digital astroturfing: definition, typology, and countermeasures

Digital Astroturfing: Definition, typology,and countermeasures

Marko Kovic1; Adrian Rauch�eisch2; Marc Sele3

May 11, 2016

ZIPARZurich Institute of Public Affairs Research

1ZIPAR / marko.kovic@zipar.org2ZIPAR; Institute of Mass Communication and Media Research, University of Zurich3ZIPAR

ZIPAROutlineWhat I’m about to talk about

I We need to get Digital Astrotur�ng right, conceptually.I De�nitionI TypologyI RepertoiresI CountermeasuresI Research prospects

ZIPAROutlineWhat I’m about to talk about

I We need to get Digital Astrotur�ng right, conceptually.

I De�nitionI TypologyI RepertoiresI CountermeasuresI Research prospects

ZIPAROutlineWhat I’m about to talk about

I We need to get Digital Astrotur�ng right, conceptually.I De�nition

I TypologyI RepertoiresI CountermeasuresI Research prospects

ZIPAROutlineWhat I’m about to talk about

I We need to get Digital Astrotur�ng right, conceptually.I De�nitionI Typology

I RepertoiresI CountermeasuresI Research prospects

ZIPAROutlineWhat I’m about to talk about

I We need to get Digital Astrotur�ng right, conceptually.I De�nitionI TypologyI Repertoires

I CountermeasuresI Research prospects

ZIPAROutlineWhat I’m about to talk about

I We need to get Digital Astrotur�ng right, conceptually.I De�nitionI TypologyI RepertoiresI Countermeasures

I Research prospects

ZIPAROutlineWhat I’m about to talk about

I We need to get Digital Astrotur�ng right, conceptually.I De�nitionI TypologyI RepertoiresI CountermeasuresI Research prospects

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

During his 2012 presidential campaign, Mitt Romney gainedmore than 100,000 Twitter followers in a single weekend,despite averaging only 4,000 new followers a day previously.(His campaign denied having bought any fakes.)

The Week, «Inside a counterfeit Facebook farm».

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

In another governor’s race, in Tabasco, Sepúlveda set up fakeFacebook accounts of gay men claiming to back aconservative Catholic candidate representing the PAN, astunt designed to alienate his base.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

I found her through the Anonymous International leak,which included emails she had sent to her bosses, reportingon the pro-Putin comments she left on sites like The Blazeand Politico. One of her assignments had been to write anessay from the point of view of an average American woman.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Figure: Freedom House, «China’s growing army of paid internetcommentators».

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Private citizens are paid by the government to pretend to be“ordinary” netizens while in fact promoting the CCP line andseeking, in a nontransparent fashion, to guide public opinionin a particular direction.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.I They are initiated by political actors.I They are deceptive.I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.I They are initiated by political actors.I They are deceptive.I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.

I They are initiated by political actors.I They are deceptive.I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.I They are initiated by political actors.

I They are deceptive.I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.I They are initiated by political actors.I They are deceptive.

I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.I They are initiated by political actors.I They are deceptive.I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.I They are initiated by political actors.I They are deceptive.I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

These examples are very di�erent from each other.

Yet, they have some things in common:

I It’s about online activities.I They are initiated by political actors.I They are deceptive.I They’re not jokes, but have real political consequences!

These are all examples of Digital Astrotur�ng.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many

forms of political activity.I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.

I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for manyforms of political activity.

I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many

forms of political activity.

I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many

forms of political activity.I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many

forms of political activity.I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many

forms of political activity.I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many

forms of political activity.I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARIntroductionWe need a clear concept of Digital Astroturfing

Digital Astrotur�ng matters:

I Online activities are a big part of modern politics.I The Internet has greatly reduced transition costs for many

forms of political activity.I The Internet is fertile ground for bottom-up political activity.I Digital Astrotur�ng is cunning political deception.

I It fools us into believing «the people» are expressing themselves.

I If we want to do something about Digital Astrotur�ng, we needto think about digital astrotur�ng in a systematic way.

I This paper o�ers a framework that does just that.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

A complete de�nition of Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Digital astrotur�ng is a form of manufactured, deceptive andstrategic top-down activity on the Internet initiated by politicalactors that mimics bottom-up activity by autonomousindividuals.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

A complete de�nition of Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Digital astrotur�ng is a form of manufactured, deceptive andstrategic top-down activity on the Internet initiated by politicalactors that mimics bottom-up activity by autonomousindividuals.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

A complete de�nition of Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Digital astrotur�ng is a form of manufactured, deceptive andstrategic top-down activity on the Internet initiated by politicalactors that mimics bottom-up activity by autonomousindividuals.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Let’s break that down:

I ManufacturedI DeceptiveI StrategicI Top-down; political actorsI mimicryI autonomous individuals

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Let’s break that down:

I Manufactured

I DeceptiveI StrategicI Top-down; political actorsI mimicryI autonomous individuals

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Let’s break that down:

I ManufacturedI Deceptive

I StrategicI Top-down; political actorsI mimicryI autonomous individuals

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Let’s break that down:

I ManufacturedI DeceptiveI Strategic

I Top-down; political actorsI mimicryI autonomous individuals

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Let’s break that down:

I ManufacturedI DeceptiveI StrategicI Top-down; political actors

I mimicryI autonomous individuals

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Let’s break that down:

I ManufacturedI DeceptiveI StrategicI Top-down; political actorsI mimicry

I autonomous individuals

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Let’s break that down:

I ManufacturedI DeceptiveI StrategicI Top-down; political actorsI mimicryI autonomous individuals

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Digital Astrotur�ng is not the same as:

I Trolling

I Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.

I Regular Astrotur�ng

I Regular astrotur�ng is less clear-cut.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Digital Astrotur�ng is not the same as:

I Trolling

I Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.

I Regular Astrotur�ng

I Regular astrotur�ng is less clear-cut.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Digital Astrotur�ng is not the same as:

I TrollingI Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.

I Regular Astrotur�ng

I Regular astrotur�ng is less clear-cut.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Digital Astrotur�ng is not the same as:

I TrollingI Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.

I Regular Astrotur�ng

I Regular astrotur�ng is less clear-cut.

ZIPARDefinitionWhat Digital Astroturfing is and isn’t

Digital Astrotur�ng is not the same as:

I TrollingI Trolls troll for the sake of trolling; they are not agents.

I Regular Astrotur�ngI Regular astrotur�ng is less clear-cut.

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.

I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.

I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.

I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The public

I Other political actors

I The initiating actor.

I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.

I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.

I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.I Government

I Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.I GovernmentI Political party

I Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politician

I Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.

I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I Support for / opposition to policy

I Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

There are three type-relevant dimensions:

I The target of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I The publicI Other political actors

I The initiating actor.I GovernmentI Political partyI Individual politicianI Interest group

I The goal of the Digital Astrotur�ng e�ort.I Support for / opposition to policyI Support for / opposition to political actors

ZIPARTypologyDi�erent flavors of Digital Astroturfing

Target Initiating political actor Goal: Support for or opposition to:

policy political actors

The public

Government 1 2Political party 3 4Individual politician 5 6Interest group 7 8

Political actors

Government 9 10Political party 11 12Individual politician 13 14Interest group 15 16

ZIPARRepertoiresThe toolset of Digital Astroturfing

The ways in which Digital Astrotur�ng manifests can be describedin terms of three dimensions:

I ToolsI VenuesI Actions

ZIPARRepertoiresThe toolset of Digital Astroturfing

The ways in which Digital Astrotur�ng manifests can be describedin terms of three dimensions:

I ToolsI VenuesI Actions

ZIPARRepertoiresThe toolset of Digital Astroturfing

The ways in which Digital Astrotur�ng manifests can be describedin terms of three dimensions:

I Tools

I VenuesI Actions

ZIPARRepertoiresThe toolset of Digital Astroturfing

The ways in which Digital Astrotur�ng manifests can be describedin terms of three dimensions:

I ToolsI Venues

I Actions

ZIPARRepertoiresThe toolset of Digital Astroturfing

The ways in which Digital Astrotur�ng manifests can be describedin terms of three dimensions:

I ToolsI VenuesI Actions

ZIPARRepertoiresThe toolset of Digital Astroturfing

Tools Venues Actions

sock puppets social media creating contentclick farms websites signaling (dis-)approvalsympathizers comment sectionspaid supporters direct messages

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Normatively, Digital Astrotur�ng is problematic.

There are two general strategies for �ghting Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Restrictive countermeasuresI Incentivizing countermeasures

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Normatively, Digital Astrotur�ng is problematic.

There are two general strategies for �ghting Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Restrictive countermeasuresI Incentivizing countermeasures

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Normatively, Digital Astrotur�ng is problematic.

There are two general strategies for �ghting Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Restrictive countermeasuresI Incentivizing countermeasures

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Normatively, Digital Astrotur�ng is problematic.

There are two general strategies for �ghting Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Restrictive countermeasures

I Incentivizing countermeasures

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Normatively, Digital Astrotur�ng is problematic.

There are two general strategies for �ghting Digital Astrotur�ng:

I Restrictive countermeasuresI Incentivizing countermeasures

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:

I Restrictive: Limit activities.I Incentivizing: Promote honesty.

I E.g., through nudging.

I Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.

I Restrictions are not actually solutions.

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:

I Restrictive: Limit activities.

I Incentivizing: Promote honesty.

I E.g., through nudging.

I Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.

I Restrictions are not actually solutions.

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:

I Restrictive: Limit activities.I Incentivizing: Promote honesty.

I E.g., through nudging.

I Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.

I Restrictions are not actually solutions.

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:

I Restrictive: Limit activities.I Incentivizing: Promote honesty.

I E.g., through nudging.

I Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.

I Restrictions are not actually solutions.

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:

I Restrictive: Limit activities.I Incentivizing: Promote honesty.

I E.g., through nudging.

I Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.

I Restrictions are not actually solutions.

ZIPARCountermeasuresHow to curb Digital Astroturfing

Restrictive vs. incentivizing countermeasures:

I Restrictive: Limit activities.I Incentivizing: Promote honesty.

I E.g., through nudging.

I Generally, incentives are preferable to restrictions.I Restrictions are not actually solutions.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.

I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.

I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.

I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.

I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARResearch prospectsDead on arrival?

Research on Digital Astrotur�ng is inherently di�cult.

I Digital Astrotur�ng is clandestine activity.I Purely inductive case-study research is not enough.

I E.g., because of the «survival bias».

I We need a conceptual framework that acts as a compass.I We need di�erent research designs:

I Case studies to document instances of Digital Astrotur�ng.I Algorithmic means to identify Digital Astrotur�ng.I Micro-level testing of incentive e�ectiveness.

I We need to work with the operators of the relevant venues.

ZIPARThank you

Thanks for your attention!