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EMOTIONAL LABOUR: CAN WORKER PHYSICAL LOCATION AND TYPE
OF CLIENT CONTACT MAKE A DIFFERENCE?
By
KRIS ELLIS
Integrated Studies Project
submitted to Dr. Cathy Bray
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts – Integrated Studies
Athabasca, Alberta
August, 2007
Table of Contents Name of Research Project ....................................................................................1
Description of the project and its scope.................................................................1
Theme...................................................................................................................1
Environmental Analysis .........................................................................................2
Significance/ importance of topic...........................................................................3
Literature Review ..................................................................................................3
Initial Research Questions ..................................................................................13
Impacts on Initial Research Questions................................................................13
Methodology........................................................................................................15
Survey design and results ...................................................................................17
Emotional Labour strategies................................................................................27
Implications for research .....................................................................................29
Conclusion ..........................................................................................................30
References..........................................................................................................31
Appendix A - Survey on Emotional Labour..........................................................38
Appendix B - E-mail soliciting research participants............................................40
Appendix C – Statistical Information....................................................................43
Appendix D – Environmental Analysis.................................................................45
Appendix E – Emotional Labour Learning Module ..............................................50
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 1
Name of Research Project Emotional Labour: Can worker physical location and type of client contact make a difference? Description of the project and its scope Hochschild’s groundbreaking work in 1983, “The Managed Heart: Commercialization of
Human Feeling”, was significant in that it identified a previously invisible dimension of
work. She argued that dealing with emotions is an important and demanding component
of work, particularly in service work, entailing management of feelings and the
expression of emotion. This is now described as ‘emotional labour’ where workers strive
to ‘create and maintain a relationship, a mood, or a feeling (1983:440).
In analyzing how emotional labour is performed and structured, Hochschild argued that
expenditure of human energy in showing sympathy, trust, good feelings in positive
situations (sales in stores), or distrust and suspicion in negative situations (stopped by
police) becomes emotional work. According to Wallace and Wolf (1995), “jobs
requiring emotional labour have three aspects to them. First, the occupation requires
face-to-face or voice contact with customers. Second, the employee is required to
produce a particular, predefined emotional state in others. Third, the employer exercises
some control over the emotional activities of employees hired to produce those feelings.
Initially, emotional labour studies were confined to occupations that interact with the
public (customers). Subsequent studies have expanded the concept to define
customers as either external or internal to the organization. This implies that employees
who are required to produce a particular, predefined emotional state in other
employees, can experience emotional labour.
Theme Essentially, the theme of this research project was to study a specific group of people
where the main differences are the degree of external client contact the employee is
exposed to and the physical location where they work, to determine if emotional labour
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 2
is experienced and controlled differently based on these differences. The study group
was identified as the Analysts and Underwriting Consultants employed within the Group
Benefits Corporate Account division of Manulife Financial. Manulife Financial is a
leading Canadian-based financial services company, operating worldwide, offering a
diverse range of financial protection products and wealth management services. The
job descriptions and hiring practices for the occupations identified for this study are
identical within three different locations: Waterloo Ontario, Toronto Ontario & Montreal
Quebec. The Analyst occupation experiences significant internal customer contact,
while the Underwriting Consultant occupation experiences significant internal and
external customer contact. The Analysts and Underwriting Consultants work together to
service both internal and external customers.
Environmental Analysis While a Undergraduate degree is the predominant level of education within the
Corporate Accounts Underwriting organization, the Underwriting role has, for the past
six years, experienced high staff turnover relative to other Group Benefit roles. This
turnover has been due to a variety of reasons, such as: changes in technology and job
expectations/accountabilities, changes in management, and opportunities for promotion
within the organization.
The Corporate Accounts Underwriting organization is segregated into “Job grades”, with
corresponding salary grades. In 2003, a Job Family career progression was developed
and implemented with the Underwriting organization. Within this career progression is a
requirement, for the analysts, to gain risk assessment and external client support skill
sets prior to being promoted to an Underwriting Consultant role. At the present time,
gaining these skill sets requires the Underwriting Analysts to apply for and be
successful at Underwriting job postings outside of the Corporate Account environment.
The primary measurement of employee satisfaction is the annual Employee Satisfaction
Survey, which is completed at approximately the same time as the annual performance
and salary reviews. The 2006 Employee Satisfaction Survey resulted in negative
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 3
trending within the Underwriting organization, with significantly lower scores compared
to the overall average.
A full environmental analysis can be found in Appendix D.
Significance/ importance of topic Employee turnover remains one of the most persistent and frustrating problems that
organizations face. Key reasons for employee turnover include the organizational
culture, job characteristics, job fit and job expectations (Lee & Ashforth, 1996). If the
organizational culture and/or job characteristics require the employee to act in a
predefined way in order for accountabilities to be met, and if there is a negative
implication to the employee for not acting in that way, emotional labour is one of the job
expectations. If the organization and/or the employee fail to account for the emotional
strain/cognitive dissonance that emotional labour may produce, or provide tools for
reducing that dissonance, ultimately, the employee will take steps, which may result in
decreased performance, cynicism regarding the disconnection between how the
employee actually feels and what the organization expects the employee to
demonstrate, or the employee removing themselves from that organization. Karen
Pugliesi, in her study on emotional labour, found that “the more your job requires you to
fake emotions, the more likely you are to become emotionally detached from those
around you at work. You are also more likely to be detached from your own emotional
state (you may not realize how depressed and upset you really are) and so are more
likely to be dissatisfied with your job in the future”. (Pugliesi, 1999, pg 126)
A literature review was completed to determine if any existing literature or research has
approached the study of emotional labour from an internal/external contrast or physical
location perspective.
Literature Review The most recent decades have placed the study of emotion firmly in the organizational
agenda. Organizations are now believed to have “feelings”, (Albrow, 1994, 1997),
reflecting “love, hatred and passion” (Fineman, 1993). The “commercialization of
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 4
feeling” (Hochschild, 1979, 1983) is now a common term within organizational
behaviour theory (Bolton and Boyd, 2003), with employers openly engaging employees’
hearts and minds (Warhurst and Thompson, 1998). Perhaps the greatest contribution
to advance an understanding of emotion within the workplace is Hochschild’s (1983)
work concerning the “managed heart”. Her study of air-stewardesses provided insight
to how managing emotions has become a saleable commodity, a commodity now
known as “emotional labour” (Hochschild, 1983). Hochschild’s work has proven to be
enduring, and there is little in emotional labour research within the past 2 decades that
does not, to some degree, refer to her original study (Meier, Mastracci & Wilson, 2006;
Miller, Considine & Garner, 2007; Montgomery, Panagopolou, de Wildt & Meenks,
2006).
Hochschild (1983) argued that emotions are social and can act as signals concerning
the relation between the environment and the self. Our ability to manage emotions is
based on our expectations of others and the expectations of others toward us, and
these can be mutually understandable because these are based on earlier experiences.
Our emotions, acting as part of the interpretive process, become part of the social self,
and are one means that we use to interpret stimuli and develop an appropriate
response.
Using standard socialization and interaction concepts, Hochschild (1983) extended the
study of how we alter and modify our emotions and feelings socially to the workplace,
studying the labour involved in emotional management. Hochschild (1983) extended
the emotional analysis further when she introduced the idea of control or management
of emotions by others, including institutions and, more specifically, commercial
enterprises. This happens when "within institutions various elements of acting are taken
away from the individual and replaced by institutional mechanisms" (Hochschild, 1983,
p. 49), in effect, commoditizing emotion work.
The argument is that the expenditure of human energy in showing appropriate emotions
within a given situation becomes emotional work. In the commercial sector, emotions
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 5
can sometimes be sold and have an exchange value, with organizations being
increasingly willing to direct and control how employees present themselves to others.
As a consequence, a key component of the work performed by employees has become
the labour involved in presenting the emotions specified and desired by employers.
It was within her seminal study that the concepts of surface acting and deep acting were
introduced. Hochschild (1983) described surface acting as the "body language, the put-
on sneer, the posed shrug, the controlled sigh", whereas deep acting occurred when the
emotional display “is a natural result of working on feeling….a real feeling that has been
self-induced”. Further research has indicated that surface acting has more negative
effects on employees than does deep acting (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Grandey,
2003; Gross, 1998; Morris & Feldman, 1997; Pugliesi, 1999). Surface acting is more
likely to be used by inexperienced employees than by those with more on-the-job
experience (Grandey, 2003). Hochschild’s “new social theory of emotion”, laid out in
Appendix A of The Managed Heart (1983), has been critically examined by Catherine
Theodosius from Essex University in her article “Recovering Emotion from Emotion
Management” (2006). Theodosius approaches emotion and emotional labour in this
article from a sociological perspective, attempting to understand the unconscious
emotional processes that critics of Hochschild (1983) argue is missing from her
research. Using her observations of nurses on an acute surgical ward, Theodosius
(2006) illustrates how, using “a more interactive, relational approach to emotion”, it is
possible to uncover hidden emotions generally subsumed through the process of
emotion management. Leveraging Freud’s work with repression, Theodosius (2003)
argues that there is “a whole plethora of feelings and emotions unconsciously involved
in any given interaction”. Ultimately, Theodosius (2006) argues, emotion and emotional
labour is more than the interaction of emotions and feelings, as Hochschild (1983)
believed, but also relational, conscious and unconscious.
As research on emotional labour has evolved, various elaborations and/or
interpretations of Hochschild’s concepts have been developed (Smith, 1992; Wharton,
1993; Sutton, 1991; Adeimann, 1995; Rafaeli, 1989; Rafaeli & Sutton, 1990; Tolich,
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 6
1993; Van Maanen &. Kunda, 1989), Brotheridge and Lee (2003) argue that it is
“important to distinguish between surface and deep acting because each suggests a
fundamentally different internal state, and may have differential effects on workers' well-
being. Sheldon, Ryan, Rawsthorne and Ilardi (1997) believe that the “end state of
surface acting is one of misalignment and inauthenticity”, reducing the person’s state of
well-being. Key to the concept of surface acting is the extent to which a person
identifies with their work role. The level of identification may determine the motive or
reason for why someone engages in surface acting (Ashforth and Tomiuk, 2000).
Initial studies on emotional labour confined the research to interactions at the customer-
organizational level. However, subsequent studies seem to indicate that emotional
labour is present within all organizational communications (Mann, 1997; Grandey, A.
2000; Ashkanasy, N., 2003).
Most researchers agree that jobs requiring emotional labour have three aspects to them
(Wallace and Wolf, 1995). The employee has an occupation that requires face-to-face
or voice contact with internal or external customers, the employee needs to produce a
particular, predefined emotional state in these customers and the employer, to some
level, has control over the employee’s presentation of desired emotions. “The
employee is attempting to manage emotions of customers, and employers in turn are
managing the emotional activities of employees.” (Wallace and Wolf, 1995). Several
typologies have also been derived to categorize the various aspects of emotional
labour. One typology consistently included in research analysis is that of Morris and
Feldman (1996). Morris and Feldman’s (1996) construct involves four dimensions to
emotional labour: frequency of emotional display, attentiveness to display rules, variety
of emotions required to be displayed, and emotional dissonance.
Frequency of emotional display addresses the fact that the more often the provider’s
employees display emotional behaviours approved by the client, the more likely a client
is to continue engaging in business with the provider.. Morris and Feldman (1996)
indicate that this dimension is the most studied of all four emotional labour dimensions.
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Frequency of emotional display is impacted by how explicit the display rules are, how
closely the employee is watched to ensure the appropriateness of the emotional display,
and how routine the tasks the employee performs are.
Attentiveness to display rules addresses the work effort involved by the employee to
ensure that the approved emotions are displayed within the workplace. The longer the
employee is required to display approved emotions, and the more intense this display
must be, the greater the emotional labour involved. The length and degree of effort in
attending to display rules is impacted by how routine the task is, as well as whether the
person the employee is displaying the desired emotion for has power over that
employee.
The variety of emotions required to be displayed addresses the emotional work effort of
the employee in managing the appropriate emotional display for any given situation. An
increase in the variety of emotional displays engenders a corresponding increase in
emotional labour. The variety of emotions required to be displayed is impacted by
power perceptions and how much variety in tasks the employee is exposed to.
Morris and Feldman’s fourth dimension, emotional dissonance, is generally considered
a consequence of emotional labour (Adelmann, 1989; Zerbe, 2000). However, Morris
and Feldman disagree that emotional dissonance is simply a consequence of emotional
labour, arguing, instead, that emotional dissonance is a dimension of the emotional
labour construct. Emotional dissonance addresses the conflict felt by an employee due
to the manipulation of people and emotions. If the emotion that the employee actually
feels differs from what the employee is required to display, a state of disconnection
occurs. Most researchers, though, agree that failure to resolve emotional dissonance,
whether it is a consequence or a dimension of emotional labour, is a key contributor to
emotional exhaustion, which, if not addressed, may lead to termination of employment
for the employee (Morris and Feldman, 1996). Resolution of emotional dissonance
occurs when the employee truly believes that their internal and external emotional
display match. Emotional dissonance is impacted by what type of interaction occurs
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 8
between the employee and the receiver of the emotional display, the degree of job
autonomy enjoyed by the employer, and whether the employee usually experiences a
positive or negative affectivity toward their job accountabilities.
Emotional exhaustion, as a consequence or dimension of emotional labour, has been
examined to determine the relationships that emotional exhaustion has with regard to
organizational commitment, turnover intentions, and job performance ratings (Cordes &
Doherty, 1993; Baba, Jamal & Tourigny, 1998; Fruedenberger, 1983; Lee & Ashforth,
1996). These studies have demonstrated that emotional exhaustion can cause workers
to have poorer work attitudes, lower levels of job performance, and increased likelihood
of seeking employment elsewhere. Cropanzano & Byrne (2000) extend this research,
examining and determining that emotional exhaustion has an effect not only on the
employee, but on supervisory commitment to the organization and the organizations
commitment to its employees.
The existing body of literature concerning emotional labour has been subject to various
criticisms. Bolton & Boyd (2003) argue that emotional labour is a more multi-
dimensional concept than initially posited. Instead, they offer a typology in four parts
regarding different types of emotional labour (pecuniary; presentational; prescriptive and
philanthropic) that may be carried out, and suggest that such a multi dimensional view
encompasses a less simplistic and rigid view than that offered by Hochschild (1983).
Bolton and Boyd (2003) argue that the recognition of different types of emotional self-
management provides a clear indication that emotions within organizations cannot be
simplified into any given category. In their study of airline cabin crews, Bolton and Boyd
illustrate that employees can draw on different sets of emotional rules according to
context and their individual motivations to do so.
Fineman (2003) argues that existing research on emotional labour has not recognized
the degree of control that the employee may contribute, “even in a tightly prescriptive
environment.” Bolton & Boyd (2003), agreeing with this observation, suggest “it is the
worker who calibrates how much feeling is invested in the performance”. Furthermore,
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 9
Fineman (2003) suggests that emotional labour may not always be difficult for the
employee. Some employees may be able to successfully “ride the role” (Fineman,
2003), relying on “cracks to exploit, places to be or feel different or defiant”, or as
Thompson and Ackroyd (1995) suggest, “an ability to carve out spaces for resistance
and misbehaviour”. Opportunities for misbehaviour has been catalogued in Van
Maanen’s (1991) study which illustrates the strategies used by Disney employees
despite the significant surveillance strategies employed by Disney.
Hochschild’s original concept of surface acting and the emotional dissonance that
occurs when the employee is unable to reconcile the desired emotional displays relative
to what the employee truly feels has also come under criticism. Fineman (2003)
describes the value we place on authenticity is “paradigmatically naïve”, and argues that
humans have many selves and many truths, which change with situations and
audiences, an argument supported by Bolton and Boyd’s 2003 study. Guerrier and
Adib (2003) suggest that we use the term authentic behaviour to replace the idea of an
authentic self in order to circumvent this debate. Additional research by Dijk & Brown
(2006) indicate that there is evidence “to support the view that emotional labour and
dissonance are two separate constructs, and that the cognitive dissonance theory
based concept of psychological discomfort is conceptually relevant to the examination
of negative work outcomes associated with the performance of emotional labour.”
A final argument concerning existing research on emotional labour concerns the
narrowly defined study groups, which primarily focus on public service encounters
(Tyler & Taylor, 2001; Bolton & Boyd, 2003; Smith, 1992; Dent, Burke & Green, 1991;
Korczynski, 2001; Taylor & Tyler, 2000; Guerrier & Adib, 2004). Moore, Kelliher and
Hailey (2004) argue that there are many other parts of an organization that would
benefit from the exploration of emotional labour, indicating that relative inattention has
been paid to sections of the working population as well as the work done by employees
in terms of everyday work relationships. Waldron (1999) articulates the
point, “the consuming emotional labour that is intrinsic to ‘doing’ work relationships has
received too little attention, despite the fact that managing relationships with other ‘team
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 10
members’ has become a substantial, if not the central, feature of the work of many
employees”. A notable exception is the research completed by Harris (2002), who
studied the emotional labour of barristers. This work has been perceived as unusual as
it focused on a group where the emotional labouring was unscripted and self-regulated.
Harris (2002) concluded that concentrating on the employee-customer interface or the
manipulation of behaviour at point-of-sale “may overlook broader, more pervasive
emotional labour”. Fineman (2003) agreed that the research concerning emotional
labour needs to be broadened, stating a “need for a better understanding of the shape
of emotion work and emotional labour in people who are less scripted that traditional
service workers.”
Taking up the challenge, Moore, Kelliher and Hailey (2004) focused their research
on the unique impacts of managerial behaviour, which, similar to Harris’ (2002) study of
barristers, may be required to be unstructured and self-regulated while still supporting
appropriate emotional displays. Moore, Kelliher and Hailey’s (2004) findings indicate
that middle managers, because of their position in organizations, are likely to
experience significant emotional labour due to the conflict between being both
managers and themselves managed. Significant to this study is the finding that
emotional labour is increased when the employee is not formally prepared for the
emotional labour display expectation imposed by organizational management.
Rupp and Spencer (2006) continue to expand the shape of emotional labour in their
study of the impacts of interactional injustice as a motivator for emotional labour.
Drawing on previous research, they argue that “interactional injustice stems from
undeserved derogatory judgments made about another. Judgments are derogatory
when statements made about an individual are false (i.e., wrongful) or a grossly
distorted version of the truth (unfair)”. Supporting Bolton and Boyd’s (2003) contention
that employees draw on different sets of emotional rules, Rupp and Spencer (2006)
apply an affective events theory model to emotional labour, arguing that specific
emotions are generated from specific work events, which in turn translate to
spontaneous, affectively driven behaviors. Drawing on this model, Rupp and Spencer
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 11
(2006) found that participants who had been exposed to customers “trained to be
undeservingly impolite, disrespectful, inarticulate, and informationally unclear” perceived
higher levels of interactional injustice. This led them to experience higher levels of
emotional labour than participants who were exposed to customers trained to be more
fair. Additionally, Rupp and Spencer (2006) found that “participants who were exposed
to interactional injustice from customers found it more difficult to obey the emotional
requirements of their job.”
Referring to Wharton (1993, Best, Downey, and Jones (1998) and Kruml and Geddes
(1998), Brotheridge & Lee (2003) argue that there has been limited research concerning
a psychometrically rigorous multidimensional measures of Emotional Labour. Their
research, which ultimately developed an Emotional Labour Scale, incorporates research
findings concerning emotional labour models along with various existing emotional
scales such as the Emotional Work Requirements Scale (Best, Downey & Jones, 1998),
the Vulnerability Scale (Glover, Ohlde, Silver, Packard, Goodnick, & Hamlin, 1994) and
the Maslach burnout inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Using Exploratory factor
analysis, an initial survey was completed, and then restructured into the final survey,
using confirmatory factor analysis. The Emotional Labour scale uses a 5-point Likert
scale, and can be considered the first comprehensive emotional labour scale that
measures the consequences of surface and deep acting, illustrates a positive
relationship between surface acting and emotional exhaustion and clearly measures the
impact of Morris & Feldman’s four dimensions of emotional labour.
Taking a different direction regarding emotional labour research, Soares (2003)
expanded the gender, race, ethnicity, social class and status impacts on emotional
labour, specifically the impact of crying at the workplace. Soares (2003) contends that
tears possess “a cathartic effect that frees stress and emotion in the individual, thus
producing an effect of relief”, and argues that tears indicate the employee’s inability to
manage the emotional labour experienced. Soares’ (2003) research, although prior to
Rupp and Spencer (2006), includes disturbing examples of interactional injustice, from
customers as well as coworkers. Most disturbing are the examples of bullying in the
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 12
workplace, with the corresponding feelings of helplessness, shame and fear that are
experienced by those who are bullied. Workplace violence is on the rise, and, as
Soares (2003) wonders, what, ultimately, “are the consequences of working in an
environment increasingly filled with attacks on the self?” Montgomery, Panagopolou, de
Wildt & Meenks (2006) argue that increases in emotional labour, specifically surface
acting, and burnout lead to work-family interference, which occurs when the “pressures
from the work and family roles are mutually incompatible”. Montgomery et al (2006)
identify a causal relationship between increased emotional labour at work and an
increase in marital discord. Additionally, Bono & Vey (2004) indicate in their analysis
that emotional labour can be associated with poor physical and psychological health.
Bryant & Cox (2006) agree with these findings and highlight, as well, that organizational
change exacerbates the existing personal cost of emotional labour. Bryant & Cox’s
(2006) study has been seminal in moving the study of emotional labour into the realm of
organizational change management. Expanding this study of organizational
management is Miller, Considine & Garner (2007), who categorize emotions in the
workplace into five categories, which overlap and challenge existing rational
approaches to organizational life.
This literature review is by no means exhaustive; however, as determined, research has
yet to be completed to determine what impacts, if any, differences in physical location
has on the emotional labour experienced by employees. Any differences found may
suggest a need for further research into the impacts of, for example, culture,
management style, and organizational consistency. Additionally, although existing
research has concluded that employees experience some degree of emotional labour,
even if little or no external customer contact is involved, deeper analysis comparing and
contrasting the dimensions of emotional labour between employee groups may provide
insight into which dimensions produce the highest risk for employees.
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Based on the identified research gaps, the following research questions were
determined:
Initial Research Questions While emotional labour has been studied throughout a variety of organizations, the
following may be construed as research gaps worth pursuing regarding the
level/intensity of emotional labour experienced:
1. Is there a difference between employees engaging in internal and external customer
contact relative to those engaging in primarily internal customer contact?
2. Given the exact same occupation(s) within an organization, are there regional
differences in the emotional labour experience?
3. Why are strategies identified to mitigate the costs of emotional labour successful?
4. Can any one strategy be applied to the same occupation within an organization?
Impacts on Initial Research Questions As indicated in the Methodology portion of this analysis (below), a survey was designed
and implemented with the intent of determining the presence and extent of emotional
labour within the study group as well as determining what strategies the study
participants employed to mitigate the personal cost of emotional labour. However,
survey results concerning mitigation strategies indicated that all three regions employed
exactly the same mitigation strategies, strategies that, as per the Commentary section
of this analysis indicates (below), generate, for the most part, increased emotional
labour. Therefore, the third and fourth research questions were modified to:
3. What strategies have been identified within the research community that aid in the
mitigation of emotional labour costs?
4. What type of strategies, given no limitations, would the study participants perceive
as aiding in mitigation of emotional labour costs?
The change in research questions enables this research analysis to examine the
presence/efficacy of existing strategies and provide illumination into the perceptions of
the study participants as they relate to desired employee benefits. Both of these
opportunities are anticipated to provide a wealth of information concerning gaps in
existing strategies, which ultimately may aid employers in mitigating employee turnover.
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The research questions were determined leveraging the following social psychological
theories:
Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive dissonance, a concept developed by social psychologist Leon Festinger
(1957) in the 1950s, refers to the mental discomfort that people experience when trying
to hold two or more contradictory beliefs at the same time. They may deal with this
discomfort by changing at least one of their inconsistent beliefs or by forming a new
belief to explain away the contradiction. Cognitive dissonance resolution concepts can
be found in Hochschild’s (1983) deep acting strategy. Ongoing cognitive dissonance
can be argued to result in the same type of emotional exhaustion that emotional
dissonance generates.
Self-Perception Theory
Self-perception theory is an account of attitude change developed by psychologist Daryl
Bem (1972). It asserts that we develop our attitudes by observing our own behavior and
concluding what attitudes must have caused them. Self-perception theory differs from
cognitive dissonance theory in that it does not hold that people experience a "negative
drive state" called "dissonance" which they seek to relieve. Instead, people simply infer
their attitudes from their own behavior in the same way that an outside observer might.
Morris & Feldman’s (1996) Frequency dimension of emotional labour is impacted by this
theory. Frequency of emotional display is impacted by the explicitness of display rules,
and how closely employees are observed to determine the appropriateness of their
emotional display. Display rules enable the employees to develop the appropriate
behaviour by observing others and concluding which attitudes generated the
appropriate behaviour. When feedback is provided concerning behaviour, this provides
another opportunity to observe behaviour and determine the appropriate attitude.
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 15
Methodology The following outlines the steps that were completed:
1) An email outlining the research proposal and asking for participants was distributed
to the Corporate Accounts Underwriting organization (Appendix B).
2) The study group was identified based on the return emails from the Corporate
Accounts Underwriting organization indicating permission to be included in the
research study.
3) A substantial body of documents relating to emotional labour was accessed and
read during this project. The reading material served as a knowledge base of
comparative research. The final research paper has synthesized the readings and
situated emotional labour concepts within the research results.
An e-learning module was developed and implemented addressing concepts related
to emotional labour. The module provided an overall explanation of what emotional
labour is, when it occurs and how it is experienced. Examples were provided to
situate the emotional labour experience. This module was developed using Adult
Education principles and design methodology. The module was considered
necessary to aid the study group in identifying aspects of their occupation that
generate emotional labour. Although completion of the learning module was not
mandatory, based on feedback from the participants, 90% of the total participant
group did complete the module. The e-learning methodology that was used was
Captivate, a Manulife-approved e-learning software. An invitation to participate in
this study (and what participation entailed) was emailed to all Analysts and
Underwriting Consultants, with an endorsement from the Underwriting Organization
Management.
4) Learning transfer from the module was measured through a series of questions
administered after the learning module to ensure that the study group understood
the concepts prior to completing the survey. Incorrect answers were provided a link
to the applicable area/concept so that the participant had an opportunity to review
why their selection was incorrect. Given this type of accelerated learning
methodology, it was anticipated that all participants who completed the module
would gain sufficient knowledge to then further participate in this research. Learning
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transfer results were stored within the learning module, without recording who the
participant was. The average score was 95%.
5) A link was provided within the learning module to a survey, which was used to
measure if employees within the study group believed emotional labour was present
within their job accountabilities. The survey was also distributed through the
Research Group email address list, indicating a hyperlink to the survey. Only the
Underwriting Consultants and Analysts participating in the research were included in
the email address. Underwriting management was copied in the email, with a
notation that the email was for information purposes only. The survey was designed
using the online survey software: www.SurveyConsole.com. An introduction to the
purpose of the survey was included in the email, as well as an endorsement from the
Group Benefits Management team. The survey, provided in Appendix A, leveraged
existing surveys on emotional labour such as the Maslach Burnout Inventory
(Maslach & Jackson, 1986), Best et al (1998) Emotional Work Requirements Scale
and Brotheridge’s (2003) Emotional Labour scale. The survey employed a 5-point
Likert scale with the following anchors: never (1), rarely (2), sometimes (3), often (4),
and always (5), and the response stem: 'On an average day at work, how frequently
do you . . .’, as well as a series of questions employing a 5-point Likert scale using
strongly agree (1), agree (2), neutral (3), disagree (4), strongly disagree (5)
categories, anchoring perceptions regarding employment and hiring practices.
The survey tracked responses by region, age, gender and occupation. Participation,
at 60%, or 41 employees of the potential study group, was significant enough that
regional results did not violate confidentiality.
The survey did not ask any questions that enabled the researcher to determine who
responded. All survey results were stored using a computer independent from
Manulife Financial LAN access and results were protected with a password known
only to the researcher.
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 17
The survey identified/validated whether employees:
believed emotional labour is present within their accountabilities
were able to apply specific emotional labour characteristics to their occupation
identified existing strategies that were perceived to mitigate emotional labour
costs
Survey design and results On an average day at work, how frequently do you…
Deep make an effort to actually feel the emotions you are required to display to others
Deep try to actually feel the emotions you have to show as part of your job
Surface deceive people by being friendly when you are experiencing negative emotions
Surface appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than you feel
Surface pretend to enjoy the tasks you do
Frequency feel that management is evaluating you based on how you act
Frequency engage in a variety of tasks
Attentiveness display intense emotions in order to achieve your goals
Attentiveness pay attention to the emotions you're displaying to others
Attentiveness show negative emotions to coworkers
Attentiveness show negative emotions to management/staff outside your team
Attentiveness show a specific emotion in order to get something done
Attentiveness act in a way that hides how you really feel
Variety display different kinds of emotions
Variety express different emotions when interacting with others
Category
The first section of the Survey was designed to determine if the participant group engaged in surface and/or deep acting as well as any of the emotional labour dimensions identified by Morris & Feldman (1996): Ranking:
Never 1Rarely 2Sometimes 3Often 4Always 5
Participants were asked to rank their behaviour on a Likert scale with the following anchors:
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 18
I believe, that, at work:My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs.
I don't have to change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor.
I don’t have to act different than what I really feel to suit different people and different situations.
I don't have to imitate the behaviour of other people that I work with.
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with my direct manager.
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with people that have a higher job grade than me (and are not my direct manager).
I believe that when I was interviewed/when I started my position:that I understood exactly what types of behaviour/emotional displays were expected within my job accountabilities
my Manager/ Supervisor made it clear to me what the outcomes were if I did not display the expected behaviours/ emotions
The second and third section of the survey was designed to determine if the participant group felt emotional dissonance. Participants were asked to rank their beliefs on a Likert scale with the following anchors:
Strongly Agree 1Agree 2Neutral 3Disagree 4Strongly Disagree 5
A positive correlation in the first section of the survey would indicate that the participant
group believed that emotional labour was experienced within their occupation. A
positive correlation in the second and third section of the survey would indicate that the
participant group believed that they engaged in deep acting and had resolved any
emotional/cognitive dissonance regarding emotional display requirements.
Respondent statistics
The following frequency charts indicate the statistics for the participant group:
# % # %<1 year 5 24% 2 10%between 1 - 5 years 8 38% 5 25%between 5 - 10 years 3 14% 6 30%>10 years 5 24% 7 35%
21 100% 20 100%% of total group 51% 49%
ParticipationAnalyst Consultant
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 19
Female# % # % # % # %
<30 years old 2 5% 4 10% 0 0% 0 0%between 30 - 44 years old 2 5% 2 5% 4 10% 3 7%between 45 - 54 years old 0 0% 2 5% 2 5% 4 10%>55 years old 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 2 5%Total Female participant per category 4 10% 8 20% 6 15% 9 22%
Total Female participants 27 66%
Male<30 years old 3 7% 2 5% 1 2% 0 0%between 30 - 44 years old 0 0% 2 5% 2 5% 2 5%between 45 - 54 years old 0 0% 1 2% 0 0% 1 2%Total Male participant per category 3 7% 5 12% 3 7% 3 7%
Total Male participants 14 34%Total Group 41 100%
<1 year between 1 - 5 years between 5 - 10 years >10 years
The survey analysis was completed using descriptive statistics, reporting on the mean
results and indicating the interval data. Although these results are presented as
measures of central tendencies, they are also equivalent to the frequency results. All
41 participants provided a response for each question in the survey.
Figure 1: Average response, by Emotional Labour category, of first section of Survey
1 2 3 4
Participant scores
As indicated by the chart, all participants believe they engage, to a significant degree, in emotional labour. It is interesting to note that the highest score is generated in the “frequency” category, which measures the extent to which the employees believe that management evaluates them on how they act.
5
Deep Acting
Surface Acting
Frequency
Attentiveness
Variety
Average response
Ranking:Never 1Rarely 2Sometimes 3Often 4Always 5
The responses seem to indicate differences between the emotional labour dimensions.
Further analysis could provide clarity as to the reason, which might enable employers to
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 20
address specific dimensions as a way of mitigating the personal cost of emotional
labour.
Figure 2 Average response, by Emotional Labour
category and occupation, of first section of Survey
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
Participant scores
5
Deep Acting
Surface Acting
Frequency
Attentiveness
Variety
Consultants
Analysts
The overall average is compared to the averages produced by occupation. As shown, the Consultants exceed the average (green line) in two of the five dimensions, indicating that there are differences in the emotional labour experience. It is interesting to note that the Consultants significantly exceed the average under the Frequency dimension, which may indicate the perception of additional management monitoring due to external client contact.
Ranking:Never 1Rarely 2Sometimes 3Often 4Always 5
The Analyst role exceeds the average under the Surface acting dimension, which may
be indicative of the power relationships experienced by this occupation.
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 21
Figure 3 Average response, by Emotional Labour
category and region of first section of Survey
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5Participant scores
Deep Acting
Surface Acting
Frequency
Attentiveness
Variety
MontrealToronto
Waterloo
An examination of the results by region indicates regional differences in comparison to the overall average. It is interesting to note that the Waterloo region exceeds the overall average in four of the five dimensions. Further research would be required to determine why this trend exists, given that staff turnover and experience are consistent amongst regions. Ranking:
Never 1Rarely 2Sometimes 3Often 4Always 5
Figure 4: Analyst average response, by Emotional Labour category and region, of first section of Survey
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
An examination by occupation indicates differences by region.
Participant scores
Deep Acting
Surface Acting
Frequency
Attentiveness
Variety
Analysts
MontrealToronto
WaterlooRanking:
Never 1Rarely 2Sometimes 3Often 4Always 5
Consistent with other results where the Waterloo region exceeds the overall average, the Analyst role in Waterloo exceeds the overall average in four of five dimensions.
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 22
Figure 5
Consultant average response, by Emotional Labour category and region, of first section of Survey
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5Participant scores
Deep Acting
Surface Acting
Frequency
Attentiveness
Variety
Consultants
MontrealToronto
Waterloo
Ranking:Never 1Rarely 2Sometimes 3Often 4Always 5
The Consultant role in Montreal exceeds the ain all five dimensions. What is interesting is the relativelyhigher score in the Attentiveness category, which may indicate a perception within the Montreal Consultants that they are closely monitored regarding the appropriate emotional display.
verage
This analysis indicates that there are occupational and regional differences in the level
of emotional labour experienced by the Analysts and Consultants of the Manulife
Financial Group Benefits Corporate Accounts Underwriting department.
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 23
The second and third section of the Survey was intended to measure the presence of
emotional dissonance.
Figure 6 Frequency of responses of second and third section of Survey
I believe, that, at work:Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree
Strongly Disagree Total
My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. 8 21 5 6 1 41
I don't have to change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor. 8 10 7 15 1 41
I don’t have to act different than what I really feel to suit different people and different situations. 3 9 10 18 1 41
I don't have to imitate the behaviour of other people that I work with. 10 17 8 6 0 41
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with my direct manager. 7 14 9 7 4 41
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with people that have a higher job grade than me (and are not my direct manager). 8 18 9 5 1 41
I believe that when I was interviewed/when I started my position:that I understood exactly what types of behaviour/emotional displays were expected within my job accountabilities 6 18 10 6 1 41
my Manager/ Supervisor made it clear to me what the outcomes were if I did not display the expected behaviours/ emotions 0 4 13 17 7 41
It is interesting to note the number of participants who responded neutrally. It is
possible that the research participants did not truly perceive that the individual results
would remain confidential, and therefore, while wishing to participate in the study,
responded in a “protectionist” frame of mind. While fewer participants disagreed (29%)
than agreed with the belief statements, the fact that a percentage disagreed with the
belief statements indicates the presence of emotional dissonance within the Corporate
Accounts Underwriting organization.
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 24
Analysis by occupation indicates differences between the Analyst and the Consultant
role.
Figure 7 Frequency of responses of second and third section of Survey by Occupation
ies to select the “neutral” option, which
I believe, that, at work: Analyst Consultant Analyst Consultant Analyst Consultant Analyst Consultant Analyst Consultant
My behavior is usually an expression of my truebeliefs. 5 0 3 3 0 1
I don't have to change my opinions (or the waysomeone else or win their favor. 5 2 6 9 0 1
I don’t have to act different than what I really fedifferent situations. 7 3 6 12 1 0
I don't have to imitate the behaviour of other p 2 4 2 0 0
My behaviour doesn't change because I am me 1 2 5 2 2
My behaviour doesn't change because I am mehigher job grade than me (and are not my direc 8 1 1 4 0 1
I believe that when I was interviewed/when I
that I understood exactly what types of behavioexpected within my job accountabilities 6 4 3 3 0 1
my Manager/ Supervisor made it clear to me wnot display the expected behaviours/ emotions 5 12 2 5 0 0
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Strongly DisagreeDisagree
inner feelings, attitudes, and 4 4 9 12
I do things) in order to please 4 4 6 4
el to suit different people and 0 3 7 2
eople that I work with. 4 6 7 10 6
eting with my direct manager. 2 5 7 7 8
eting with people that have a t manager). 2 6 10 8
started my position:
ur/emotional displays were 2 4 10 8
hat the outcomes were if I did 3 1 11 2
may indicate less ambivalence from the Underwriting Consultants regarding survey
confidentiality.
The Consultant responses show fewer tendenc
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 25
Figure 8 Frequency of Analyst responses of second and third section of Survey by Region
I believe, that, at work: Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto Montreal
My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. 3 1 0 4 2 3 3 0 2 3 0 0 0 0 0
I don't have to change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor. 2 1 1 3 1 2 4 0 1 4 1 1 0 0 0
I don’t have to act different than what I really feel to suit different people and different situations. 0 0 0 3 1 3 5 1 1 5 0 1 0 1 0
I don't have to imitate the behaviour of other people that I work with. 1 1 2 5 1 1 4 1 1 3 0 1 0 0 0
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with my direct manager. 0 2 0 4 0 3 7 0 1 0 1 1 2 0 0
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with people that have a higher job grade than me (and are not my direct manager). 0 2 0 6 1 3 6 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0
I believe that when I was interviewed/when I started my position:
that I understood exactly what types of behaviour/emotional displays were expected within my job accountabilities 1 1 0 5 2 3 5 0 1 2 0 1 0 0 0
my Manager/ Supervisor made it clear to me what the outcomes were if I did not display the expected behaviours/ emotions 0 0 0 1 1 1 7 2 2 3 0 2 2 0 0
Neutral Disagree Strongly DisagreeStrongly Agree Agree
An examination by occupation and region indicates regional differences. The Waterloo Analysts show the highest
frequency of selecting either a neutral or disagreement option, indicating a higher degree emotional dissonance relative to
the other two regions. However, the Waterloo Analysts also selected the neutral option more often relative to the other
two regions, which may indicate a higher level of ambivalence concerning confidentiality within this region.
Consistent with the overall responses, the Consultants in all 3 regions are less predisposed to select a “neutral” option.
I believe, that, Montreal
My behavior isbeliefs. 0
I don't have to csomeone else o 0
I don’t have to different situations 0
I don't have to im 0
My behaviour d 1
My behaviour dhigher job grade tha 1
I believe that
that I understoodexpected within m 1
my Manager/ Supernot display the 1
gree
search Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 26
Figure 9 Frequency of Consultant responses of second and third section of Survey by Region
at work: Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto Montreal Waterloo Toronto
usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and 2 2 0 7 3 2 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 1
hange my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please r win their favor. 1 3 0 2 2 0 1 0 1 4 3 2 1 0
act different than what I really feel to suit different people and . 0 3 0 1 1 0 2 1 0 6 3 3 0 0
itate the behaviour of other people that I work with. 1 5 0 6 2 2 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
oesn't change because I am meeting with my direct manager. 1 4 0 5 0 2 0 1 0 2 3 0 1 0
oesn't change because I am meeting with people that have a n me (and are not my direct manager). 1 5 0 5 1 2 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 0
when I was interviewed/when I started my position:
exactly what types of behaviour/emotional displays were y job accountabilities 2 2 0 5 1 2 0 4 0 2 1 0 0 0
visor made it clear to me what the outcomes were if I did expected behaviours/ emotions 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 6 4 2 2 2
Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly Disa
Consistent with the analyst responses, the Waterloo Underwriting Consultants selected a “disagree” option more often
than the other two regions.
MAIS 701 Re
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 27
Based on the overall responses to these sections of the survey, the results indicate the
presence of emotional dissonance within the Corporate Accounts Underwriting
organization.
Emotional Labour strategies
Figure 10 Emotional Labour strategies by category
The final analysis concerns the
strategies available to mitigate
the cost of emotional labour.
As previously noted, the
strategies identified by the
participant group did not vary
enough to enable the group to
rank the efficacy of the
strategies:
The strategies that were included under the category “emotional detachment” include:
Don't think about it Withdraw Don't interact with coworkers Zone out Hide it Stay quiet Hold it in
There was no significant deviance between occupation and region regarding identified
strategies.
A review of suggested strategies based on existing research (Bono & Vey (2005);
Bryant & Cox (2006); Montgomery et al (2006); Meier, Mastracci, & Wilson (2006);
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 28
Brotheridge & Lee (2003), Morris & Feldman (1996)) indicates that the primary
strategies concern reducing the level of emotional dissonance:
Clear expression of display rules
Leadership that expresses clear vision and positive expectations for performance
Managerial and supervisor training concerning awareness of their influence on
employees’ emotional experiences
Clear job autonomy
Hire employees with the emotional “fit” required for the job
Additional strategies include:
The ability to “decompress” before leaving work
Education concerning work-life balance
Shift to transformational leadership styles
Placing an organizational price to the skill of managing emotional labour
Upon completion of the survey, the participant group was asked the following question:
If you were given the opportunity to suggest to management some coping
strategies for emotional exhaustion/burnout, and money and time were no
object, what would you suggest? Your answers will be summarized, and
confidentiality will be maintained.
Overwhelmingly, the responses indicate a strong desire for job autonomy, which has
been identified in current research as a key mitigation of emotional exhaustion, and the
ability to personally manage work/family pressures:
Limit overtime hours
Additional “mental health” days
Ability to purchase additional days (vacation, mental health)
Work from home
Leave of Absences (for 1 month maximum, for example)
Work/Share arrangement
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 29
Additional suggestions, which are supported by current research, indicated a need to be
provided a more transformational leadership that recognizes work/family pressures and
employee involvement in their occupations, environment and physical and mental
health:
Gym subsidy
Knowledgeable backup support
More detailed and supportive communication from management
Meal coupons (to provide meal for a family when the employee is working late)
Personal development courses
Implications for research Overall, the results point to the following:
The survey participants perceive that emotional labour is present in their
occupations
The degree of emotional labour varies by occupation and region
These results, however, should be viewed in light of the following:
1. 60% of the total possible employee grouping participated in the survey and
therefore, the results could change should a greater participation rate be
accomplished
2. The employee grouping has never participated in a survey other than the
standard employee survey and therefore, may be suspicious concerning how
confidential the results remain
Further research should examine the implications of the various emotional labour
dimensions, why the results differ by occupation and region and if interactional injustice
is present within the internal/external client contact. Additional research should
examine the importance of other impacts to the presence/degree of emotional labour for
these employees, such as age, gender and organizational culture. It is also important
not to ignore the emotional labour impacts on management, and further research
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 30
concerning these impacts on Underwriting management may serve to illuminate
additional explanations for the outcome differences illustrated in this study.
Conclusion This work contributes to the existing research on emotional labour in several ways.
Primarily, it has established the presence of emotional labour within the Group Benefits
Corporate Account Underwriting area, and has confirmed that, for this research group,
the presence of external client contact has impact on the degree of emotional labour
experienced. Additionally, this research has highlighted a need for further study to
determine why a difference in physical location can impact the degree of emotional
labour experienced.
As indicated in various research outcomes, performing emotional labour may have
potentially significant personal and organizational costs. It is important to understand
how emotional labour impacts various occupational functions, in the hopes that human
resource practices can be better aligned with personal and organizational needs.
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 31
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Appendix A - Survey on Emotional Labour
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Illustrated below is the survey used during this research project:
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Appendix B - E-mail soliciting research participants
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As part of my Masters degree from Athabasca University, one of the requirements is to complete a research project. The research project that I’m doing is on emotional labour, which is the management of feelings and the expression of emotion at work. The research project, titled: Emotional Labour: Can worker physical location and type of client contact make a difference? entails:
• Design and implementation of a learning module on emotional labour • Design and implementation of a survey concerning the presence of emotional labour
within a specific occupation • Identification and ranking of strategies to mitigate the cost of emotional labour
I’m hoping that you will agree to participate in this research project. Your tasks, if you choose to participate, will involve completing the:
• learning module (it will be online and last no more than 20 minutes) • survey on the presence of emotional labour in your job (no more than 10 minutes) • survey on ranking the strategies to mitigate emotional labour (no more than 10 minutes)
Why am I doing this research project? Since learning about emotional labour, I have been very interested in how it affects us physically and emotionally. Part of the reason I chose this project was to determine if emotional labour is present in the Corporate Account underwriting community, and if so, does anything impact it. Identifying why emotional labour impacts are different can help us manage the physical and emotional costs of emotional labour, helping us lead a more balanced worklife. The survey will ask you questions concerning how you act, from an emotional perspective, at work. If any part of this research project causes you to experience detrimental emotions, please remember that Manulife Financial provides EAP counselling through the Reslience program. You can contact an EAP counsellor through the usual contact process. You can review this contact process by clicking on the EAP link: http://mfcentral/mfcentral/hrinfo/index/0,,divId=26&langId=1&locId=1&navId=421004,00.html. All contact with the counsellor will remain confidential and all costs will be borne by Manulife Financial. The organization providing the counsellor further guarantees that all information and participation in counselling is confidential and individual results are not disclosed to Manulife Financial. In order to neutralize any harm to any participant, I guarantee not to track survey responses in such a way that individual respondents are identified, and all data will be aggregated to a level that ensures specific employees remain anonymous. All survey results and analysis will be kept completely confidential, and all survey results and analysis will be destroyed upon completion of this project. You will also receive a copy of the final project submission. Underwriting Management has approved this research project, provided permission to approach you regarding participation in this project, and will also receive a copy of the final project submission. However, Underwriting Management or Manulife Financial, as a corporate entity, will not receive any individual survey information, nor does the granted permission require you to participate in this project. To participate in this project, please email me with your acceptance no later than May 17, 2007: Please copy the following paragraph into the email: I have read and understood the information contained in this letter, and I agree to participate in the study. My agreement to participate is predicated on the understanding that I may refuse to answer certain questions, and I may withdraw during the data collection period from this study by simply not completing the learning module and/or surveys.
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Please note: Underwriting management, through this email, is being informed that the previously discussed research project is underway. However, Underwriting management will not participate in this project. Please remember, all participation is voluntary! If you do not wish to participate, simply delete the emails pertaining to this research project, and do not complete the learning module or surveys. All information will be held confidential, except when legislation or a professional code of conduct requires that it be reported. If you have any questions or concerns regarding this project, please don’t hesitate to contact either my academic advisor at Athabasca University, Dr. Cathy Bray: cathybray@shaw.ca or me. Thanks for you help and participation in my project!
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Appendix C – Statistical Information
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Survey Question Mean Standard Deviation Standard Error
make an effort to actually feel the emotions you are required to display to others 3.024 [2.788 - 3.260] 0.78 0.12
feel that management is evaluating you based on how you act 3.69 [3.428 - 3.953] 0.869 0.134
show negative emotions to coworkers 2.452 [2.219 - 2.686] 0.772 0.119
pay attention to the emotions you're displaying to others 3.786 [3.579 - 3.992] 0.682 0.105
show a specific emotion in order to get something done 3.19 [2.897 - 3.483] 0.969 0.149
appear to others to be experiencing deeper emotions than you feel 2.381 [2.090 - 2.672] 0.962 0.148
try to actually feel the emotions you have to show as part of your job 2.881 [2.621 - 3.141] 0.861 0.133
engage in a variety of tasks 4.22 [3.941 - 4.498] n = 41 0.909 0.142
show negative emotions to management/staff outside your team 1.833 [1.603 - 2.064] 0.762 0.118
display intense emotions in order to achieve your goals 2.405 [2.106 - 2.704] 0.989 0.153
Confidence Interval @ 95%
n = 42
n=42
Illustrated below is the Survey statistical information:
deceive people by being friendly when you are experiencing negative emotions 2.619 [2.361 - 2.877] 0.854 0.132
display different kinds of emotions 3.024 [2.755 - 3.294] n = 41 0.88 0.137
really try to feel the emotions you have to show as part of your job 2.942 [2.694 - 3.211] 0.854 0.132
act in a way that hides how you really feel 2.786 [2.549 - 3.022] 0.782 0.121
pretend to enjoy the tasks you do 2.707 [2.458 - 2.956] 0.814 0.127
express different emotions when interacting with others 3.244 [2.964 - 3.524] 0.916 0.143
My behavior is usually an expression of my true inner feelings, attitudes, and beliefs. 2.286 [1.978 - 2.594] 1.019 0.157
I don't have to change my opinions (or the way I do things) in order to please someone else or win their favor.
2.81 [2.442 - 3.177] 1.215 0.187
I don’t have to act different than what I really feel to suit different people and different situations. 3.143 [2.833 - 3.453] 1.026 0.158
I don't have to imitate the behaviour of other people that I work with. 2.286 [1.978 - 2.594] 1.019 0.157
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with my direct manager. 2.69 [2.322 - 3.059] 1.22 0.188
My behaviour doesn't change because I am meeting with people that have a higher job grade than me (and are not my direct manager).
2.375 [2.048 - 2.702] n = 40 1.055 0.167
that I understood exactly what types of behaviour/emotional displays were expected within my job accountabilities
2.524 [2.202 - 2.846] 1.065 0.164
my Manager/Supervisor made it clear to me what the outcomes were if I did not display the expected behaviours/emotions
3.643 [3.377 - 3.909] 0.879 0.136
n = 42
n = 42
n = 41
n = 42
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Appendix D – Environmental Analysis
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The Group Benefits division of Manulife Financial is ranked 2nd in Canada based
on volume of premium. This division, employing approximately 4,000
employees, has a business presence in the majority of provinces in Canada.
Employee job functions include Underwriting, Client Management, Premium
Administration, Member Administration, Technology support and Learning
Development. In 2001, Manulife Financial and John Hancock merged into one
organization, with John Hancock’s Canadian division, Maritime Life, incorporating
into the Manulife Financial branding. Prior to the integration with Maritime Life,
the Corporate Accounts Underwriting department consisted of two regions:
Ontario and Montreal. With the integration, a third region, Toronto, was added.
The typical job description for the Group Benefits Corporate Accounts
Underwriting organization, based on the Roles & Structure information provided
on the Group Benefits website, consists of the following requirements:
Prepares recommendations for risk assessment and establishing pricing
for group plans
Responds to plan sponsor inquiries relating to pricing, experience analysis
Ensures appropriate non-standard risk assessment and pricing of group
plans
Ensures plan sold and plan design can be administered
Provides day to day technical product support and training to the field
Provides accurate and appropriate risk and pricing assessments
Establishes and maintains internal and external relationships to impact
and influence complex business decisions
Coaches staff in day to day operations
The Waterloo and Toronto Underwriting organizations report to a different Vice
President than does the Montreal Underwriting organization, which generates
concerns regarding communication flows and consistency.
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The Underwriting analyst role has, for the past six years, experienced high staff
turnover relative to other underwriting roles. This turnover has been due to a
variety of reasons, such as: changes in technology and job
expectations/accountabilities, changes in management, and opportunities for
promotion within the organization. Additionally, post merger, the Toronto region
comprised only Maritime Life employees. In the subsequent years, staff turnover
has resulted in a number of Underwriting Consultants not affiliated with the
Maritime Life culture.
The Corporate Accounts Underwriting Departments are physically located within
open plan offices, with standard privacy walls separating the cubicles. While this
design facilitates communication between the employees, it also distracts the
employees during high concentration periods. Manulife Financial floor/office
space guidelines have been implemented inconsistently within the three offices,
with the Waterloo office experiencing smaller floor space allocations.
The chairs that the employees use are ergonomically designed in accordance
with Manulife standards. Any ergonomic tools required by the employees are
identified by the employees, and approved by management, subject to
ergonomic assessment. The overhead lighting is fluorescent, which, while
adequate, generates shadows in the work areas towards the evening hours.
Most of the employees have lamps on their desks to brighten their work
environment. Manulife Financial guidelines concerning reduction of energy in the
summer months have not been consistently implemented. The Waterloo office is
required to close the window blinds in the summer, generating a darker
environment.
The Corporate Accounts Underwriting Department has a full learning centre
available to them for training needs, with notebooks available that have
expanded memory and fast math processors. Using notebooks for training
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enables the Learning Department to provide more concurrent training for a
variety of different learning needs within the organization.
All employees are assigned either desktop or notebook computers based on their
desired choice in conjunction with work guidelines. New employees within the
department are provided with computers meeting current technological standards
as defined by Manulife. Existing employees must retain the computers originally
assigned to them until their ‘refresh’ date, which is usually five years after
computer assignment. This requirement is enforced regardless of changing
technological needs. Computer skill-sets vary between employees, and range
from beginner to expert categories in Word and Excel. Most of the applications
used by the Corporate Accounts Underwriting organization are designed outside
of the Underwriting organization, but using the Underwriting organization as
subject matter experts.
An Undergraduate degree is the predominant level of education within the
Corporate Accounts Underwriting organization.
These charts illustrate the average length of time the
participant group has been employed at Manulife
Financial, and the gender/age bands relative to
employment length:
<1 year 17%between 1 - 5 years 32%between 5 - 10 years 22%>10 years 29%
<1 year between 1 - 5 years between 5 - 10 years >10 years<30 years old 12% 15% 2% 0%between 30 - 44 years old 5% 10% 15% 12%between 45 - 54 years old 0% 7% 5% 12%>55 years old 0% 0% 0% 5%
Female <1 year between 1 - 5 years between 5 - 10 years >10 years<30 years old 5% 10% 0% 0%between 30 - 44 years old 5% 5% 10% 7%between 45 - 54 years old 0% 5% 5% 10%>55 years old 0% 0% 0% 5%Male<30 years old 7% 5% 2% 0%between 30 - 44 years old 0% 5% 5% 5%between 45 - 54 years old 0% 2% 0% 2%
MAIS 701 Research Project – Kris Ellis – 2410609 Page: 49
The Corporate Accounts Underwriting organization is segregated into “Job
grades”, with corresponding salary grades. In 2003, a Job Family career
progression was developed and implemented with the Underwriting organization.
Within this career progression is a requirement, for the analysts, to gain risk
assessment and external client support skill sets prior to being promoted to an
Underwriting Consultant role. At the present time, gaining these skill sets
requires the Underwriting Analysts to apply for and be successful at Underwriting
job postings outside of the Corporate Account environment.
The primary measurement of employee satisfaction is the annual Employee
Satisfaction Survey, which is completed at approximately the same time as the
annual performance and salary reviews. The 2006 Employee Satisfaction
Survey resulted in negative trending within the Underwriting organization, with
significantly lower scores compared to the overall average in questions such as:
My manager treats employees with respect My manager inspires trust and confidence.
My manager takes appropriate action on employee input and feedback.
My manager keeps me informed about decisions that affect me.
My manager encourages me to come up with new ideas to improve the way I do my job.
My manager lets me know that my work contributions are valued and appreciated.
My manager provides an appropriate amount of feedback on my performance (both formally and informally).
My manager provides meaningful feedback (positive and negative) on my performance.
My manager supports on-the-job opportunities for learning and development.
My manager supports the personal development plans we've established.
On an on-going basis, my manager demonstrates good people management skills.
My manager differentiates performance in my department
My manager works with me to set clear and measurable objectives.
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Appendix E – Emotional Labour Learning Module
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