epistem course project
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RUNNING HEAD: REASONED ACTION 1
Course Project/Theory of Reasoned Action
Julie I Carter
PSF8106 SEC. 05
Epistemology of Practice Knowledge
6060 Crescentville Rd NA-11
Philadelphia, Pa. 19120
215-205-0016
Cori1mooker@yahoo.com
Professor Antonio Johnson
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ABSTRACT
The Theory of Reasoned Action developed by Martin Fishbein in 1967 has undergone several
amendments and has demonstrated huge value which has long assisted researchers in
understanding and predicting behaviors. In this paper the author will first examine the history,
main interventions and tenets of the Theory of Reasoned Action. The theory will be assessed in
the effect of subjective norms and attitudes in the areas of criminal behavior, consumer decisions
and alcohol and drug education. Second, the major assumptions of the theory to the axiological,
methodical and ontological assumptions of the epistemological paradigm of post- positivism,
research methods and research studies on the theory will be addressed.
RUNNING HEAD: REASONED ACTION 3
Originating in the field of social psychology was the development of the “Theory of Reasoned
Action”. As early as 1862 psychologist began to develop theories showing how attitude impacted
behavior. With the emphasis on behavior and attitude, it could be postulated that the theory grew
out of the 19th century as the field of psychology began to recognize the term “attitude”.
Suggested by these theories was the idea that attitudes could explain human actions. (Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980, p. 13) The first psychologists to view attitude as individual mental processes that
determine an individual’s potential and actual responses were Thomas and Znaniecki. This led
social scientists to see attitude as a predictor for behavior. These ideas remained intact until the
early 1960’s when attitudes and behaviors began to be reviewed by social scientists. (According
to Theory, n. d., p.1)
In understanding the relationship between behaviors and attitudes, there were several influences
such as: L.L. Thurston who in 1929 developed methods for measuring attitudes using interval
scales. These scales served as a model for what we know now refer to as the Likert-scale, in
1935 Gordon W. Allport theorized that the relationship between behavior and attitude was not
uni- dimensional but multi- dimensional, the scalogram analysis was developed to measure
beliefs about the object by Louis Guttman in 1944, the idea of Thurstone was adopted by Doob
in 1947, the 1950’s made the view that attitude is multi-dimensional universal and Rosenburg
and Hovland in the 60’s theorized that an individual’s attitude toward and object is filtered by
their behavior, cognition and effect. In 1969 and extensive literature review and survey was
conducted by Wicker and determined that, more likely than not, attitudes will be unrelated or
only slightly related to overt behaviors than that attitudes will be closely related to actions.
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980, p.25) In the late 1960’s, the Theory of Reasoned Action was developed
RUNNING HEAD: REASONED ACTION 4
by Martin Fishbein. Teaming up with Icek Ajzen in 1975 and again in the 80’s Fishbein
expanded and revised the theory. Their framework looks at behavioral intentions instead of
attitudes as the main predictors of behaviors. According to Fishbein and Ajzen (1975 & 1980),
three general constructs makeup the components of TRA; behavior intention (BI), attitude (A)
and subjective norms (SN). TRA suggest that an individual’s behavioral intention depends on the
individual’s attitude about the behavior and subject norms. (BI=A+SN) In other words, if an
individual intends to do something, more than likely, they will do it. They as well believe that
intentions themselves are guided by two things: their attitude toward the behavior and the subject
norm. A person’s relative strength of intention to perform a behavior is behavioral intent, and
consisting of beliefs about the consequences of performing the behavior magnified by their
valuation of the consequences, is attitude. (According to Theory of Reason, 2010, p.1)
One of the major assumptions in this theory is that people are usually quite rational and make
systematic use of information that is available to them. Implications of their actions are
considered before the decision is made to engage or not to engage a given behavior. (Ajzen &
Fishbein, 1980, p. 5) However, this proved to create some problem areas. One as indicated by
Fishbein & Ajzen, is that attitudes and norms are not equally weighed in predicting behavior. In
fact, depending on the situation and the individual, these factors may have a different effect on
behavioral intention. For example, if you are the kind of person who could care less what others
think, then the subjective norms would have little weight in predicting your behavior. (Miller,
2005, p.127) Realizing this inadequacy led Ajzen to describe the aspects of attitudes and
behavior as being on a continuum…from one of little control to one of great control. To balance
these observations, Ajzen decided to include a third element to the original theory of reasoned
RUNNING HEAD: REASONED ACTION 5
action. The element added was the concept of perceived behavioral control. This perceived
behavioral control is determined by the factors of control beliefs and perceived power. This
addition gave way to the main intervention strategy which is an extension of TRA. It is referred
to as the Theory of Planned Behavior. Just as in the original theory (TRA) the central factor in
the theory of planned behavior is the individual’s intentions to perform, a given behavior.
Assumed to capture the motivational factors that influence behavior are intensions; they are
indications of how hard individuals are willing to try and how much effort they are planning to
exert in order to perform the behavior. (Ajzen, 1991)
The theory of planned behavior places the construct of self-efficacy belief or perceived
behavioral control into a more general framework of the relations among attitudes, beliefs,
behavior and intentions. The knowledge of the role of perceived behavioral control came from
Bandura’s concept of self-efficacy which is rooted in social cognitive theory. One of the
differences between TRA and TPB is of course the addition of the third determinant of
behavioral intention, the perceived control. This control indicates that an individual’s motivation
is influenced by how difficult the behaviors are perceived to be and the perception of how
successfully the person can or cannot perform the task. If strong control beliefs are held by the
individual about the existence of the factors that may facilitate the behavior the individual will
have high “perceived control” over that behavior. In contrast, there will be a low perception of
control if a person holds strong beliefs that will impede the behavior. As well, this perception can
reflect anticipation of upcoming circumstances, past experiences and attitudes of influential
norms that surround the individual. The TRA theory is noted as having the most success when
applied to behaviors that are under a person’s volitional control. (According to Theory, n. d., p.3)
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Behavioral theories (TRA, TPB) have potential applications in many areas. Some prominent
applications include education, healthcare and criminal behavior in which I have been
extensively exposed to having worked twenty five years in the correctional system. As these
issues are important to policy making and societal functionality, there has been a renewed
interest in these theories as criminologists have begun to measure individual cognitive processes
more carefully. Here we will look at TRA in criminal decision making and intentions.
The well known paper by Grasmick and Green (1980) was a convenient landmark. Grasmick and
Green argued that earlier deterrence work failed because of measurement deficiencies They
stressed that it is an individual’s own perception of his or her risk detection and punishment that
can predict personal behaviors rather than the individual’s general view as to the likelihood if
someone else is getting caught and punished. (Tuck & Riley, n. d.) Given the likely importance
of familial and social norms to the decision to offend, Tuck and Green further argue that the
TORA (theory of reasoned action) was specifically developed to take into account such variables
is a significant argument in its favor. Whether related to events or involvement:, whatever the
time scale, whatever the level of specificity or generality under consideration and whatever the
forms of information processing involved, TRA is seen as applicable to all criminal decision
making. However, given its range of applications such as family-planning behaviors, career
intentions, consumer choice and its continued reliance on SEU paradigms, the theory may
initially prove to be more useful in exploring the processes and determinants of choice behavior
in relation to criminal involvement and desistance and continuance instead of in relation to
criminal events. (Tuck & Riley, n. d.) The TORA’s methods for and emphasis upon exploring
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the influence of salient behavioral and normative beliefs on the formation of the intention to
commit a crime, offer critical and potentially policy-relevant new perspectives on deterrence
issues. It is important to note that the theory is uncompromisingly cognitive. For example, it
holds that the effect of any other variables on actions, including criminal actions will be filtered
through only two variables that are held to affect behavioral intention; the subject’s attitude to
the act concerned and his/her subjective norm concerning the act. As beliefs are responsive to
factors external to the individual, this superficially simple model of the form of the decision
process is capable of dealing with the sublets of crime choices and therefore avoids the
deterministic problems associated with dispositional approaches. (Tuck & Riley, n. d.)
Particular strengths of the theory for dealing with criminal decision making are, it gives a formal
and central role to those processes of social norms formation that we know to be vital in the
corrections field and it can deal with differences in the levels of specificity of decisions.
However as empirical studies in criminology support behavioral change theories, these theories
are not universally accepted. Yet, at the same time general theories of behavioral change do
suggest possible explanations to criminal behavior and methods of correcting criminal deviant
behavior. (Akers, 1979) Some criticisms include the theories’ emphases on individual behavior
and a disregard for the influence of environmental factors on behavior. Additionally, some
theories were formulated as guides to understanding behavior while others were designed as
framework for behavioral interventions the theories’ purposes are not consistent. (According to
Behavioral, 2010, p.4) From a general view , application of the theory of planned behavior to a
particular area of interest, whether a drinking problem, condom use or leisure behavior, provides
a host of information that can be extremely useful in any attempt to understand these behaviors.
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Sharma (2007) examined the theory of reasoned action and the theory of planned behavior in
alcohol and drug education. The study was conducted in south-eastern Michigan and assessed the
predictive potential of the theory of planned behavior with regard to use, misuse and frequency
of use among eight graders. The researchers further then compared the theory of reasoned action
and the theory of planned behavior in predicting the intention to use alcohol. Variables such as
encouraging parents to have discussions related to alcohol use with their children, getting
involved in prevention programs, decreasing peer pressure and alcohol availability were used.
The study used multiple regression modeling that demonstrated that intention explained about
26% of variance in alcohol use, 37% of variance in frequency of alcohol use and approximately
30% of variance in misuse. However, in the TPB model the important variables were found to be
peer pressure and friend’s experiences with alcohol. The normative belief of parents was found
to be an essential predictor.
The study found that the theory of reason action and the theory of planned behavior do predict
behavioral intention and behavior, yet they did not necessarily explain behavior change which is
a prime concern for alcohol and drug programming. Other finding were, personality related
factors, demographic variables that shape behavior and cultural factors are not considered in the
theory of reasoned action or the theory of planned behavior and that these theories only focused
on rational thoughts and did not account for irrational fears or thoughts that are covered in
alcohol and drug education. (Sharma, 2007)
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Another application of the theory of reasoned action can be seen in a study conducted by (Volk,
2001). E- Commerce, the Consumer Decision Process, and the Theory of Reasoned Action
sought to access users’ attitudes regarding online consumer behaviors. More and more
companies are relying on e-commerce as a principle method of revenue. Yet, little is known
about the behaviors of online shoppers. The researcher in this study considered nine Intranet
behaviors across five consumer behavior processes to apply the theory. The nine behaviors
consisted of clicking on banner ads: searching for product information in online stores, using
search engines, reading e-mail advertisements, using comparison engines and online reviews to
evaluate alternatives, accessing online customer support via e-mail and web sites and purchase
products. The five consumer behavior processes were information search: purchase outcomes,
motivation and need recognition, alternatives evaluation and purchase decision and purchase.
(Volk, 2001)
These behaviors and attitudes were then studied within the theoretical constructs of the theory of
reasoned action. The theory was adopted in order to examine the relationship between attitudes
and future intention to participate in these behaviors. I t was hypothesized that the normative
and attitudinal components of the theory of reasoned action would be predictive of the behavioral
intention on each of the nine behaviors. (Volk, 2001)
Two hundred and ninety – two Intranet users were recruited form staff, faculty and students of a
university (N=132) and Intranet mailing lists (N=160) to answer what would be and online
survey.
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About 50% of the participants reported a household income of over 50,000/year and sixty-four
percent (N=186) were female. Area type (urban, rural or suburban), ethnicity and affluence were
represented across the sample. The theory of reasoned action portion of the survey consisted of
the normative and attitude components. The respondents were asked to indicate the extent that
they intended to participate in each behavior over a 12 month period, as well as their past
experience regarding each behavior. The data was collected quantitatively though the
longitudinal survey and regression analysis were employed to test the hypotheses. The theory of
reasoned actions normative component only placed significantly on intention to use e-mail
support. The researchers note that recent research has been focused on purchase behavior so it is
not surprising that the relationship between purchase intention and purchase behavior is the most
understood with 50% of the variance accounted for by, the theory of reasoned action regression
equation. (Volk, 2001)
As the study demonstrated that Intranet user attitudes and the intention to participate in a e-
commerce related behavior can be studied effectively within the theoretical constructs of the
theory of reasoned action, it highlighted the need for further research in two critical areas: the
clear identification of knowledge gaps in the consumer decision process with regard to behavior
and the applicability of applying the traditional social psychological theories to Intranet
behaviors. However, the research does suggest that a line of investigation that focuses on the
application on the theory of reasoned action to online behaviors in a manner that is methodically
consistent with Fishbein (1980) is required to understand the applicability of these theoretical
constructs to online consumer behavior. (Volk, 2001)
RUNNING HEAD: REASONED ACTION 11
As we have examined three different applications of the theory of reasoned action it is important
to note that all theories have an epistemological foundation. In the theory of reasoned action, I
would offer that the underlying epistemological paradigm of the theory is post- positivism. Post-
positivism is a wholesale rejection of the central tenets of positivism. Trochim (2006) found that
post-positivist begin by recognizing that the way scientist work and think and the way we think
in our everyday life are not so distinctively different. Common sense reasoning and scientific
reasoning are essentially the same processes as there is no difference “in kind” between the two,
only a difference in degree. Post- positivism as well provides an alternative to the foundations
and traditions of positivism for conducting disciplined inquiries. Reality is not a rigid thing for
the post-positivist researcher instead it is a creation of those involved in the research. Among the
various factors that influence reality construction, gender, culture, and cultural beliefs are most
critical. They are what recognizes’ the intricate relationship between individual behavior,
external structures, attitudes and socio-cultural issues. (Crossan, 2003)
Post-positivist approaches give way to both quantitative and qualitative methods. They describe
this as “critical multiplism”. The critical implies that as in positivism, the need for logical
reasoning, rigour, precision and attention to evidence is required however, unlike positivism this
is not confined to what can be physically observed. The fact that research can generally be
approached from several perspectives is multiplism. Evidence to this fact is offered by the three
aforementioned studies utilizing the theory of reasoned action. (Crossan, 2003)
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One of the ontological assumptions of the epistemological paradigm in relation to the theory of
reasoned action is that post-positivism focuses on the importance of utilizing multiple measures
in addition to observations, each of which may possess different types of error and the need to
use triangulation across these multiple sources to try to get a better bead on what’s happening in
reality. One of the most common forms of post-positivism is the philosophy of critical realism.
The critical realist believes that there is a reality that is independent of our thinking about it that
science can study. The post-positivist critical realist recognizes that all observation is fallible,
has error and that all theory is revisable. Critical realists’ are critical of our ability to “know”
reality with certainty. (Trochim, 2006)
Ontological tenets of the theory include perceived behavioral control over resources, opportunity
and skills necessary to perform a behavior is believed to be critical to the behavioral change
process. The theory of reasoned action provides a framework to study attitudes towards
behaviors. As a result, intention is an important contributor in determining behavior and
behavioral change. According to Icek Ajzen (1985), intentions develop from a person’s
perception of a behavior as negative or positive together with the individual’s impression of the
way society will perceive the same behavior. Essential to the performance of a behavior and
consequently behavioral change, personal attitude and social pressure is shaped by this intention.
(Ajzen, 1985) Still some researchers conclude that the theory of planned behavior is based on the
cognitive processing and level of behavior change. (Theory of planned, n. d. , p.6)
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Axiological assumptions of the epistemological paradigm are it raises the level of subjectivity
within the realm of research and the post-positivist believes that all observations are theory –
laden and that scientists are inherently biased by their cultural experiences and world views.
Because I have my own world view based on my experiences and you have yours does not mean
that we cannot hope to translate from each other’s experiences or understand each other. In other
words, post-positivism rejects the relativist idea of the incommensurability of different
perspectives, the idea that we can never understand each other because we come from different
cultures and experiences. Most post-positivist are constructivist s who believe we each construct
our own view of the world based on our perceptions of it. (Trochim, 2006) Positivists believe
that objectivity is a characteristic that resides in the individual scientist and that scientists are
responsible for setting aside their beliefs and biases and seeing the world as it “really” is. On the
other hand, post-positivist reject the idea that anyone can see the world perfectly or as it “really”
is. All of our observations are affected (theory-laden) as we all are biased. (Trochim, 2006)
An axiological tenet of the theory of reasoned action is that an individual’s behavioral intention
cannot be the only determinate of behavior when an individual’s control over behavior is
incomplete. Multiple perspectives can be utilized to choose research questions, methods, define
research goals, analysis and to interpret results. Researchers note, that post-positivist approaches
generally relate to participatory and interactive nature of qualitative methods. It is suggested
that this is a vital weakness that is due to the proximity of the researchers to the investigations.
(Crossan, 2006)
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The methodical assumptions of the epistemological paradigm centers on the philosophy of
critical realism which states that a reality is said to exist autonomously from an individual’s
ability to cognitively comprehend it. The qualitative paradigm alone when examined in detail
encompasses a diversity of methods that vary in philosophical assumptions about reality, valid
data and collection methods, aims, and sources. Post-positivism research need not exclude either
qualitative “truths” or data found outside quantitative method. Critical to rejecting the strict
dichotomy that is often drawn between quantitative and qualitative paradigms is the acceptance
of this. As the failings of positivism may form some justification for alternative methods, they
need not be those traditionally equated with the qualitative paradigm. Post-positivism was in
itself a reaction to the limitations. The triangulation of quantitative and qualitative methods in the
same research studies, have indicated a tacit acceptance of post-positivistic philosophy. (Clark,
1998)
In the theory of reasoned action, tenets of the theory state that the theory provides an
organizational scheme and framework for existing and new knowledge. It will give insight and
order to what can be, or has been observed. For the most part, research has been supportive of
the theory of reasoned action. Some of the behaviors that have been successfully predicted would
include blood donation: cheating in college, voting, and consumer purchasing. Some of the
factors that influence the relative weights of the two components in predicting behavioral
intention are culture: gender, self-related constructs, consciousness and self-monitoring and past
behavior. (Park & Levine, 1999)
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The research methods that were utilized in the three studies that were presented in this paper in
this author’s opinion were consistent with the methodological assumptions of the
epistemological paradigm in that the methods of post-positivism within the realm of conducting
research usually tend to be on the qualitative end of the spectrum where concepts can be
measured and quantified. Despite the openness of post-positivism to other means of inquiry, it
can be argued that post-positivism retains some of the weaknesses of positivism that makes it
inappropriate. However, the approach still focuses on rendering complex aspects of human
beings researchable, seeking prediction, causation and explanation in the regularities and patterns
of life. Hence, as it is frequently agreed upon, the research questions should be answered with
the appropriate research methods. As particular methods cannot answer every type of problem
pertaining to spiritual, physical, experiential and psychological realms, methods that belong to
the traditional qualitative paradigms therefore will retain great use in answering vital questions
which quantitative methods cannot. (Clark, 1998)
What remains vital is that method selection is based not on a limited view of science but on the
accurate understanding of all forms of inquiry with justifications being based on contemporary
understandings as to how to best answer research questions. It is important to note that while
positivist and post-positivist methods are often seen as opposing and polarized views, they are
frequently used in conjunction. The distinction between the philosophies is considered to be
overstated. (Crossan, 2003)
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In conclusion, when it comes to dealing with the complexities of human social behavior, the
Theory of Reasoned Action/the Theory of Planned Behavior provides a useful conceptual
framework. It incorporates some of the central concepts in the behavior and social sciences and
defines them in a way that permits understanding and prediction of particular behaviors in
specified contexts. Attitudes toward the behavior and subject norms with respect to the behavior
and perceived control over the behavior have been found to predict behavioral intentions with a
high degree of accuracy. In combination, these intentions and perceived behavioral control
account for a considerable proportion of variance in behavior. This was evident in the
presentation of the three different areas of study in which this author applied the theory of
reasoned action. (Ajzen, 1991)
Rather than understand these beliefs as the empirical outcomes of inter-subjectively reliable
tests, the epistemological paradigm of post-positivism would review them as the product of a
chain of interpretive judgments, that are both technical and social and that have been arrived at
by researchers in particular places and times. From this perspective, social scientific theories can
be understood as assemblages of theoretical presuppositions, interpretive judgments, research
practices, voices, empirical data, and social strategies. (Fisher, 1998)
In this author’s opinion, one of the primary strengths of a theory in this respect would be its
ability to establish contrite equivalences and discursive connections between otherwise disparate
elements as well as incorporate new ones. The theory of planned behavior model is a very
powerful and useful tool for explaining human behavior.
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References
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(Eds)., Action control: From cognition to behavior. Berlin, Heideler, New York: Springer-
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Ajzen, I (1991) The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision
Processes, 50, 179-211
Ajzen, I. & Fishbein, M. (1980) Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall
Akers, R. L., Krohn, M. D., Lawza-Kaduce, L. & Radosevich, M. (1979) Social learning and
deviant behavior: a specific test of general theory. American Sociological Review, 44(4),
636-655
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Clark, A. (1998) The qualitative - quantitative debate: moving from positivism and
confrontation to post-positivism and reconciliation. Journal of Advanced Nursing 27, 1242-
1249
Crossan, F. (2003) Research philosophy: an understanding. Nurse Researcher, 11, 46-55
Fishbein, M. & Ajzen, I. (1975) Belief, attitude, intervention and behavior: an introduction to
theory and research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley
Fisher, F. (1998) Beyond empiricism: policy inquiry in post-positivist perspective. Policies
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Grasmick, H. G. & Green, D. E. (1980) Legal punishment social disapproval as inhibitors of
illegal behaviors. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 71, 325-335
Miller, K. (2005) Communications theories: prospective, process and contexts. New York:
McGraw-Hill
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Park, H. S. (1999) The theory of reasoned action and self-construal: evidence from three
cultures. Communications Monographs 66, 200-220
Sharma, M. (2007) The theory of reasoned action & theory of planned behavior in alcohol
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http://www.infosihat.gov
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Trochim, W.M.K., (2006) Positivism & Post-positivism. Retrieved August 1, 2010, from
http://www.socialresearchmethods.net
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