoun foco

/un#fwego//un#foko/

[uM.fwé.ƒo][uM.fó.ko]

Table 17.8. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /n/ preceding interdental consonants

encerraranzuelo

/enTe0ar//anTweko/

[en.Te.0ár][an.Twé.ko]

un zapatoun cenicero

/un#Tapato//un#TeniTero/

[un.Ta.pá.to][un.Te.ni.Té.ro]

Table 17.9. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /n/ preceding dental consonants

mantenercondición

/mantener//kondisyon/

[ma7.te.nér][ko7.di.syón]

un tíoun día

/un#tio//un#dia/

[u7.tí.o][u7.dí.a]

Table 17.10. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /n/ preceding alveolar consonants

encerraranzueloenredarinnato

/ense0ar//answeko//en0edar//innato/

[en.se.0ár][an.swé.ko][en.0e.#ár][in.ná.to]

un zapatoun ceniceroun ladoun raboun seso

/un#sapato//un#senisero//un#kado//un#0abo//un#seso/

[un.sa.pá.to][un.se.ni.sé.ro][un.ká.#o][un.0á.Bo][un.sé.so]

Table 17.11. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /n/ preceding retroflex consonants

insistirenseñar

/inSiStir//enSeñar/

[i|.SiS.tír][e|.Se.ñár]

un sesoun señor

/un#SeSo//un#Señor/

[u|.Sé.So][u|.Se.ñór]

Table 17.12. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /n/ preceding the palato-alveolar affricate

anchoenchilada

/anco//encikada/

[á8.co][e8.ci.ká.#a]

un chanchoun chico

/un#canco//un#ciko/

[u8.cá8.co][u8.cí.ko]

Table 17.13. The phonemic and phonetic realizationsof Spanish words with /n/ preceding palatal consonants

1. inyección2. conllevar3. conllevar

/in&eksyon//kon&ebar//kon¥ebar/

[iñ.&ek.syón][koñ.&e.Bár][koñ.¥e.Bár]

4. un yeso5. un ñame6. un llanto7. un llanto

/un#&eso//un#ñame//un#&anto//un#¥anto/

[uñ.&é.so][uñ.ñá.me][uñ.&á7.to][uñ.¥á7.to]

Table 17.14. The phonemic and phonetic realizationsof Spanish words with /n/ preceding velar consonants

increíbleingleángelenhuecar

/inkreibke//ingle//anxek//en%ekar/

[iN.kre.í.Bke][íN.gle][áN.xek][eN.%e.kár]

un carroun gatoun gestoun hueso

/un#ka0o//un#gato//un#xesto//un#%eso/

[uN.ká.0o][uN.gá.to][uN.xés.to][uN.%é.so]

Table 17.15. The phonemic and phonetic realizationsof Spanish words with /n/ preceding glottal consonants

ángelenjabonado

/anhek//enhabonado/

[án.hek][en.ha.Bo.ná.#o]

un gestoun jarabe

/un#hesto//un#harabe/

[un.hés.to][un.ha.rá.Be]

Table 17.16. Representative vocabulary itemsoptionally realized as [N] in velarization dialects

Word(s) Standard dialectphonetic representation

Velarization dialectphonetic representation

SECTION 1:imposibleun vasoénfasisun fuegomantenerun díaanzueloun zapatoanchoun chanchoconllevarun yeso

[im.po.sí.Bke][um.bá.so][éM.fa.sis][uM.fwéƒo][ma7.te.nér][u7.dí.a][an.swé.ko][un.sa.pá.to][á8.co][u8.cá8.co][koñ.&e.Bár][uñ.&é.so]

[iN.po.sí.Bke][uN.bá.so][éN.fa.sis][uN.fwéƒo][maN.te.nér][uN.dí.a][aN.swé.ko][uN.sa.pá.to][áN.co][uN.cáN.co][koN.&e.Bár][uN.&é.so]

SECTION 2:ángelun gesto

[án.hek][un.hés.to]

[áN.hek][uN.hés.to]

SECTION 3:un ojoenaguas

[u.nó.ho][e.ná.ƒwas]

[u.Nó.ho][e.Ná.ƒwas]

SECTION 4:panasí hablan

[pán][a.si.á.Bkan]

[páN][a.si.á.BkaN]

Table 17.17. Pronunciation of sequences oftwo nasal phonemes in different speech registers

Nasal Speech registersequence Formal Careful Normal

/nn/ innato [in.ná.to] [i.ná.to] [i.ná.to]

/mn/ gimnasio [him.ná.syo] [hin.ná.syo] [hi.ná.syo]

/nm/ inmediato [in.me.#yá.to] [im.me.#yá.to] [i.me.#yá.to]

Table 17.18. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /n/

Spelling Examples

SECTION 1:Word-initial

nada, nervios, niño, nosotros, nuez

SECTION 2:Word-final

pan, son, hablan, comen, viven

SECTION 3:Syllable-initial aftervowel

cana, cena, sino, mono, unir

SECTION 4:Syllable-initial afterconsonant

cisne, adnotación, trasnochar, himno,magnitud

SECTION 5:Syllable-final beforenasal consonant

innato, innavegable, innatural,ennegrecer, ennoblecer

SECTION 6:Syllable-final beforenon-nasal consonant

hambre, lumbrar, imposible, hombre,umbral

Figure 17.3. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /ñ/

Table 17.19. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /ñ/

Word-initial ñame /ñame/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel caña /kaña/

Syllable-initial after consonant ****** ******

Table 17.20. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /ñ/

Spelling Examples

Word-initial ñame, ñandú, ñato, ñaño, ñapa

Syllable-initial after vowel caña, paño, raña, isleño, español

Figure 18.1. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /r/

Table 18.1. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /r/

Word-initial ****** ******

Word-final mar /mar/

Syllable-initial after vowel caro /karo/

Post-consonantal in consonant + /r/syllable onsets

subrayar /subra&ar/

Syllable-final artista /artista/

Table 18.2. Representative vocabulary items phonetically realizedwith assibilated non-lateral liquid variants of the phoneme /r/

Word(s) Standard phoneticrepresentation

Assibilation dialect phoneticrepresentations

mar [már] [má2] [má3]

mar bonitomar azul

[mar.Bo.ní.to][ma.ra.súk]

[ma2.Bo.ní.to][ma.2a.súk]

[ma3.Bo.ní.to][má.3a.súk]

carosubrayarartistaardiente

[ká.ro][su.Bra.&ár][ar.tís.ta][ar.#yé7.te]

[ká.2o][su.B2a.&ár][a2.tís.ta][a2.#yé7.te]

[ká.3o][su.B3a.&ár][a3.tís.ta][a3.#yé7.te]

Table 18.3. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /r/

Spelling Examples

Syllable-initial after vowel caro, pero, ahora, foro, moro

Post-consonantal inconsonant + /r/ onsets

subrayar, subrogar, crema, trébol, grave

Syllable-final artista, mercado, irlandés, carbón, árbol

Word-final mar, hablar, estar, ser, tener

Figure 18.2. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /0/

Table 18.4. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /0/

Word-initial rojo /0oho/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel carro /ka0o/

Syllable-initial after consonants/k/, /n/, or /s/

alrededorenredarIsrael

/ak0ededor//en0edar//is0aek/

Table 18.5. Representative vocabulary items phonetically realizedwith assibilated non-lateral liquid variants of the phoneme /0/

Word(s) Standard phoneticrepresentation

Assibilation dialectphonetic representations

rojo [0ó.ho] [2ó.ho] [3ó.ho]

una rosael rosal

[u.na.0ó.sa][ek.0o.sák]

carrocorridatorre

[ká.0o][ko.0í.#a][tó.0e]

alrededorenredarIsrael

[ak.0e.#e.#ór][en.0e.#ár][ih.0a.ék]

Table 18.6. Representative vocabulary items phonetically realizedwith posteriorized non-lateral liquid variants of the phoneme /0/

Word(s) StandardSpanish

Posteriorization dialectphonetic representations

rojo [0ó.ho] [XXXXó.ho] [{{{{ó.ho] [4ó.ho]

una rosa [u.na.0ó.sa] [u.na.XXXXó.sa] [u.na.{{{{ó.sa] [u.na.4ó.sa]

el rosal [ek.0o.sák] [ek.XXXXo.sák] [ek.{{{{o.sák] [ek.4o.sák]

carro [ká.0o] [ká.XXXXo] [ká.{{{{o] [ká.4o]

corrida [ko.0í.#a] [ko.XXXXí.#a] [ko.{{{{í.#a] [ko.4í.#a]

torre [tó.0e] [tó.XXXXe] [tó.{{{{e] [tó4e]

alrededor [ak.0e.#e.#ór] [ak.XXXXe.#e.#ór] [ak.{{{{e.#e.#ór] [ak.4e.#e.#ór]

enredar [en.0e.#ár] [en.XXXXe.#ár] [en.{{{{e.#ár] [en.4e.#ár]

Israel [ih.0a.ék] [ih.XXXXa.ék] [ih.{{{{a.ék] [ih.4a.ék]

Table 18.7. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /0/

Spelling Examples

carro, perro, ahorra, forro, morro

Word-initial rabo, remar, rima, rojo, rubio

Syllable-initialafter /k/, /n/ or /s/

malrotador, alrededor, enredar, honrado, Israel

Table 18.8. Distribution pattern of Spanish /r/ and /0/ phonemes

Environment Example Simplevibrant /r/

Multiplevibrant /0/

Word-initial rojo no yes

Word-final mar yes no

Syllable-initial after vowel peroperro

yes yes

Syllable-initial after consonant enredar no yes

Post-consonantal inconsonant + /r/ onsets

subrayartrébol

yes no

Syllable-final margen yes no

Table 18.9. Derivation of representative Spanishlexemes using the one non-lateral liquid phoneme analysis

Example Phonemicrepresentation

Phonological rule affectingliquids

rojo /roho/ Word-initial consonantstrengthening #/r/ → [0]

[0ó.ho]

mar /mar/ None [már]

pero /pero/ None [pé.ro]

perro /perro/ Geminate liquid consonantstrengthening /rr/ → [0]

[pé.0o]

enredar /enredar/ Post-consonantal coda /r/strengthening /C.r/ → [C0]

[en.0e.#ár]

subrayar /subrayar/ None [su.Bra.&ár]

trébol /trebok/ None [tré.Bok]

margen /marhen/ None [már.hen]

Figure 19.1. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /k/

Table 19.1. Distribution of Spanish phoneme /k/

Word-initial lado /kado/

Word-final tal /tak/

Syllable-initial after vowel ilegal /ikegak/

Syllable-initial after consonant atleta /atketa/

Syllable-final alcoba /akkoba/

Table 19.2. Phonetic symbols used to represent differentSpanish lateral liquid allophones and their phonetic descriptions

1. [l] (voiced) palatalized apico-dental lateral liquid

2. [k] (voiced) palatalized apico-alveolar lateral liquid

3. [$] (voiced) lamino-palato-alveolar lateral liquid

4. [¥] (voiced) lamino-palatal lateral liquid

Table 19.3. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /k/ preceding dental consonants

altoaldea

/akto//akdea/

[ál.to][ál.dé.a]

el tíoel día

/ek#tio//ek#dia/

[el.tí.o][el.dí.a]

Table 19.4. The phonemic and phonetic realizations of Spanishwords with /k/ preceding the Spanish palato-alveolar affricate /c/

colchónsalchicha

/kokcon//sakcica/

[ko$.cón][sa$.cí.ca]

el chanchoel chico

/ek#canco//ek#cíko/

[e$.cá8.co][e$.cí.ko]

Table 19.5. The phonemic and phonetic realizations ofSpanish words with /k/ preceding palatal consonants

1. caliente2. el yeso3. el ñame

/kakyente//ek#&eso//ek#ñame/

[ka.¥yé7.te][e¥.&é.so][e¥.ñá.me]

4. el llanto5. el llanto6. al llegar7. al llegar

/ek#&anto//ek#¥anto//ak#&egar//ak#¥egar/

[e¥.&á7.to][e¥.¥á7.to][a¥.&e.ƒár][a¥.¥e.ƒár]

Table 19.6. Spanish words with /k/ in pre-consonantalnon-lateral assimilation environments alveolar consonants

albael mono

/akba//ek#mono/

[ák.Ba][ek.mó.no]

alfilerel fuego

/akfiker//ek#fwego/

[ak.fi.kér][ek.fwé.ƒo]

falsocalzadoel raboel nido

/fakso//kaksado//ek#0abo//ek#nido/

[fák.so][kak.sá.#o][ek.0á.Bo][ek.ní.#o]

algoel carroel huesoel gesto

/akgo//ek#ka0o//ek#%eso//ek#xesto/

[ák.ƒo][ek.ká.0o][ek.%é.so][ek.xés.to]

el gesto /ek#hesto/ [ek.hés.to]

Table 19.7. Representative vocabulary items phoneticallyrealized with various liquid allophones in final environments

Process Lexical item

Marta /marta/ malta /makta/

None (standard) [már.ta] [mál.ta]

Rhotacization ****** [már.ta]

Lambdacization [mál.ta] ******

Hybridization [málr.ta] [mál

Devoicing [máq.ta] [máfi.ta]

Liquid-gliding [máy.ta] [máy.ta]

Table 19.8. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /k/

Spelling Examples

Word-initial lado, lema, lima, loma, luna

Word-final tal, miel, mil, sol, azul

Syllable-initial in CC clusters sublevar, afligir, aglutinar, blanco, pliego

Syllable-initial after vowel palo, gelar, ilegal, ola, mulero

Syllable-initial after consonant atleta, Carlos, perla, Atlántico, enlace

Syllable-final (before consonant) silbato, alfiler, selva, algo, calma

Figure 19.2. Facial cross-section illustrating the positionof the articulatory apparatus in the production of /¥/

Table 19.9. Distribution of Spanish lleísta phoneme /¥/

Word-initial llave /¥abe/

Word-final ****** ******

Syllable-initial after vowel ella /e¥a/

Syllable-initial after consonant conllevar /kon¥ebar/

Table 19.10. Orthographic representations of the Spanish phoneme /¥/

Spelling Examples

Word-initial llave, llamar, llover, llanto, lleno

valle, calle, Castilla, hallar, callar

conllevar, conllorar, enllantar, enllocar, enllentecer

Table 19.11. Phonemic representation ofrepresentative pairs of words in lleísta and yeísta dialects

Word Phonemic representation

Lleísmo Yeísmo

cayo /ka&o/ /ka&o/

callo /ka¥o/ /ka&o/

maya /ma&a/ /ma&a/

malla /ma¥a/ /ma&a/

vaya /ba&a/ /ba&a/

valla /ba¥a/ /ba&a/

Figure 20.1. The frequency of sound waves

BFigure 20.2. The amplitude of sound waves

Table 20.1. Representative examples of regular Spanish oxytones (agudas)

Words ending in non-glides Words ending in glides

1. verdad 6. mamey

2. reloj 7. carey

3. caracol 8. convoy

4. hablar 9. Garay

5. atroz 10. Abreu

Figure 20.3. Representative examples of regular Spanish paroxytones (llanas)

1. habla, casa, bonita

2. come, vive, hable, clase, base

3. casi

4. hablo, como, vivo, Caio, bonito

5. tribu

6. hablan, comen, viven

7. hablas, comes, vives, casas, bonitas

Figure 20.4. Representative examples of Spanish proparoxytones (esdrújulas)

1. fonética 7. prosódico 13. ánimo 19. hablábamos

2. régimen 8. cardíaco 14. quirúrgico 20. comíamos

3. análisis 9. período 15. época 21. escribíamos

4. histórico 10. término 16. fábrica 22. diéramos

5. múltiple 11. atmósfera 17. huérfano 23. tuviéramos

6. plátano 12. público 18. indígena 24. pidiésemos

Figure 20.5. Representative examples of Spanish sobreesdrújulas

1. escríbemela

2. láveselo

3. regalársenoslo

4. dígasemele

5. comprándosenoslo

Figure 20.6. Spanish stress rules

1. Words ending in a single vowel letter or the consonant letter “n” or “s”are stressed on the penultimate syllable.

2. Words ending in a consonant letter other than “n” or “s” or ending in adiphthong are stressed on the last syllable.

3. Words that do not follow the first two rules must bear a written accent.

Figure 20.7. Representative examples of irregular Spanish paroxytones (llanas)

1. césped 6. lápiz

2. mármol 7. fémur

3. automóvil 8. carácter

4. árbol 9. versátil

5. difícil 10. cráter

Figure 20.8. Representative examples of irregular Spanish oxytones (agudas)

1. comején 7. acá 13. miré

2. compás 8. café 14. miró

3. limón 9. colibrí 15. miraré

4. atención 10. caló 16. comí

5. atrás 11. bambú 17. viví

6. adiós 12. maní 18. irá

Table 20.2. Representative Spanish monosyllabic homophonouspairs distinguished by presence or absence of a written accent mark

Lexical pair Description Phonetic transcription

prepositionverb dar

[dé][dé]

definite articlesubject pronoun

[ék][ék]

masmás

conjunction (pero)quantifier (more)

[más][más]

possessive adjectiveprepositional object

[mí][mí]

object or reflexive pronounverb saber

[sé][sé]

conjunction (‘if’)adverb (‘yes’)

[sí][sí]

object or reflexive pronounnoun

[té][té]

possessive adjectivesubject pronoun

[tú][tú]

Table 20.3. Representative Spanish polysyllabic homophonouspairs distinguished by presence or absence of a written accent mark

aquelaquél

demonstrative adjectivedemonstrative pronoun

[a.kék][a.kék]

eseése

[é.se][é.se]

esteéste

[és.te][és.te]

solosólo

adjective (‘only’)adverb (‘alone’)

[só.ko][só.ko]

Table 20.4. Representative Spanish homophonous pairsnot distinguished by presence or absence of a written accent mark

vinovino

nounverb (preterite of venir)

[bí.no][bí.no]

trajetraje

nounverb (preterite of traer)

[trá.he][trá.he]

verb (preterite of dar)verb (imperative of decir)

[dí][dí]

fuerafuera

prepositionverb (imperfective subjunctive ofir and ser)

[fwé.ra][fwé.ra]

pruebaprueba

verb (present indicative of probar)noun

[prwé.Ba][prwé.Ba]

Table 20.5. Homophonous Spanish interrogatives and relatives

como¿cómo?

relativeinterrogative

[kó.mo][kó.mo]

cual¿cuál?

[kwák][kwák]

cuando¿cuándo?

[kwá7.do][kwá7.do]

cuanto¿cuánto?

[kwá7.to][kwá7.to]

donde¿dónde?

[dó7.de][dó7.de]

que¿qué?

[ké][ké]

quien¿quién?

[kyén][kyén]

Chapter 21 examples (3-6)

CCCC AAAA AAAA

(3) ¿Ya viene María? ‘Is Mary coming yet?’

CCCC AAAA AAAA

DDDD AAAABBBB(4) ¿Ya viene? María. ‘Are you coming yet, Mary?’

AAAABBBB(5) Ya viene María. ‘Mary’s coming now.’

AAAABBBB DDDD AAAABBBB(6) Ya viene, María. ‘He’s coming now, Mary.’

Chapter 21 examples (7-11)

1 CCCCAAAABBBBFFFF

(7) Juan viene mañana. [hwan.bye.ne.ma.ñá.na]

1 CCCC AAAAAAAA

(8) ¿Juan viene mañana? [hwan.bye.ne.ma.ñá.na]

1 CCCCAAAA BBBB BBBB BBBB 1 FFFF

(9) ¿Quién viene mañana? [kyén.bye.ne.ma.ña.na]

(10) Juan vende libros, plumas, y lápices.

1 CCCC 1 CCCC AAAA 2 1

BBBBFFFF

[hwan.be7.de.li.Bros.plu.ma.si.lá.pi.ses]

(11) ¡Juan viene mañaná!

1 CCCC 2 AAAA

3 BBBB 2

BBBBFFFF1

[ h w a n . b y e . n e . m a . ñ á . n a ]

Table 22.1. The pronunciation of identical contiguous vowelphonemes within a word according to three different speech registers

Word Speech register

Affected speech Formal speech Casual speech

moho [mó.o] [mó:] [mó]

lee [ké.e] [ké:] [ké]

Sahara [sa.á.ra] [sá:.ra] [sá.ra]

alcohol [ak.ko.ók] [ak.kó:k] [ak.kók]

cree [kré.e] [kré:] [kré]

Table 22.2. The pronunciation of identical vowel phonemesacross word boundaries according to different speech registers

Words Speech register

la amistad [ka.a.mis.tá#] [ka:.mis.tá#] [ka.mis.tá#]

le entrega [ke.e7.tré.ƒa] [ke:7.tré.ƒa] [ke7.tré.ƒa]

mi hijo [mi.í.ho] [mí:.ho] [mí.ho]

lo odio [ko.ó.#yo] [ko:.#yo] [kó.#yo]

su humo [su.ú.mo] [sú:.mo] [sú.mo]

Table 22.3. The pronunciation of a contiguous [–high] vowel phoneme followedby an unstressed [+high] vowel phoneme according to different speech registers

Words Speech register

la ideala humana

[ka.i.#é.a][ka.u.má.na]

[kay.#é.a][kaw.má.na]

[ki.#é.a][ku.má.na]

le indicóle urgió

[ke.i7.di.kó][ke.ur.hyó]

[key7.di.kó][kewr.hyó]

[ki7.di.kó][kur.hyó]

lo ubicanlo hundió

[ko.u.Bí.kan][ko.u7.dyó]

[kow.Bí.kan][kow7.dyó]

[ku.Bí.kan][ku7.dyó]

Table 22.4. The pronunciation of an unstressed low vowel phoneme immediatelyfollowed by a mid vowel phoneme according to different speech registers

Word(s) Speech register

maestrolaosiano

[ma.és.tro][ka.o.syá.no]

[m¿.és.tro][k¿.o.syá.no]

[més.tro][ko.syá.no]

la entregala olvidó

[ka.e7.tré.ƒa][ka.ok.Bi.#ó]

[k¿.e7.tré.ƒa][k¿.ok.Bi.#ó]

[ke7.tré.ƒa][kok.Bi.#ó]

Table 22.5. The pronunciation of an unstressed mid vowel phonemefollowed by a different non-high vowel according to different speech registers

Word Speech register

peortoallapoetateatrohornearcrear

[pe.ór][to.á.&a][po.é.ta][te.á.tro][or.ne.ár][kre.ár]

[pi.ór][tu.á.&a][pu.é.ta][ti.á.tro][or.ni.ár][kri.ár]

[pyór][twá.&a][pwé.ta][tyá.tro][or.ñyár][kryár]

le arribale odialo abrelo estima

[ke.a.0í.Ba][ke.ó.#ya][ko.á.Bre][ko.es.tí.ma]

[ki.a.0í.Ba][ki.ó.#ya][ku.á.Bre][ku.es.tí.ma]

[¥ya.0í.Ba][¥yó.#ya][kwá.Bre][kwes.tí.ma]

Figure 22.1. Spanish vowel triangle

/o//e/

Table 22.6. Representative Spanish triphthongsoccurring across word boundaries in casual speech

Example Casual speech phoneticrealization of triphthong

estudia inglésestudie ingléssalió irritadoestudia humanidadesestudie humanidadessalió humilado

[yay][yey][yoy][yaw][yew][yow]

antigua ideafue irresponsableambiguo interésambigua uniónfue urgenteambiguo uniforme

[way][wey][woy][waw][wew][wow]

Table 23.1. The principal Romance languages

Spoken in Spain Spoken elsewhere

SpanishCatalanValencianGalicianAsturianAragoneseLeonese

PortugueseFrenchItalianRomanianProvençalRhaeto-RomanceOccitanGasconSardinian

Table 23.2. Six representative basic core vocabulary itemsin four Romance languages and two non-Romance languages

Spanish French Portuguese Catalan Euskera English

pan pain pão pa ogi bread

fiesta fête festa festa jai party

padre père pai pare aita father

vino vin vinho vi ardo wine

venir venir vir venir etorri to come

hacer faire fazer fer egin to make

Table 23.3. The consonantal phonemes of Classical Latin

A. /p, t, k/ Voiceless bilabial, dental/alveolar, and velar

B. /b, d, g/ Voiced bilabial, dental/alveolar, and velar

Fricatives

C. /f, s/ /(h)/

Voiceless labio-dental (bilabial?), dental/alveolar(and glottal)

Nasals

D. /m, n/ Voiced bilabial and dental/alveolar

Liquids

E. /l/ Voiced apico-dental/alveolar lateral

F. /r/ Voiced apico-dental/alveolar non-lateral

Figure 23.1. The vocalic phonemes of Classical Latin

/≈/, /ƒ/High frontunrounded vowels(long and short)

/…/, /»/High backrounded vowels(long and short)

/√/, /¬/Mid frontunrounded vowels(long and short)

/«/, /∆/Mid backrounded vowels(long and short)

/¡/, /¿/Low centralunrounded vowels(long and short)

Figure 23.2. Seven-vowel phonemic system of Popular Latin

/i/ /u/

/E/ /o/

Figure 23.3. Important dates in the historical development of the Spanish language

Ancient Latin(500 BC–218 BC)

⇓Classical Latin ⇐⇒ Popular Latin(100 BC–AD 100) (218 BC–AD 180)

⇓Popular Hispanic Latin(AD 180–AD 409)

⇓Old Spanish(409–711)

⇓Medieval Spanish(711–1492)

⇓Spanish DevelopmentalPeriod (1492–1700)

⇓Pre-Modern Spanish(1700–1800)

⇓Modern Spanish(1800–present)

Table 23.4. The six sibilant phonemes of Old Spanish (409–711)

Phoneme Description Spelling Example(s)

/s/ voicelessalveolar fricative

double “s” orconsonant + “s”

viniesseossomensaje

/z/ voicedalveolar fricative

single “s”between vowels

casaoso

/9/ voiceless palato-alveolar fricative

“x” Ximena

/:/ voiced palato-alveolar fricative

“j” or “g” beforea front vowel

hijocoger

/ts/ voiceless alveolaraffricate

“ç” plaça

/dz/ voiced alveolaraffricate

“z” hazer

Table 23.5. The six sibilant phonemes of Medieval Spanish (711–1492)

Phoneme Description Spelling Example(s)

/s/ voiceless apico-alveolar fricative(retroflex?)

double “s” orconsonant+ “s”

viniesseossomensaje

/z/ voiced apico-alveolar fricative(retroflex?)

single “s”between vowels

casaoso

/9/ voiceless palato-alveolar fricative

“x” Ximena

/:/ voiced palato-alveolar fricative

“j” or “g” beforea front vowel

hijocoger

/s/(< /ts/)

voiceless lamino-alveolar fricative

“ç” or “c” beforefront vowel

plaçahaces

/z/(< /dz/)

voiced lamino-alveolar fricative

“z” hazer

Table 23.6. Comparison of sibilant phonemesbetween Medieval Spanish and early-16th-century Spanish

Medieval Spanish(711–1492)<Six Phonemes>

Early-16th-centurySpanish (1530–1550)<Three Phonemes>

Apico-alveolar:/s/ osso [óso]/z/ oso [ózo]

/s/ osso [óso]oso [óso]

Palato-alveolar:/9/ xira [9íra]/:/ gira [:íra]

/9/ xira [9íra]gira [9íra]

Lamino-alveolar:/s/ haces [áses]/z/ hazes [ázes]

/s/ haces [áses]hazes [áses]

Table 23.7. The relative articulation positions ofthe three Spanish early-17th-century sibilants.

Places of Active articulatorarticulation Lower Tongue blade Tongue Vocal

lip Tip Front back/root fold

InterdentalDentalAlveolarPalato-alveolarPalatal

/s/ /s//9/

Glottal

Table 23.8. The relative articulation positions of thethree post-1700 Spanish fricatives in northern and central Spain

Velar /x/(or /X/)

Glottal

Table 23.9. The relative articulation positions of thepost-1700 Spanish sibilants in Andalucía and the New World

Glottal /h/

Table 23.10. Different groups on the Iberian Peninsula

Groups Dates

Basques 6000 BC–Present

Iberians 4000 BC

Phoenicians 1200–600 BC

Celts 1100 BC

Greeks 700 BC

Celtiberians 1000–237 BC

Carthaginians 237–207 BC

Romans 207 BC–AD 409

Vandals and Sueves 409–429

Visigoths 429–711

Moors 711–1492

Table 23.11. Guipuzcoan Basque consonant phonemes

Phonemes Phonetic descriptions

/p, t, k//b, d, g/

[–voice] bilabial, dental, and velar stops[+voice] bilabial, dental, and velar stops

/f, x//s, s, 9//à, á, â/

[–voice] labio-dental and velar fricatives[–voice] apico-alveolar, lamino-alveolar, and palato-alveolar fricatives[–voice] apico-alveolar, lamino-alveolar, and palato-alveolar affricates

/m, n//r, 0//l/

bilabial and alveolar (dental) nasalsapico-alveolar flap and trill liquidsapico-alveolar lateral liquid

Figure 23.4. The five vocalic phonemes of Guipuzcoan Basque

/i//u/

/e//o/

Table 24.1. Three unique characteristics of Castilian Spanish

Feature Examples

Castilian Spanish Non-Castilian Spanish

distinción casa /kasa/caza /kaTa/

casa /kasa/caza /kasa/

The phoneme /X/ jefe /Xéfe/gente /Xente/gitano /Xitano/

jefe /xéfe/ or /héfe/gente /xente/ or /hente/gitano /xitano/ or /hitano/

vosotros habláiscoméisvivís

Vds. hablanVds. comenVds. viven

Table 24.2. Andalusian Spanish ceceo and lack of distincíon

Feature AndalusianSpanish

CaribbeanSpanish

CastilianSpanish

ceceo secesión[Te.Te.TyóN]

secesión[se.se.syóN]

secesión[se.Te.syón]

Lack ofdistinción

casa [ká.Ta]caza [ká.Ta]

casa [ká.sa]caza [ká.sa]

casa [ká.sa]caza [ká.Ta]

Table 24.3. Andalusian Spanish yeísmo

Andalusian Caribbean Castilian SpanishSpanish Spanish yeísmo lleísmo

haya /a&a/ haya /a&a/ haya /a&a/ haya /a&a/

halla /a&a/ haya /a&a/ halla /a&a/ halla /a¥a/

Table 24.4. The phoneme /h/ in Andalusian Spanish

Andalusian Spanish Caribbean Spanish Castilian Spanish

hijo /iho/ hijo /iho/ hijo /iXo/ /ixo/

gira /hira/ gira /hira/ gira /Xira/ /xira/

gente /hente/ gente /hente/ gente /Xente/ /xente/

Table 24.5. The velarization of the phoneme /n/ in syllable codas

pan[páN][pÏN]

pan[pán]

pan y agua[pá.Nyá.ƒwa][pÏ.Nyá.ƒwa]

pan y agua[pá.ñyá.ƒwa]

enaguas[e.Ná.ƒwah][f.Ná.ƒwah]

enaguas[e.ná.ƒwas]

Table 24.6. Phonetic realizations of the phoneme /S/ insyllable codas in Andalusian, Caribbean, and Castilian Spanish

caspa[káh.pa][káh.pa][ká.pa]

caspa[kás.pa]

comes[kó.meh][kó.meh][kó.me]

comes[kó.mes]

Table 24.7. The pronunciation of the phoneme /c/in Andalusian, Caribbean, and Castilian Spanish

chico [9í.ko] chico [9í.ko] chico [cí.ko]

mucho [mú.9o] mucho [mú.9o] mucho [mú.co]

Table 24.8. Weakening and loss of final consonants in Andalusian and CaribbeanSpanish and phonetic maintenance in Castilian Spanish dialect zones

andaluz/anda.kuT/[a7.da.kúT][a7.da.kú]

andaluz/anda.kus/[a7.da.kúh][a7.da.kú]

andaluz/anda.kuT/[a7.da.kúT]

pan/pan/[pÏ] or [pÏN]

pan/pan/[pán]

pared/pared/[pa.ré#] or [pa.ré]

pared/pared/[pa.ré#] or [pa.ré#]

comes/kome+s/[kó.meh] or [kó.me]

comes/kome+s/[kó.mes]

reloj/0ekoh/[0e.kó]

reloj/0ekox/[0e.kó]

Table 24.9. Pronunciation of final liquids in casual discoursein Andalusian, Caribbean, and Castilian Spanish dialects

muerte[mwél.te][mwél

r.te][mwé.te]

muerte[mwél.te][mwél

r.te][mwé.te]

muerte[mwér.te]

señor[se.ñók][se.ñól

r][se.ñó]

señor[se.ñók][se.ñól

r][se.ñó]

señor[se.ñór]

alma[ár.ma][ál

r.ma][á.ma]

alma[ár.ma][ál

r.ma][á.ma]

alma[ák.ma]

social[To.Tyár][To.Tyál

r][To.Tyá]

social[so.syár][so.syál

r][so.syá]

social[so.Tyák]

Table 24.10. Weakening and loss of intervocalicvoiced stop phonemes in Andalusian and Caribbean Spanish

pelado[pe.ká.#o][pe.ká.o][pe.káw]

pelado[pe.ká.#o]

tobillo[to.Bí.&o][to.í.&o]

tobillo[to.Bí.&o][to.Bí.¥o]

lago[ká.ƒo][ká.o][káw]

lago[ká.ƒo]

Table 24.11. The percentages of occurrence of phonologicalconsonant weakening in Las Palmas, Gran Canaria (Samper Padilla 1990)

Phonological process Percentage of occurrence

Weakening of final /n/ 17.83% (1990:217)

Weakening of final /s/ 90.56% (1990:64)

Weakening of final /r/ 81.85% (1990:152)

Weakening of final /k/ 68.17% (1990:191)

Weakening of intervocalic /d/ 67.93% (1990:262)

Table 25.1. Voseo present-indicative morphological endings

-ar verbs -er verbs -ir verbs

1. vos hablás vos comés vos escribís

2. vos hablas vos comes vos escribes

3. vos habláis vos coméis vos escribís

Table 25.2. The general distribution of the phonemes/h/ and /x/ in American Spanish dialects. (Canfield 1981)

Phoneme Geographical area

/h/ BoliviaColombiaCentral AmericaCaribbeanparts of Mexicocoastal PeruVenezuela

/x/ ArgentinaChileparts of Mexicohighland PeruUruguay

Table 25.3. The general distribution of the assibilated and non-assibilatedphones of /r/ and /0/ in American Spanish dialects. (Canfield 1981)

Phone Geographical area

Assibilated[2] and/or [3]

interior Argentinahighland BoliviaChilehighland Colombianon-coastal Costa Ricahighland EcuadorGuatemalaparts of MexicoParaguayhighland Peru

Non-assibilated[r] and [0]

coastal Argentinalowland BoliviaPacific Coast/Costa RicaCaribbeancoastal EcuadorEl SalvadorNicaraguaHondurasparts of Mexicocoastal PeruUruguayVenezuela

Appendix B:The Phonemes of Modern Spanish

Consonant phonemes of Modern Spanish

A. /p, t, k/ [–voice] Stops – bilabial, dental, and velarB. /b, d, g/ [+voice] Stops – bilabial, dental, and velarC. /f, s, (T)/ [–voice] Fricatives – labio-dental, alveolar, (and interdental)D. /x, X, h/ [–voice] Fricatives – velar, postvelar, and glottal

(note that only one of these is present as a phoneme in any particular dialect)E. /&, %/ [+voice] Fricatives – palatal and labio-velarF. /c/ [–voice] Affricate – palato-alveolar

G. /m, n, ñ/ Nasals – bilabial, alveolar, and palatalH. /k, (¥)/ Lateral liquids – apico-alveolar (and palatal)I. /r, (0)/ Non-lateral liquids – apico-alveolar simple (and multiple) vibrantJ. /y, w/ Glides – palatal and labio-velar

Appendix B:The Phonemes of Modern Spanish

Vocalic phonemes of Modern Spanish

/i/high frontunrounded

/u/high backrounded

/e/mid frontunrounded

/o/mid backrounded

/a/low centralunrounded

Appendix C:The Phonemes of Modern American English

Consonant phonemes of Modern American English

A. /p, t, k/ [–voice] Stops – bilabial, alveolar, and velarB. /b, d, g/ [+voice] Stops – bilabial, alveolar, and velarC. /f, T, s, 9, h/ [–voice] Fricatives – labio-dental, interdental,

alveolar, palato-alveolar, and glottalD. /v, D, z, :/ [+voice] Fricatives – labio-dental, interdental,

alveolar, and palato-alveolarE. /c/ [–voice] Affricate – palato-alveolarF. /j/ [+voice] Affricate – palato-alveolar

G. /m, n, N/ Nasals – bilabial, alveolar, and velarH. /l/ Lateral liquid – apico-alveolarI. /®/ Non-lateral liquid – apico-alveolarJ. /y, !/ Glides – palatal and labio-velar

Appendix C:The Phonemes of Modern American English

Vocalic phonemes of Modern American English

/iy/high front tense

/I/high front lax

/uw/ highback tense

/U/high back lax

/ey/mid front tense

/E/mid front lax

/√/mid centralnon-rounded

/ow/mid back tense

/ç/ mid back lax

/Q/low front

/A/ lowcentral

Appendix D:Distinctive Feature Values for Spanish Phonemes

Feature p b m f T t d s k r 0 n c ¥ ñ & k g x % X h y w i e a o u

[sonorant] + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

[syllabic] + + + + +

[consonantal] + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

[anterior] + + + + + + + + + + + +

[coronal] + + + + + + + + + + + +

[voiced] + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + +

[continuant] + + + + + + + + + + + +

[back] + + + + + + + +

[nasal] + + +

[strident] + + + +

[tense] + + + +

[lateral] + +

[vibrant] + +

[high] + + + + + + + + + + +

[low] + +

[round] + + + +

d/ v v - cascadilla press · this file contains all of tables, figures, and diagrams from the...

Documents

hammond layout

drinking and dulled thinking case 1: foley v. welby by:...

the hammond...

3 september 2013 judy hammond, plaintiff, v. cumberland

hammond v. litle & company, 1st cir. (1996)

lisa j. goodnight, ph.d. ralph v. rogers, ph.d. purdue...

metathesis in judeo-spanish consonant clusters - cascadilla

hammond johnie46scanned

jaime hammond

hammond skmanual

5-17-12 ecf 104 - u.s.a. v steven and dwight hammond -...

hammond v. hopkins, 143 u.s. 224 (1892)

hammond textures

hammond, j., jones, v., hill, e.l., green, d. & male, i

2006 hammond heartland days - welcome to hammond, wisconsin...

ted hammond

investigating the shona reflexive zvi - cascadilla...

hammond appeal

albert hammond

vidunda (g38) as an endangered language? - cascadilla...