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11 Hedges/Cullen September 2005 ACEpapersIssue 16
Meaningful teaching and learning: Children’s and teachers’ content knowledge
Helen Hedges and Joy Cullen
This paper reviews recent research that demonstrates that young children are deeply
interested in and capable learners of content knowledge. It also discusses research on
early childhood teachers’ subject content knowledge. In order to be responsive to
children’s prior content knowledge, the authors then argue that content within
teaching and the subject content knowledge of teachers both require more explicit
attention in order to extend children’s learning in early childhood settings.
Implications for early childhood teaching practice and teachers’ professional
development are drawn.
Awareness of subject content knowledge in teaching and research
Beliefs about child development, holism, integrated curriculum and play have
dominated western early childhood teaching. Early childhood curricula documents
worldwide commonly neglect or underemphasise subject content knowledge
(MacNaughton, 1999). In this regard, Te Whāriki, (Ministry of Education, 1996) is no
exception. The philosophy of integrated curriculum central to Te Whāriki means that
the document was developed on the premise that the curriculum would not divide
learning into subject or knowledge areas. Some writers assert that a subject-based
approach to curriculum is inappropriate as it is contrary to the ways children think and
learn (Hurst & Joseph, 1998; Nutbrown, 1999). A further concern raised is that where
subject knowledge is emphasised in early childhood, the effect will be that of a “push-
down” curriculum and pedagogy (Curtis, 1998). These philosophical beliefs appear to
have been used to exclude specific teaching and learning of content, have left teachers
without clear guidelines for content selection in curriculum and excused them from
the responsibility to be knowledgeable about children’s interests.
Such beliefs have recently been critiqued (e.g., Cannella, 1997; Dahlberg, Moss &
Pence, 1999). The authors of the present paper argue that the basis of teaching
practice ought not to be just philosophically-driven, but also grounded in research
ACEpapers September 2005 Hedges/Cullen 12 Issue 16
evidence of children’s learning and teachers’ professional knowledge. It is now timely
therefore to consider recent research that may provide guidance with regard to new
directions for early childhood education. This paper draws attention to research on
children’s and teachers’ content knowledge which demonstrates that a lack of
emphasis on subject knowledge can no longer be justified in early childhood
education in New Zealand. This conclusion has implications for teaching practice and
teachers’ professional knowledge.
Recent challenges to consider subject knowledge in early childhood education have
occurred. The New Zealand best evidence synthesis on quality teaching in early
childhood (Farquhar, 2003) identifies as one of seven pedagogical principles that
“effective teachers use content knowledge confidently to support and extend
children’s learning in interactive and play-based situations” (p.2). Similar support for
teachers’ subject knowledge is provided in the best evidence synthesis on professional
development (Mitchell & Cubey, 2003) with an emphasis on appropriate cultural and
contextual pedagogical content knowledge. A significant body of New Zealand
literature argues that the subject knowledge of teachers requires more explicit
attention in order to extend children’s learning (Cullen, 1999, 2000, 2003; Garbett,
2003; Haynes, 2000; Hedges, 2002, 2003a). For example, Cullen (1999) asserts that,
in addition to understanding of children’s development, experiences and interests,
teachers need to have pedagogical and subject knowledge in order to extend
children’s knowledge. These challenges are supported by international research that
demonstrates the depth and richness of children’s existing prior knowledge.
Children’s knowledge and interest in content
Early childhood settings have been the site of much research on children’s knowledge.
As experienced learners, children bring applicable and effective knowledge to new
learning situations. Cullen and Allsop (1999) observed that three and four-year-old
children brought a range of prior knowledge to their outdoor play, such as how to
make concrete, the ability to tie knots, and types of insects and weapons. Dilkes
13 Hedges/Cullen September 2005 ACEpapersIssue 16
(1998) conducted a study that demonstrated that children bring knowledge of sounds
and songs to their early childhood learning. Toyama, Lee and Muto (1997) observed
and recorded children’s prior and subsequently learned knowledge of biological
concepts related to procedures for animal care. In Hedges’ (2002) study about a
kindergarten’s excursion to an aquarium, one child’s prior knowledge about marine
biology was extensive. This child provided evidence that children can have deep
interests and that their knowledge can be more comprehensive and accurate than
adults, particularly when it is domain or discipline-specific. His knowledge also
demonstrated a form of competence that could be associated with a sociocultural view
of children’s capabilities.
Similarly, research has demonstrated that children bring much knowledge from their
home experiences to early childhood education. Fleer (1997) studied three to five-
year-old children’s home experiences of technology and the knowledge that
developed. The teachers of these children were oblivious to the range and depth of
children’s understanding of technology. Aubrey (1997) investigated the mathematical
knowledge five-year-old children had before starting school, also concluding that
teachers were unaware of the richness of these children’s prior knowledge. Cumming
(2003) studied children’s experiences and understandings of the origins of food, its
preparation for eating and its destiny once eaten by them. The most common contexts
for conversations about food were at mealtimes and during food preparation and
cooking. Cumming noted that sometimes a child pursued a topic over a period of time
that stretched into months with evidence of a deep interest. Cumming concluded that
children learn valuable information from family and friends and that teachers, perhaps
unwittingly, overlook this in their planning for teaching.
The research cited provides evidence of the broad prior knowledge children bring to
new experiences and learning and that this is knowledge that teachers might be
unaware of. These studies use different terminology, for example, “foundational”,
“domain” and “funds of knowledge”. This suggests that young children’s prior
knowledge and styles of learning and thinking take on certain qualities. The personal
ACEpapers September 2005 Hedges/Cullen 14 Issue 16
qualities of children’s knowledge are based on the unique family and community
experiences that contribute to their growing content knowledge. In addition, young
children are likely to have a wide range of interests, but relatively limited experience
and cognitive and metacognitive abilities. Because of these factors, the qualities of
children’s knowledge are unlikely to be the same as the conventional sense of subject
knowledge as domain or discipline-based. However, the term “subject content
knowledge” is adopted here with regard to children’s knowledge to be consistent with
the literature on teachers’ knowledge and to make an argument for an emphasis on
addressing the content knowledge of both parties within the teaching and learning
process.
In summary, research supports the notion of children moving from novice to expert in
different subject content areas and emphasises the importance of constructing new
knowledge based on existing knowledge. The studies cited provide evidence for
claims that teachers might need subject knowledge in order to extend children’s
learning, particularly in a play-based learning environment building on children’s
interests. The importance of teachers being able to respond meaningfully to children is
highlighted in such teaching and learning approaches.
Teachers’ subject knowledge
Parallel to the research about children’s learning there has been some evidence that
teachers’ subject knowledge is important in early childhood teaching (Hedges, 2002;
Peters, 2001; Siraj-Blatchford, Sylva, Muttock, Gilden & Bell, 2002). Some writers
have also drawn attention to the necessity for teachers to have a broad general
knowledge base to support children’s learning (Cullen, 1999; Haynes, 2000; Kallery
& Psillos, 2001; Willer, 1994).
Subject knowledge is a form of culturally-valued knowledge that delivers educational,
social and economic benefits for individuals and societies. Current emphases on
literacy and numeracy in teaching and research are evidence of their cultural value
15 Hedges/Cullen September 2005 ACEpapersIssue 16
(see Hedges, 2003b). Subject knowledge in teaching is commonly defined as teachers’
knowledge of content. This encompasses the facts and concepts within the disciplines
of their teaching subjects, for example, science, mathematics, literature and music,
and the relationships between the fact and concepts (Grossman, 1990).
Teacher beliefs about subject knowledge
Teachers’ knowledge and beliefs impact directly and indirectly on the curriculum
offered to children, in terms of teacher enthusiasm, beliefs and subject knowledge.
Studies on teachers’ professional development in New Zealand raise the issue of
subject knowledge. Jordan (1998) discusses early childhood teachers’ use of
information and communications technology to increase their subject content
knowledge in order to support children’s learning. Young-Loveridge, Carr and Peters
(1995) conducted a study involving early childhood teachers’ professional
development which demonstrated that when awareness of mathematics was enhanced,
teachers extended children's mathematical knowledge and thinking during play.
Two studies exemplify the argument of this paper. In Hedges’ (2002) New Zealand
kindergarten case study of beliefs and practices related to subject knowledge, four
themes emerged as crucial to consideration of content in early childhood education:
subject content knowledge, knowledge of pedagogy and philosophy, knowledge of
learners and knowledge of context. The links between beliefs and practices
demonstrated that in relation to planned learning experiences, teachers used subject
knowledge. However, in most spontaneous learning and teaching interactions, subject
content knowledge was not present. In a wider United Kingdom study of effective
early learning (Moyles, Adams & Musgrove, 2002), both teachers and management
believed that subject knowledge was not as important as knowledge about children
and knowledge about pedagogy and philosophy. As a consequence, content learning
was underemphasised during teaching and learning interactions. In a play-based,
child-initiated curriculum, most pedagogical interactions arise from and respond to
children’s wide range of interests and inquiries. Again, the role of teachers’
professional knowledge of subject content warrants attention: teachers may need
ACEpapers September 2005 Hedges/Cullen 16 Issue 16
subject knowledge to extend children’s learning in the directions of children’s
knowledge and interests.
Teacher knowledge and confidence in subjects
Research has also investigated early childhood teachers’ knowledge in relation to
subject content. Kallery and Psillos (2001) investigated the science content knowledge
of teachers of five-year-olds, revealed through teachers’ responses to children’s
questions. Responses were categorised and demonstrated that only 21.9% included
sufficient scientific conceptual knowledge. Garbett (2003) investigated first year
early childhood student teachers’ conceptual knowledge of science through a multi-
choice test. Student teachers also self-assessed the adequacy of their knowledge and
predicted their test scores. Garbett found that many students had a limited
understanding of science but were unaware of this. The findings of Garbett (2003) and
Kallery and Psillos (2001) in relation to science are of particular concern for early
childhood education, where teachers traditionally have had little grounding in
subjects. This may mean that teachers have difficulty responding meaningfully to
children’s questions and interests.
Teachers’ beliefs in terms of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) are also relevant in relation
to confidence in subject content knowledge. Early childhood teachers who are
uncomfortable with their level of subject knowledge may rarely include certain
content in the learning environment they provide or extend interactions to their full
potential. Therefore, it seems likely that teachers’ beliefs and their lack of subject
content knowledge will impact both on the curriculum provided for children and on
teachers’ ability to effectively construct knowledge with children.
Highlighting subject knowledge
Children benefit from teaching embedded in experiences that are meaningful to them
such as play. Teachers’ participation in children’s play and learning forms windows of
opportunity to engage children in knowledge construction. The role of teachers’
17 Hedges/Cullen September 2005 ACEpapersIssue 16
subject knowledge in enhancing this learning is clearly identifiable in the research
cited earlier. Findings from an action research project in the United Kingdom
involving mathematics (Anning & Edwards, 1999) support the notion that early years
teachers who are confident about their subject knowledge are more likely to recognise
and maximise potential learning in children’s integrated play experiences.
Te Whāriki’s overall goal for children is “to grow up as competent and confident
learners and communicators, healthy in mind, body, and spirit, secure in their sense of
belonging and in the knowledge that they make a valued contribution to society”
(Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 9). If functioning as an adult member of society
requires a body of knowledge, then what might that knowledge consist of? A broad
knowledge is commonly promoted in a curriculum, including literacy, numeracy,
science, health, geography, arts and music (Edwards & Knight, 1994). Willer (1994)
claimed ten years ago that general knowledge ought to comprise the content of
curriculum for children. These expectations further support the contention that
teachers need comprehensive subject knowledge to support children’s learning.
Rodger (1995) argues that curriculum based on child development and play leads to
the omission of some kinds of knowledge in programmes for young children. She
specifically cites subject knowledge. Currently, it appears that subject knowledge may
be part of the hidden (i.e., underemphasised), or null (i.e., consciously excluded),
curriculum offered in early childhood education. It may also be a missing element of
early childhood teachers’ professional knowledge. However, we argue that utilising
discipline-related subject knowledge is appropriate and vital in order to respond
meaningfully to children’s content-related interests and inquiries.
Implications for teaching practice
Mainstream discourse has commonly conceptualised curriculum as content. On the
surface, the only strand in Te Whāriki that indicates significant expectation of
cognitive capabilities is exploration. However, this division becomes less arbitrary if
teachers view cognition as embedded within the other strands as could be argued from
ACEpapers September 2005 Hedges/Cullen 18 Issue 16
a sociocultural perspective. From this perspective of situated cognition, learning is
more holistic. Rodger (1995) argues that a shift in emphasis to a subject-centred
curriculum does not necessarily detract from children’s integrated learning. Hence
the principle of holism espoused in Te Whāriki may not be incompatible with an
increased focus on subjects.
Research findings cited in this paper suggest that a lack of emphasis on subject
content knowledge in early childhood may limit learning and teaching opportunities
and children’s inquiry-based learning. This is accentuated by studies that found
teachers’ conceptual knowledge to be inaccurate and insufficient (Garbett, 2003;
Kallery & Psillos, 2001). We contend that early childhood teachers need abundant
subject knowledge to teach confidently within holistic, integrated, early childhood
contexts.
Consequently, in order to promote children’s conceptual learning, teachers may need
subject knowledge included in their teacher education to enhance their own existing
knowledge. But how much subject knowledge is required? Willer (1994) asserts that
teachers need to know “about everything - science, social studies, literature, math,
music, and everything else in their (children’s) world of experience” (p. 4). A little is
clearly not enough. Teachers need adequate and accurate disciplinary knowledge from
a wide range of subjects. Moreover, some depth of knowledge is necessary, as studies
cited earlier clearly highlight (Garbett, 2003; Kallery & Psillos, 2001). To maximise
children’s learning teachers need to have extensive discipline-related subject
knowledge. Without sufficient grounding in subject knowledge, teachers may promote
inaccurate conceptual knowledge and thinking. Buckingham (1994) notes that specific
knowledge about children’s drawing is crucial to understanding and supporting
children’s artistic and creative learning; and Garbett (2003) and Hedges (2003a) argue
that the development of a science subject knowledge base to support children’s
scientific thinking is essential. Future research studies may contribute to identifying
19 Hedges/Cullen September 2005 ACEpapersIssue 16
what kinds of subject knowledge, and to what depth, are required to cater for
children’s learning in an integrated curriculum built on children’s interests.
Perhaps it is not subjects per se, but how teachers assist children to construct subject
knowledge that is the central pedagogical issue for early childhood education to
resolve. The potential of pedagogical content knowledge as a construct to resolve the
philosophical impasse in early childhood is raised by Hedges (2002, 2003a). Shulman
(1986) identified three components of pedagogical content knowledge: knowledge of
a subject; knowledge of children’s existing knowledge and beliefs about the subject;
and knowledge of effective ways to teach this subject to children. As noted earlier,
Cullen (1999) pointed out that early childhood teachers need both confidence with
their own subject content knowledge and an understanding of pedagogical strategies
to work with young children’s knowledge and interests. Siraj-Blatchford et al.’s
(2002) study provides examples of teaching practices where teachers’ content
knowledge extended children’s knowledge within a play-based environment and at a
level commensurate with children’s developing understandings of the world they live
in. These ideas have much in common with the sociocultural philosophy and theory
that underpin Te Whāriki. Where teachers’ subject knowledge is deeper teachers are
more likely to be confident about integrating curriculum, aware of their own subject
knowledge gaps, and more open to children’s interests, ideas, contributions, and
questions. These are all key tenets of early childhood pedagogical philosophy.
Implications for professional development
Professional development may be an essential strategy to develop teachers’ ability to
construct knowledge with children that stresses subject content learning. Highlighted
areas for proposals for professional development contracts from the Ministry of
Education for the 2005-2006 period include “domain knowledge”. Working with
teacher beliefs by providing access to research findings that support greater emphasis
on content learning is necessary.
ACEpapers September 2005 Hedges/Cullen 20 Issue 16
Ongoing, rather than piecemeal, professional development on subject knowledge,
learning theories, pedagogical approaches and curriculum appropriate for early
childhood education is recommended by the authors. Limited teacher confidence
about subject knowledge can be attended to through professional development. A
successful professional development programme in terms of increasing teachers’
confidence in science, combined attention to teachers’ child-centred beliefs, subject
knowledge, pedagogical knowledge and children’s prior knowledge (Watters,
Diezmann, Grieshaber & Davis, 2001). The approach of this particular programme
could be considered for wider application in relation to other subjects. Kirova and
Bhargava’s (2002) study of professional development related to mathematics in the
early childhood sector strongly supports the argument that teachers’ conceptual
knowledge enables appropriate curriculum planning to occur, guides pedagogical
approaches and documentation that facilitate meaningful learning for children, and
assists teachers’ confidence and professional growth.
Conclusion
An increased focus on content learning is not incompatible with early childhood
pedagogy and philosophy, particularly if the content relates to children’s interests.
Weaving content into interests-based learning is consistent with the pedagogical focus
of Te Whāriki (Cullen, 2003). Research evidence indicates that purposeful teaching
and learning occurs when teachers’ subject knowledge contributes to appropriate
pedagogical strategies used during authentic learning experiences as children try to
make sense of their experiences with the people, places and things in the world around
them. Early childhood teachers’ professional knowledge of subjects can assist
teachers to construct knowledge with children in ways that relate meaningfully to
children’s prior knowledge and experience and that guide children towards rewarding
lives in the contexts of their communities and cultures. The critical importance of
teachers having sufficient breadth and depth of subject knowledge in order to respond
meaningfully to and extend children’s interests and inquiries is highlighted.
21 Hedges/Cullen September 2005 ACEpapersIssue 16
Acknowledgement:
An earlier version of this paper was presented at the Teacher Education Forum of
Aōtearoa NewZealand conference, July 2004.
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