final f-97 03 - universiti teknologi...
Post on 21-Apr-2018
218 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
√U
DECLARATION OF THESIS / UNDERGRADUATE PROJECT PAPER AND COPYRIGHT
Author’s full name : NUR HAFIZAH BINTI ABD KHALID
Date of birth : 15th June 1984
Title : BINDER AND MICRO-FILLER CHARACTERIZATION AND PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL FUEL ASH POLYMER CONCRETE
Academic Session : 2015/2016-1
I declare that this thesis is classified as:
I acknowledged that Universiti Teknologi Malaysia reserves the right as follows:
1. The thesis is the property of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
2. The Library of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia has the right to make copies for the
purpose of research only.
3. The Library has the right to make copies of the thesis for academic exchange.
Certified by :
SIGNATURE SIGNATURE OF SUPERVISOR
840615-01-5316 Professor. Ir. Dr. Mohd Warid Bin Hussin
(NEW IC NO./PASSPORT NO.) NAME OF SUPERVISOR
Date : 19th November 2015 Date : 19th November 2015
NOTES :If the thesis is CONFIDENTAL or RESTRICTED, please attach with the letter from the
organization with period and reasons for confidentiality or restriction.
UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA
CONFIDENTIAL (Contains confidential information under the
Official Secret Act 1972)*
RESTRICTED (Contains restricted information as specified by
the organization where research was done)*
OPEN ACCESS I agree that my thesis to be published as online
open access (full text)
PSZ 19:16 (Pind. 1/07)
√
ii
“We hereby declare that we have read this thesis and in our
opinion this thesis is sufficient in terms of scope and quality for the purpose of
awarding the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)”
Signature : ........................................................................
Name of Supervisor I : Professor Ir. Dr. Mohd Warid Bin Hussin
Date : 19th November 2015
Signature : .............................................................................
Name of Supervisor II : Professor Dr. Mohammad Bin Ismail
Date : 19th November 2015
Signature : .............................................................................
Name of Supervisor III : Associate Professor Dr. Mohamed A. Ismail
Date : 19th November 2015
BAHAGIAN A – Pengesahan Kerjasama*
Adalah disahkan bahawa projek penyelidikan tesis ini telah dilaksanakan melalui kerjasama
antara ________________________ dengan _________________________
Disahkan oleh:
Tandatangan :………………………………………….. Tarikh: …………
Nama :…………………………………………..
Jawatan :………………………………………….. (Cop rasmi)
* Jika penyediaan tesis/projek melibatkan kerjasama.
BAHAGIAN B – Untuk Kegunaan Pejabat Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah
Tesis ini telah diperiksa dan diakui oleh:
Nama dan Alamat Pemeriksa Luar : _______________________________________
: _______________________________________
Nama dan Alamat Pemeriksa Dalam : _______________________________________
: _______________________________________
Nama dan Alamat Pemeriksa Dalam : _______________________________________
: _______________________________________
Nama Penyelia lain (jika ada) :
Disahkan oleh Timbalan Pendaftar di Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah:
Tandatangan : ……………………………………………………. Tarikh:…………..
Nama : …………………………………………………….
BINDER AND MICRO-FILLER CHARACTERIZATION AND
PROPERTIES OF PALM OIL FUEL ASH POLYMER CONCRETE
NUR HAFIZAH BINTI ABD KHALID
A thesis submitted in fulfilment
of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)
Faculty of Civil Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
NOVEMBER 2015
ii
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis entitled “Binder and Micro-Filler Characterization and
Properties of Palm Oil Fuel Ash Polymer Concrete” is the result of my own research
except as cited in the references. The thesis has not been accepted for any degree
and is not concurrently submitted in candidature of any other degree.
Signature :………………………………….
Name :………………………………..
Date :…………………………………
Nur Hafizah Binti Abd Khalid
19th November 2015
iii
DEDICATION
Alhamdulillah, praise to Allah for giving me the strength and opportunity to
complete this study.
I dedicate this thesis to my beloved husband, Azman Bin Mohamed and my gorgeous
son, Ariff Akhtar Bin Azman for their love and sacrifice.
To my beloved parents and in laws: Abd. Khalid Bin M. Latiff and Rukiah Abd
Rahman, Mohamed Bin Jaffar and Jamilah Bt Sulaiman. Thank you for your prayers
and support, and for always being there for me through happiness and sadness.
To my close friend: Tang Horng Eng, Tengku Elly Malini Tengku Ahmad, Nur
Zulaikha Mohd Bekeri, Nur Farhayu Ariffin and Nor Hasanah Abdul Shukor Lim.
Thanks for always listening, supporting and encouraging me. You are true friends.
Love you all
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Allah S.W.T for blessing me with excellent health and ability
during the process of completing my thesis.
Special thanks to my supervisor Professor Ir. Dr. Mohd Warid Hussin (Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia) and co-supervisors Professor Dr. Mohammad Ismail
(Universiti Teknologi Malaysia) and Professor Dr. Mohamed A. Ismail (Hanyang
University, Korea) who have given me the opportunity to learn a great deal of
knowledge, and guiding me towards fulfilling this achievement.
My gratitude is also extended to the “Structures and Materials Laboratory” staff.
Thank you for the support and friendship showered upon me throughout the
experimental periods.
I would like to thank the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MOSTI),
University Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) as my Research University, and the Research
Management Centre (RMC) for the financial and management support provided
under Research University Grant (RUG); Q.J. 130000.7122.03H35.
Finally, I would like to thank my lovely husband Azman Bin Mohamed for his
unconditional support and assistance in various occasions. All your kindness will
not be forgotten.
v
ABSTRACT
Polymer concrete (PC) is less popular in tropical countries because its common binders such as thermoset resins are very sensitive towards temperature. This problem potentially accelerates the polymerization process until it jeopardizes its early strength development and ultimately produces PC with low workability, high porosity and weaker material bonding. To address this, polymer inhibitor additive of Methyl Methacrylate (MMA) was introduced. Before that, characterization work on binder formulation was done using Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Characterization on fillers was done under microstructure examination to gauge its fineness, thermal behaviour, and morphology. Ground POFA (GPOFA) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) were categorized as fine micro-filler while unground POFA (UPOFA) and silica sand (Sand) were taken as coarse micro-filler. The blended polymer and PC with optimum mix proportion with low binder (11%, 12%, and 13%) and different micro-filler content (8%, 10%, 12%, 14%, and 16%) was investigated under flowability (worakability) and compression tests. Four types of PC (PC-GPOFA, PC-CaCO3, PC-UPOFA, and PC-Sand) with two polyester binders (Isophthalic and Orthophthalic) were produced to investigate its physical, mechanical and microstructure properties. GPOFA gave excellent flowability and led to high compressive strength at 12% binder content and 14% filler content. PC incorporating fine micro-filler had the best compressive, flexural, splitting tensile strength. Also, with its great dispersal characteristics, denser PC with reduced water absorption and formation of pores was achieved. Isophthalic PC-GPOFA to normal concrete (NC) bond substrate had 57% of improved bonding strength compared to Isophthalic PC-UPOFA to NC bond substrate, tested under slant shear and splitting tensile tests. As a conclusion, POFA is a highly promising filler for PC after being physically modified. This work also aims to assist both researchers and engineers in the field of PC incorporated with agricultural waste as micro-filler, especially in the tropical countries.
vi
ABSTRAK
Konkrit polimer (polymer concrete-PC) adalah kurang popular di negara-negara tropika kerana pengikat biasanya seperti resin termoset adalah sangat sensitif terhadap suhu. Masalah ini boleh mempercepatkan proses pempolimeran sehingga memudaratkan pembentukan kekuatan awal dan akhirnya menghasilkan PC dengan kebolehkerjaan yang rendah, keliangan yang tinggi dan ikatan bahan yang lemah. Keadaan ini boleh ditangani dengan penambahan polimer perencat tambahan daripada metil metakrilat (MMA). Pencirian formulasi pengikat telah dilakukan melalui Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) dan Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). Pencirian pengisi telah dikaji melalui pemeriksaan mikrostruktur untuk mengetahui kehalusan, tingkah laku haba, dan morfologinya. Ground POFA (GPOFA) dan kalsium karbonat (CaCO3) dianggap sebagai mikro-pengisi halus manakala unground POFA (UPOFA) dan pasir silika (Pasir) dikategorikan sebagai mikro-pengisi kasar. Campuran polimer dengan PC pada kadar campuran yang optimum dengan kandungan pengikat rendah (11%, 12%, dan 13%) dan mikro-pengisi yang berbeza (8%, 10%, 12%, 14%, dan 16%) telah melalui ujian kebolehaliran (kebolehkerjaan) dan mampatan. Empat jenis PC (PC-GPOFA, PC-CaCO3, PC-UPOFA, dan PC-Sand) dengan dua pengikat poliester (Isophthalic dan Orthophthalic) telah dibuat untuk mengkaji sifat fizikal, mekanikal dan mikrostruktur. GPOFA mempunyai kebolehaliran dan kekuatan mampatan yang tinggi pada 12% kandungan pengikat dan 14% kandungan pengisi. Campuran PC dan mikro-pengisi halus mempunyai kekuatan mampatan, lenturan, dan kekuatan tegangan belahan yang terbaik serta struktur yang padat dan kadar penyerapan air dan pembentukan liang yang rendah. Gabungan Isophthalic PC-GPOFA dengan konkrit biasa (NC) mempunyai 57% peningkatan kekuatan ikatan daripada gabungan PC-UPOFA dengan NC semasa diuji di bawah ujian ricih condong dan tegangan belahan. Kesimpulannya, POFA adalah pengisi yang berpotensi untuk PC selepas pengubahsuain fizikal dijalankan. Kerja-kerja ini bertujuan membantu para penyelidik dan jurutera dalam bidang penggabungan PC dengan sisa pertanian sebagai mikro-pengisi, terutamanya di negara-negara tropika.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION .............................................................................. ii
DEDICATION ................................................................................. iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................. iv
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................... v
ABSTRAK ....................................................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................. vii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................ xiv
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................... xix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................. xxviii
LIST OF SYMBOLS .................................................................. xxxi
LIST OF APPENDICES .......................................................... xxxiii
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Background of Study 3
1.3 Background of Problem 4
1.4 Aim and Objectives 6
1.5 Scope of Study 7
1.6 Research Methodology 8
viii
1.7 Significance of Study 10
1.8 Thesis Outlines 10
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 12
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 Polymer concrete 13
2.2.1 Polymer Binder ....................................................... 13
2.2.2 Polymer Additive .................................................... 15
2.2.2.1 Curing Agent (Catalysts) ........................ 16
2.2.2.2 Curing Agent (Accelerator) .................... 18
2.2.2.3 Inhibitors .................................................. 18
2.2.3 Aggregate and Filler ................................................ 19
2.2.3.1 Aggregate ................................................. 19
2.2.3.2 Filler ......................................................... 20
2.2.3.2.1 Palm Oil Fuel Ash (POFA) ... 24
2.3 Curing Process of Polymer Concrete 28
2.4 Filler in Fresh Blended Polymer 29
2.4.1 Physical Properties ................................................... 30
2.4.2 Filling Ability ........................................................... 31
2.5 Filler in Hardened Polymer 32
2.5.1 Amorphous Solid ..................................................... 33
2.5.2 Morphology Properties ............................................ 34
2.5.3 Tensile Properties .................................................... 36
2.6 Filler in Polymer Concrete 37
2.6.1 Physical Properties .................................................. 38
2.6.1.1 Water Absorption .................................... 38
2.6.1.2 Dense Packing Structure ......................... 39
ix
2.6.2 Mechanical Properties .............................................. 40
2.6.3 Microstructure Properties ......................................... 42
2.6.3.1 Porosity .................................................. 42
2.6.3.2 Morphology Properties .......................... 43
2.7 Application of Polymer Concrete 45
2.7.1 Structural Concrete-to-Concrete Interfaces ............. 46
2.8 Summary of Research Gap 50
3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 53
3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 Research Framework 54
3.3 Characterizations of Raw Materials 62
3.3.1 Characterizations of Polymer Binder ....................... 62
3.3.1.1 Viscosity ................................................. 62
3.3.1.2 Working Life ........................................... 64
3.3.1.3 Hardness .................................................. 66
3.3.1.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) ....................... 68
3.3.1.5 Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy (FTIR) ............................. 69
3.3.1.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) ... 69
3.3.1.7 Tensile Test ........................................... 70
3.3.2 Characterizations of Micro Filler ............................ 74
3.3.2.1 Apparent Density ................................... 76
3.3.2.2 X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) ................... 78
3.3.2.3 Particle Size Analyzer (PSA) ................ 79
3.3.2.4 Brunauer/Emmett/Teller Nitrogen
Absorption Test (BET) .......................... 79
3.3.2.5 Morphology ........................................... 80
x
3.3.2.6 Termogravimetric and Differential
Thermal Analysis (TGA and DTA) ....... 81
3.4 Properties of Polymer Concrete Incorporating
Micro-Filler 82
3.4.1 Mix proportion of Polymer Concrete ....................... 82
3.4.2 Mix Proportion of Normal Concrete ........................ 91
3.4.3 Preparation of Polymer Concrete .............................. 92
3.4.4 Post-Curing Regime of Polymer Concrete ............... 95
3.4.5 Desired Mix Proportion of Polymer concrete ........... 95
3.4.5.1 Flowability ............................................. 96
3.4.5.2 Cube Compressive Strength .................. 97
3.4.6 Physical Properties of Polymer Concrete ................. 98
3.4.6.1 Apparent Density ................................... 98
3.4.6.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) .......... 98
3.4.6.3 Water Absorption of Polymer Concrete 100
3.4.7 Mechanical Properties of Polymer Concrete ......... 101
3.4.7.1 Cylinder Compressive Strength ........... 101
3.4.7.2 Flexural Strength ................................. 104
3.4.7.3 Splitting Tensile Strength .................... 107
3.4.8 Microstructure Properties ...................................... 108
3.4.8.1 Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP) 108
3.4.8.2 Morphology ......................................... 111
3.5 Bonding Behaviour of Polymer Concrete to
Normal Concrete Substrate 112
3.5.1 Preparation and Bond Test of Polymer
Concrete to Normal Concrete Substrate............... 113
3.5.1.1 Slant Shear Test ................................... 113
3.5.1.2 Splitting Tensile Test ........................... 116
xi
3.5.2 Mode of Failure .................................................... 117
3.5.3 Mohr-Coulomb Theory ........................................ 119
4 CHARACTERIZATIONS OF RAW MATERIALS OF
POLYMER BINDER AND MICRO-FILLER 122
4.1 Introduction 122
4.2 Characterization of Raw Materials 122
4.2.1 Characterization of Polymer Binder .................... 123
4.2.1.1 Viscosity .............................................. 123
4.2.1.2 Working Life ....................................... 125
4.2.1.3 Hardness .............................................. 127
4.2.1.4 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) .................... 129
4.2.1.5 Fourier Transform Infrared
Spectroscopy (FTIR) ........................... 130
4.2.1.6 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) 131
4.2.1.7 Tensile Properties ................................ 134
4.2.2 Characterizations of Filler .................................... 144
4.2.2.1 Apparent Density ................................. 144
4.2.2.2 Chemical Composition ........................ 145
4.2.2.3 Particle Size Distribution ..................... 147
4.2.2.4 Surface Area ........................................ 148
4.2.2.5 Morphology Image .............................. 149
4.2.2.6 Termo-gravimetric and Differential
Thermal Analysis (TGA and DTA) ..... 150
4.3 Summary 153
4.3.1 Characterization of Polymer Binder .................... 153
4.3.2 Characterizations of Filler .................................... 154
xii
5 PROPERTIES OF POLYMER CONCRETE
INCORPORATING MICRO-FILLER 156
5.1 Introduction 156
5.2 Post-Curing of Polymer Concrete 156
5.3 Optimum Desired Mix Proportion of Polymer concrete 160
5.3.1 Flowability ........................................................... 161
5.3.2 Compressive Strength .......................................... 173
5.4 Properties of Polymer Concrete 185
5.4.1 Physical Properties ............................................... 185
5.4.1.1 Apparent Density ................................. 185
5.4.1.2 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) ........ 195
5.4.1.3 Water Absorption ................................ 201
5.4.2 Mechanical Properties .......................................... 207
5.4.2.1 Compressive Strength .......................... 208
5.4.2.2 Flexural Strength ................................. 217
5.4.2.3 Splitting Tensile Strength .................... 225
5.4.3 Microstructure Properties ..................................... 228
5.4.3.1 Porosity ................................................ 228
5.4.3.2 Morphology Image .............................. 237
5.5 Summary 239
5.5.1 Desired Post-Curing Regime of Polymer
Concrete ............................................................... 239
5.5.2 Optimum Desired Mix Proportion of Polymer
Concrete ............................................................... 239
5.5.3 Properties of Polymer Concrete ........................... 240
xiii
6 BONDING BEHAVIOUR OF POLYMER CONCRETE TO
NORMAL CONCRETE SUBSTRATE 243
6.1 Introduction 243
6.2 Polymer Concrete to Normal Concrete 243
6.2.1 Slant Shear ........................................................... 244
6.2.2 Splitting Tensile ................................................... 248
6.3 Mode of Failure 249
6.4 Mohr-Coulomb Theory 252
6.5 Summary 255
7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMENDATIONS 256
7.1 Conclusions 256
7.2 Recommendations 258
REFERENCES ............................................................................. 259
Appendices A-H 269-286
xiv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE
2.1 Properties of Isophthalic and Orthophthalic polyester
resin (Gorninski et al,. 2007)
15
2.2 Common filler used in polymeric system (Roger and
Hancock, 2003; Sung et al., 1997)
22
2.3 Chemical composition and properties of POFA (Awal
and Shehu, 2013)
26
2.4 Summary of curing system 29
2.5 Summary of tensile properties of polymer composites
filled with various type of filler
37
2.6 Water absorption of PC incorporating filler 39
2.7 Effect of filler on mechanical properties of PC 41
2.8 Applications of polymer mortar in Japan (Yoshihiko
Ohama, 1997)
45
2.9 Applications of PC in Japan (Yoshihiko Ohama, 1997) 46
3.1 Type of testing, standard method and number of
specimens
61
3.2 Properties of Isophthalic and Orthophthalic polyester
resin
64
3.3 Grinding mill information. 76
3.4 Mix proportion of PC incorporating GPOFA and
UPOFA
84
3.5 Mix proportion of PC incorporating calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)
85
xv
3.6 Mix proportion of PC incorporating silica sand 86
3.7 Mix proportion of normal concrete 92
4.1 Average, standard deviation (SD), coefficient of
variation (COV) of accuracy and viscosity value of
Isophthalic and Orthophthalic polyester resin
124
4.2 Functional groups of polymer inhibitor 131
4.3 1H NMR and 13C NMR data of metyl methacrylate
(MMA)
134
4.4 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on stress and strain of hardened
Isophthalic based polyester resin cured in room
temperature
140
4.5 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on stress and strain of hardened
Orthophthalic based polyester resin cured in room
temperature
141
4.6 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on stress and strain of hardened
Isophthalic based polyester resin cured in cool
temperature
142
4.7 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on stress and strain of hardened
Orthophthalic based polyester resin cured in control
temperature
143
4.8 Average of Young’s modulus, E of hardened Isophthalic
and Orthophthalic based polymer resin
144
4.9 Apparent density of various filler 145
4.10 Chemical compositions of POFA, calcium carbonate and
silica sand
146
4.11 Comparison on chemical composition of POFA 146
4.12 Fineness of fine and coarse fillers 149
xvi
5.1 Percentage different of flow spread diameter of blended
polymer (with and without filler) at different filler
content
165
5.2 Percentage different of flow spread diameter of blended
polymer (with and without filler) at different filler
content
166
5.3 Percentage different of flow spread diameter of blended
polymer (with and without filler) at different filler
content
167
5.4 Percentage different of flow spread diameter of blended
polymer (with and without filler) at different filler
content
168
5.5 Maximum and minimum values of standard deviation
(SD) and coefficient of variation (COV) for various flow
spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating fine
micro-filler
172
5.6 Maximum and minimum values of standard deviation
(SD) and coefficient of variation (COV) for various flow
spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating
coarse micro-filler
172
5.7 Percentage different of compressive strength, σc of PC
(with and without filler) at different filler content
177
5.8 Percentage different of compressive strength, σc of PC
(with and without filler) at different filler content
178
5.9 Percentage different of compressive strength, σc of PC
(with and without filler) at different filler content
179
5.10 Percentage different of compressive strength, σc of PC
(with and without filler) at different filler content
180
5.11 Maximum and minimum of standard deviation (SD)
and coefficient of variation (COV) for various PC
184
5.12 Maximum and minimum of standard deviation (SD)
and coefficient of variation (COV) for various PC
184
5.13 Average apparent density for overall PC 187
xvii
5.14 Percentage different of average density of PC (with and
without fine filler)
188
5.15 Percentage different of average density of PC (with and
without coarse filler)
189
5.16 Standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of variation
(COV) for various PC
192
5.17 Average, standard deviation and coefficient of variation
of UPV travel time for Isophthalic PC
197
5.18 Average, standard deviation and coefficient of variation
of UPV travel time for Orthophthalic PC
197
5.19 Average, standard deviation and coefficient of variation
on water absorption of Isophthalic PC
205
5.20 Average, standard deviation and coefficient of variation
on water absorption of Orthophthalic PC
205
5.21 Assessment of water absorption of PC 206
5.22 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on stress and strain of Isophthalic PC
213
5.23 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on stress and strain of Orthophthalic
PC
214
5.24 Average cube and cylinder compressive strength of PC 215
5.25 Average Young’s modulus, E of PC 216
5.26 Average Poisson’s ratio of PC 217
5.27 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on load and deflection of Isophthalic
PC
223
5.28 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on load and deflection of Orthophthalic
PC
224
5.29 Average flexural strength of Isophthalic and
Orthophthalic PC
225
xviii
5.30 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on splitting tensile strength of
Isophthalic PC
227
5.31 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on splitting tensile strength of
Orthophthalic PC
227
5.32 Correlation between cumulative pore volume and pore
diameter at primary boundary
232
6.1 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on load and deflection of overall bond
substrate under slant-shear test
247
6.2 Average, standard deviation (SD) and coefficient of
variation (COV) on splitting tensile strength of overall
bond substrate
249
6.3 Summary of desired parameter to be considered and
used in Mohr-Coulomb analysis under slant-shear
results
252
6.4 Summary of desired parameter to be considered and
used in Mohr-Coulomb analysis under splitting tensile
results
252
xix
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO TITLE PAGE
1.1 Classification of concrete-polymer composites 1
1.2 Research phases 9
2.1 Skeleton of literature review 12
2.2 Polyester polymer chain (Carraher, 2007) 14
2.3 Chemical structure of MEKP (Lim et al., 2009) 17
2.4 Cross linking process of polyester resin by peroxide curing
agent (Lim et al., 2009)
17
2.5 SEM of hardened polyester resin using MEKP (Mahdi et
al., 2009)
17
2.6 Classical bimodal packing effect (Roger and Hancock,
2003)
21
2.7 Some particle shape in common filler(Roger and Hancock,
2003)
24
2.8 Process of producing palm oil fuel ash (a) palm bunch (b)
production of mesocarp during palm extraction process (c)
combustion process of mesocarp (d) palm oil fuel ash
25
2.9 SEM image of POFA particles (a) original size of POFA
particles (b) medium size of POFA particles (c) small size
of POFA particles (1000 times magnifications)
27
2.10 Schematic illustration of the particle structure of occluded
polymer (Roger and Hancock, 2003)
30
xx
2.11 Resin absorption of various fillers; GC: ground calcium
carbonate, FT: fine tailing, KA: kaolin, GF: glass fiber
powder, AH: aluminium hydroxide, MC: mica powder
(Mun et al., 2007)
31
2.12 XRD pattern of hardened polymer resin from recycle PET
plastic waste depolymerized through glycolysis to produce
unsaturated polyester resin (Mahdi et al., 2009)
33
2.13 XRD pattern of hardened polymer mortar (Mahdi et al.,
2009)
34
2.14 SEM images of cryofracture surface of AT/PP composites
(a) and (c) untreated AT/PP composites (b) and (d) treated
AT/PP composites (Zhai et al., 2014)
35
2.15 SEM image of asbestos tailing after thorough grinding
process (Zhai et al., 2014)
35
2.16 Stress-strain behaviour of hardened polymer (Haidar et al.,
2011)
36
2.17 The proposed model for strength of concrete and porosity
(Lian et al. ,2011)
43
2.18 Polymer mortar incorporating different filler (a) ground
calcium carbonate (b) fine tailings (Mun et al., 2007)
44
2.19 (a) Orthophthalic-polyester concrete incorporating 8%
filler content in acetic acid (b) Orthophthalic-polyester
concrete incorporating 8% filler content in sulfuric acid
(Gorninski et al., 2007)
44
2.20 Slant-shear configuration and Mohr circle (Austin et al.,
1999)
48
2.21 Mode of failure (a) adhesive failure (b) cohesive failure
(Saldanha et al., 2013)
49
2.22 Failure envelope using Mohr-Coulomb (Saldanha et al.,
2013)
49
2.23 Schematic of slant-shear test (a) characteristic dimensions
(b) interface stresses (Saldanha et al., 2013)
50
2.24 A novel taxonomy in concrete-polymer composites 51
xxi
3.1 Characterizations on raw materials of polymer binder 55
3.2 Development and properties of raw materials of filler 56
3.3 Development and properties of PC 58
3.4 Properties of PC incorporating micro-filler 59
3.5 Bonding test of PC to NC substrate 60
3.6 Test procedure for viscosity test 63
3.7 Test procedure for working life test 65
3.8 Test procedure for barcol hardness test 67
3.9 Test procedure for XRD test 68
3.10 FTIR machine 69
3.11 NMR machine 70
3.12 Test procedure for tensile test 71
3.13 Homogenize process on unground POFA (UPOFA) 75
3.14 Test procedure for density test of powder materials (filler) 77
3.15 XRF machine 78
3.16 PSA machine 79
3.17 Test procedure for morphology test by using FESEM 80
3.18 Test procedure for TGA and DTA test 81
3.19 Main materials for PC (a) unsaturated polyester resin (b)
coarse aggregate (c) fine aggregate (d) filler
83
3.20 Fine filler: (a) ground POFA (b) calcium carbonate; coarse
filler: (c) unground POFA (d) silica sand
83
3.21 Test procedure of density test of coarse aggregate 87
3.22 Test procedure for density test of fine aggregate 89
3.23 Main materials for normal concrete (a) cement
(b) coarse aggregates (c) fine aggregates (d) water
91
3.24 Step-by-step preparation for PC 93
3.25 Test procedure for flowability test 96
3.26 Test procedure of UPV test 99
3.27 Test procedure for determining density and water
absorption of hardened PC
100
3.28 Test procedure of cylinder compressive strength test 103
3.29 Arrangement of loading of three point loading 105
xxii
3.30 Test procedure of flexural test under three-point loading 106
3.31 Test procedure of splitting tensile test 107
3.32 MIP equipment 109
3.33 Test procedure of MIP test 109
3.34 Miniature of crushed specimen 112
3.35 Dimension of slanted specimen 114
3.36 Step of specimen preparation and testing procedure of
slant-shear test
114
3.37 Step of specimen preparation and testing procedure of
splitting tensile test
116
3.38 Test procedure for observing the failure mode of PC to NC
substrate using close range photogrammetry and particle
imaging velocimetry (PIV) technique
118
3.39 Adhesive failure envelope using Mohr-Coulomb under
combined test of (a) slant shear (b) splitting tensile
121
4.1 Viscosity of Isophthalic and Orthophthalic polyester resin 124
4.2 Effect of inhibitor on working life at ambient room
temperature
126
4.3 Effect of inhibitor on working life at control room
temperature
126
4.4 Barcol hardness at ambient room temperature 128
4.5 Barcol Hardness at control room temperature 128
4.6 XRD pattern of polyester resin with and without inhibitor 129
4.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy spectrum of
polymer inhibitor
130
4.8 1H NMR spectrum of polymer inhibitor 132
4.9 13C NMR spectrum of polymer inhibitor additive 133
4.10 Structure of monomer methyl methacrylate (MMA) 133
4.11 Stress-strain behaviour of Isophthalic based polymer resin
cured in room temperature (a) 0% inhibitor additive
content (b) 0.1% inhibitor additive (c) 0.15% inhibitor
additive (d) 0.2% inhibitor additive
135
xxiii
4.12 Stress-strain behaviour of Isophthalic based polymer resin
cured in control temperature (a) 0% inhibitor additive
content (b) 0.1% inhibitor additive (c) 0.15% inhibitor
additive (d) 0.2% inhibitor additive
136
4.13 Stress-strain behaviour of Isophthalic based polymer resin
cured in room temperature at different inhibitor additive
content
137
4.14 Stress-strain behaviour of Orthophthalic based polymer
resin cured in room temperature at different inhibitor
additive content
137
4.15 Stress-strain behaviour of Isophthalic based polymer resin
cured in control temperature at different inhibitor additive
content
138
4.16 Stress-strain behaviour of Orthophthalic based polymer
resin cured in control temperature at different inhibitor
additive content
138
4.17 Apparent density of various filler 145
4.18 Particle size distribution for different type of fillers 148
4.19 Morphology images of fine micro-filler (a) GPOFA (b)
calcium carbonate; and coarse micro-filler (c) UPOFA (d)
silica sand (1000 times magnifications)
150
4.20 TGA and DTA analysis for POFA 151
4.21 TGA and DTA analysis for calcium carbonate 152
4.22 TGA and DTA analysis for silica sand 152
5.1 Compressive strength of Isophthalic and Orthophthalic PC
at different curing period with curing temperature of 30 oC
157
5.2 Compressive strength of Isophthalic and Orthophthalic PC
for different curing period at curing temperature of 50 oC
158
5.3 Compressive strength of Isophthalic and Orthophthalic PC
for different curing period at curing temperature of 70 oC
159
5.4 FESEM image of Isophthalic PC under 6 hours of curing
period at 50 oC of curing temperature (250 times
magnifications)
159
xxiv
5.5 Flow spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating
12% Isophthalic binder and fine filler at different filler
content
162
5.6 Flow spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating
12% Orthophthalic binder and fine filler at different filler
content
163
5.7 Flow spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating
12% Isophthalic binder and coarse filler at different filler
content
163
5.8 Flow spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating
12% Orthophthalic binder and coarse filler at different
filler content
164
5.9 Flow spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating
various polymer binder content at different filler content
170
5.10 Flow spread diameter of blended polymer incorporating
various polymer binder content at different filler content
171
5.11 Compressive strength of polymer concrete incorporating
12% Isophthalic binder and fine filler content at different
percentage of filler content
174
5.12 Compressive strength of polymer concrete incorporating
12% Orthophthalic binder and fine filler content at
different percentage of filler content
175
5.13 Compressive strength of polymer concrete incorporating
12% Isophthalic binder and coarse filler content at different
percentage of filler content
175
5.14 Compressive strength of polymer concrete incorporating
12% Orthophthalic binder and coarse filler content at
different percentage of filler content
176
5.15 Compressive strength of polymer concrete incorporating
various polymer binder content at different filler content
182
5.16 Compressive strength of polymer concrete incorporating
various polymer binder content at different filler content
183
xxv
5.17 Average density of PC incorporating fine micro-filler (a)
PC-GPOFA
186
5.18 Average density of PC incorporating fine micro-filler (a)
PC-GPOFA
187
5.19 Density of PC incorporating fine micro -filler (a) Iso-
GPOFA (b) Ortho-GPOFA (c) Iso-CaCO3 (d) Ortho-
CaCO3
190
5.20 Density of PC incorporating coarse micro-filler (a) Iso-
UPOFA (b) Ortho-UPOFA (c) Iso-Sand (d) Ortho-Sand
191
5.21 Effect on filler on compressive strength and apparent
density of PC (a) Iso-GPOFA (b) Iso-CaCO3 (c) Iso-
UPOFA (d) Iso-Sand
193
5.22 Effect of filler on between compressive strength and
porosity of PC (a) Ortho-GPOFA (b) Ortho-CaCO3 (c)
Ortho-UPOFA (d) Ortho-Sand
194
5.23 UPV travel time of Isophthalic PC at different filler content 196
5.24 UPV travel time of Orthophthalic PC at different filler
content
196
5.25 Effect of filler on compressive strength and UPV travel
time of PC (a) Iso-GPOFA (b) Iso-CaCO3 (c) Iso-UPOFA
(d) Iso-Sand
199
5.26 Effect of filler on compressive strength and UPV travel
time of PC (a) Ortho-GPOFA (b) Ortho-CaCO3 (c) Ortho-
UPOFA (d) Ortho-Sand
200
5.27 Correlation between compressive strength and UPV travel
time of PC
201
5.28 Effect of filler on compressive strength and water
absorption of PC (a) Iso-GPOFA (b) Iso-CaCO3 (c) Iso-
UPOFA (d) Iso-Sand
203
5.29 Effect of filler on compressive strength and water
absorption of PC (a) Ortho-GPOFA (b) Ortho-CaCO3 (c)
Ortho-UPOFA (d) Ortho-Sand
204
xxvi
5.30 Correlation between compressive strength and water
absorption of PCs
206
5.31 Correlation between UPV travel time and water absorption
of PCs
207
5.32 Stress-strain curve for Isophthalic PC (a) Iso-GPOFA (b)
Iso- CaCO3 (c) Iso-UPOFA (d) Iso-Sand
209
5.33 Stress-strain curve for Orthophthalic PC (a) Ortho-GPOFA
(b) Ortho-CaCO3 (c) Ortho-UPOFA (d) Ortho-Sand
210
5.34 Average stress-strain curve of Isophthalic PC 211
5.35 Average stress-strain curve of Orthophthalic PC 211
5.36 Load-deflection for Isophthalic PC (a) Iso-GPOFA
(b) Iso- CaCO3 (c) Iso-UPOFA (d) Iso-Sand
219
5.37 Load-deflection for Orthophthalic PC (a) Ortho-GPOFA
(b) Ortho-CaCO3 (c) Ortho-UPOFA (d) Ortho-Sand
220
5.38 Load-deflection curve of Isophthalic PC 221
5.39 Load-deflection curve of Orthophthalic PC 221
5.40 Splitting tensile strength of Isophthalic PC 226
5.41 Splitting tensile strength of Orthophthalic PC 226
5.42 Incremental pore volume versus normal-log pore diameter
distribution (a)PC-GPOFA (b) PC-CaCO3 (c) PC-UPOFA
(d) PC-Sand
229
5.43 Cumulative pore volume-pore diameter behaviour; primary
and secondary boundary
230
5.44 Cumulative pore volume-pore diameter behaviour (a) PC-
GPOFA (b) PC-CaCO3 (c) PC-UPOFA (d) PC-Sand
231
5.45 Average pore diameter at different filler content 233
5.46 Total porosity at different filler content. 234
5.47 Effect of filler content on compressive strength and
porosity of PC (a) Iso-GPOFA (b) Iso-CaCO3 (c) Iso-
UPOFA (d) Iso-Sand
235
5.48 Correlation between compressive strength and total
porosity
236
xxvii
5.49 Correlation between porosity and water absorption of PC
incorporating filler
237
5.50 PC incorporating fine micro-filler (a) PC-GPOFA (b) PC-
CaCO3 PC with coarse filler (c) PC-UPOFA (d) PC-Sand.
238
6.1 Load-deflection behaviour of PC to NC bond substrate
under uniaxial loading (a) NC-PC GPOFA (b) NC-PC
CaCO3 (c) NC-PC UPOFA (d) NC-PC Sand
245
6.2 Load-deflection behaviour of PC to NC bond substrate
under uniaxial loading
246
6.3 Splitting tensile strength of PC to NC bond substrate under
splitting tensile loading
248
6.4 Adhesive failure of PC to NC bond substrate under slant-
shear test
250
6.5 Vector image of PIV analysis for overall bond substrate (a)
PC GPOFA-NC (b) PC CaCO3-NC (c) PC UPOFA-NC (d)
PC Sand-NC
251
6.6 Adhesive bond failure envelope using Mohr-Coulomb
theory (a)PC GPOFA-NC (b) PC CaCO3-NC (c) PC
UPOFA-NC (d) PC Sand-NC
254
xxviii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
13C - Carbon-13 NMR
1D - One dimension 1H - Proton NMR
AH - Aluminium hydroxide
Al 2O3 - Aluminium oxide
ASTM - American society for testing and materials
AT/PP - Asbestos tailings filler content
BET - Brunauer/Emmett/Teller nitrogen absorption test
BFLA-5-8-1L - Type of strain gauge for hardened polymer
BS - British standard
BS-EN - Eurocode Standard
CaCO3 - Calcium carbonate
CaO - Calcium oxide
CDCl3 - Deuteratedchloroform
CoNp - Cobalt naphthenate
CoOc - Octoate
COV - Coefficient of variation
Fe2O3 - Ferric oxide
FESEM - Field emission scanning electron microscopy
FT - Fine tailing
FTIR - Fourier transform infrared
GC - Ground calcium carbonate
GF - Glass fiber
GPOFA - Ground POFA
xxix
Iso-CT - Isophthalic polyester resin cured at control temperature
Iso-RT - Isophthalic polyester resin cured at room temperature
JIS - Japanese industrial standard
K2O - Potassium oxide
KA - Kaolin
LOI - Loss on Ignition
LVDT - Linear variable differential transformer
MC - Mica
MEKP - Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide
MgO - Magnesium oxide
MIP - Mercury intrusion porosimetry
MMA - Methyl methacrylate
Na2O - Sodium oxide
NC - Normal concrete
NMR - Nuclear magnetic resonance
Ortho-CT - Orthophthalic polyester resin cured at control temperature
Ortho-RT - Orthohthalic polyester resin cured at room temperature
P2O5 - Phosphorus pentoxide
PC - Polymer concrete
PC CaCO3-NC - Polymer concrete incorporating calcium carbonate substrate to
normal concrete substrate
PC GPOFA-NC - Polymer concrete incorporating ground POFA substrate to
normal concrete substrate
PC Sand-NC - Polymer concrete incorporating silica sand substrate to normal
concrete substrate
PC UPOFA-NC - Polymer concrete incorporating unground POFA substrate to
normal concrete substrate
PET - Polyethylene terephthalate
PIV - Particle imaging velocimetry
PL 60-1L - Type of concrete strain gauge
POFA - Palm oil fuel ash
PSA - Particle size analyzer
RH - Relative humidity
xxx
RHA - Rice husk ash
SD - Standard deviation
SEM - Scanning electron microscopy
SiO2 - Silica dioxide
SO3 - Sulfur trioxide
TDS-303 - Brand of data logger
TGA and DTA - Termogravimetric and differential thermal analysis
TMS - Tetra methyl silane
UP - Unsaturated polyester
UPOFA - Unground POFA
UPV - Ultrasonic pulse velocity
XRD - X-ray diffraction
XRF - X-ray fluorescence
δC - NMR carbon signal
δH - NMR proton signal
xxxi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
ρ - Density of material
A - Cross section’s area of the specimen
Ac - Compression area
Aci - Shear area
At - Tension area
Ati - Shear area
D - Diameter of the specimen
Ec - Compression Young’s modulus of concrete
Et - Tensile Young’s modulus
ET - Young’s modulus in bending
F - Maximum load
F/A - Load divided to area (stress)
Fc - Compression maximum load
fc - Concrete compressive strength
Fci - Shear compression load
fci - Interface compressive strength
fct - Flexural strength
ft - Splitting tensile strength
ft - Concrete tensile strength
Ft / Fti - Tension maximum load
fti - Interface tensile strength
L - Length of specimen/distance between the supporting roller
M - Slope of the tangent to the initial -straight-line portion from the load-
deflection
P - Load
xxxii
V - Volume of mould
W - Weight of material
ΔL/Lo - Different of length divided to total of length/Strain
ε - Strain
εL - Longitudinal strain
εT - Transverse strain
ν - Poisson’s ratio
σt - Tensile stress
τ/ τo - Pure shear strength
xxxiii
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX TITLE PAGE
A STRESS-STRAIN BEHAVIOUR UNDER TENSION
LOAD
269
B FLOWSPREAD DIAMATER OF BLENDED POLYMER 273
C COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF POLYMER
CONCRETE
277
D SUMMARY PROPERTIES OF ISOPHTHALIC AND
ORTHOPHTHALIC POLYESTER RESIN
281
E SUMMARY PROPERTIES OF FINE AND COARSE
MICRO-FILLERS
282
F SUMMARY PROPERTIES OF PHYSICAL,
MECHANICAL AND MICROSTRUCTURE OF PC
283
G SUMMARY BONDING PROPERTIES OF PC TO NC
BOND SUBSTRATE
284
H LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 285
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Generally, concrete-polymer composites is a concrete that contains polymers.
Development of concrete-polymer composites such as polymer-modified concrete,
polymer concrete, and polymer-impregnated concrete aims to produce high-
performing and multifunctional construction materials. Figure 1.1 shows the
classification of disciplines in concrete-polymer composites.
Figure 1.1 Classification of concrete-polymer composites
2
Polymer-modified concretes are composites materials which have two solid
phases - the aggregates that are discontinuously dispersed through the materials and
the binders in which itself contains a cementitious phase and a polymer phase
(Gemert, 2007). The polymer added acts as polymeric admixtures/modifier in
normal concrete, and this is also called a ‘polymer modified cementitious system’
(Shaw, 1985). There are commercially available polymeric admixtures/modifiers in
Japan which can be classified into polymer dispersions, redispersible polymer
powder, water-soluble polymers, and liquid polymers (Ohama, 2007). On the other
hand, the term ‘polymer-impregnated concrete’ coined by Bhutta et al. (2013) refers
to concrete produced by impregnating or infiltrating the hardened conventional
concrete with a liquid monomer and subsequently completing the polymerizing of
monomer in-situ. The usage of polymer-impregnated concrete has been identified in
precast products, though in limited application, primarily for improving the water
proofing ability and durability of concrete structure (Ohama, 2007).
The only non-cementitious concrete-polymer composites are polymer
concrete. Polymer concrete (PC) is produced by polymerizing (hardening) dry
aggregate and monomers (binder) after the addition of additive, catalysts, and
accelerator. The fresh PC are then cured totally without water and cement binder
(Ohama, 2007). Its composition depends on its intended application.
PC has unlimited potential applications in the construction industry. It can be
used to fabricate box culverts, hazardous waste containers, trench lines, floor drains,
and for the repair and overlaying of damaged concrete surface (bridge and
pavements). However, some improvement and modification have to be made to
enhance the properties of PC. For this reason, many researchers have conducted
numerous studies to develop intelligent materials that can be incorporated into PC,
mainly by introducing fillers into the PC mixture.
3
In Japan, the concrete-polymer composites are used as sustainable
construction materials, and have been continuously improved since the early 1920s
(Ohama, 1997). Its application in the Japan construction industry is common,
popular, and dominant during the 1950s to 1970s (Ohama, 1997; Shaw, 1985). Other
than Japan, the United States, United Kingdom, Russia and Germany have also
published their standardization works of concrete-polymer composites with,
sometimes, stark differences in the content. In Malaysia, the use of concrete-polymer
composites is still not popular. This also applies to research on PC because polymers
are very sensitive to hot temperature and Malaysia is a tropical country. As such, the
lack of knowledge among local fabricators and engineers has become a constraint for
the production of PC.
1.2 Background of Study
The development of new composite materials possessing enhanced strength
and durability as compared to conventional materials is crucial in the construction
industry. Ever since terms like ‘sustainability’ and ‘green materials’ have jumped
onto the bandwagon, it has sparked the interest of experts from various fields to
develop sustainable composite materials to become superior construction materials.
In this study, only polyester resin was employed as binders. Since this
polymer binder is temperature sensitive, polymer inhibitor additive was introduced
into the binder formulation to initiate the intended modification. It was expected that
this would give rise to lower yet sufficient binder concentration for PC.
4
This study used palm oil fuel ash (POFA) from agricultural waste, which
were added into concrete mix with low binder concentration as fillers. POFA was
opted as the filler under scrutiny since it could be easily found in Malaysia. POFA, a
by-product from palm oil mills, is mostly disposed as agricultural waste in landfills.
Its reutilization has the potential to create sustainable and productive materials.
Another reason that POFA had been chosen was because of its attested efficiency in
PC as fillers. Meanwhile, this study also involved low cost thermosetting polyester
resin as binder. The performance of PC incorporated with POFA filler was evaluated
from an engineering perspective. Currently, there are no published findings and data
for such PC in Malaysia incorporating agricultural waste. This study had conducted
extensive experiments to develop and encourage innovative usage of such
sustainable and intelligent material in the construction industry.
1.3 Background of Problem
In PC, thermoset polymer resin is used as the binder. Thermoset resins that
are commercially available include epoxy, vinyl ester, and unsaturated polyester
resin. These are typical resins used in the construction industry because of their
higher strength and stiffness than thermoplastic polymers. However, epoxy and
vinyl ester resins are more expensive than polyester resins. Thus, most researchers
often choose unsaturated polyester resin, even though it is very sensitive towards
temperature. Generally, high temperature can accelerate the polymerization process,
resulting in PC which fails to achieve its early strength and causing other problems
such as poor workability; high porosity and honeycomb; and less material bonding.
This can be solved by casting the PC in a cool room, but this is not cost effective
since the production cost has to be competitive enough to price the PC in Malaysia at
a reasonable value. Therefore, polymer modification should be considered to solve
the aforementioned problem by prolonging the working life and giving sufficient
time for PC production in ambient temperature.
5
Agricultural waste like palm oil fuel ash (POFA) disposed on open fields can
negatively impact our environment. It pollutes the surroundings and is increasingly
demanding for more landfill areas to cater its escalating disposal. This can be
disastrous if left unattended and handled properly at the early stage. Therefore, it is
crucial that a study is performed to put forth an alternative solution to this problem.
This study was therefore conducted to serve this purpose by introducing the
reutilization of POFA as fillers in PC. This new product can become a cost-effective
material since PC products manufactured without fillers are expensive.
Nevertheless, not all waste ashes have the potential to become PC filler. The wrong
selection of filler material may lead to worsened PC quality. Not only that, it affects
the PC’s workability and process ability (Bignozzi et al., 2000). The most abundant
natural waste from agricultural plant is the cellulose (Raveendran et al., 1996;
Kaddami et al., 2006), which has a structure that attracts liquid into the PC. This can
lead to excessive resin consumption, which is not cost effective and jeopardizes the
production of PC even when filler is used.
On the other hand, air voids entrained or entrapped in hardened PC during the
mixing and placing of fresh PC can significantly influence the permeability of the
hardened PC. These air voids can be easily identified as visible pores on the
hardened concrete. An increasing number of pores can reduce the strength of the PC
(Rashid and Mansur, 2009), but the development of air voids can be potentially
lessened by using appropriate micro-filler.
Incompatibility between PC and concrete substrate is the most critical
problem; failure can occur due to poor interaction between these two materials. In
most cases, this happens due to the difference in concrete properties. Nevertheless, it
should be emphasized that, in order to improve the interaction between two different
materials, proper bonding techniques to be considered as well.
6
Incorporating agricultural waste of palm oil fuel ash into PC promises a high
possibility in producing a type of filler that is able to overcome the aforementioned
challenges. However, some modifications on the raw materials including the filler
are needed to improve their characteristics and enhance their engineering properties.
This research can be a novelty research especially in Malaysia and others tropical
countries.
There are two main research questions in this study:
i. Can polymer concrete be produced and perform well in tropical countries?
ii. Can agricultural waste be incorporated in polymer concrete as micro-filler?
1.4 Aim and Objectives
This study aims at developing polymer concrete incorporating agricultural
waste of palm oil fuel ash as micro-filler. Five objectives were formulated to achieve
the aim of the study, they are:
i. To characterize binder formulation using polymer inhibitor additive with
respect to its physical, mechanical and chemical properties.
ii. To investigate the filler characteristics of palm oil fuel ash under
microstructural examination.
iii. To determine the optimum desired mix proportion of various polymer
concrete incorporating micro-filler with low binder content under workability
and compressive strength.
iv. To investigate the physical, mechanical and microstructure properties of
polymer concrete incorporating micro-filler.
v. To evaluate bonding behaviour of polymer concrete to normal concrete
substrate
7
1.5 Scope of Study
The scope of this study was established to achieve the objectives
abovementioned and focused mainly on experimental works. The testing methods
and work procedures were specified according to the British Standard (BS),
Eurocode Standard (BS-EN), American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM),
and other recommended test procedures proposed by previous researchers. Some
testing methods and work procedures related to PC were specified according to the
Japanese Industrial Standard (JIS) since concrete polymer materials had long been
adopted in Japan.
PC is produced by replacing all cement hydrate binders of conventional
mortar or concrete with polymer binders, without cement and water. The major
component is the thermosetting polyester resins. In this study, only Isophthalic and
Orthophthalic polyester resin were involved as binders. The chemical addition was
limited to 0.5% cobalt naphthenate (CoNp) and 1% Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide
(MEKP) to produce the intended binder formulation. However, different percentage
of inhibitor additive of Methyl Methacrylate (MMA) was added to have sufficient
working time in producing the PC. The effects of the inhibitor additive in the binder
formulation were investigated from the fresh concrete’s working life, strength, and
chemical reaction. Low binder content of 11%, 12% and 13% were employed to
produce high strength PC. To get consistent outcomes, the PC specimens were cast
in room temperature with the relative humidity around 68 ± 2%. After that, all
specimens were post-cured. Control specimens had been produced where no filler
was incorporated.
POFA was used to replace silica sand and calcium carbonate in conventional
filled-PC. The filler and its size were limited to those passing through the sieve sizes
of 300 µm to 45 µm. POFA was physically modified to obtain the particles passing
through 45 µm sieve size. Inert granular materials such as coarse and fine aggregates
were utilized as well and this was similar to conventional concrete. To obtain a
8
uniform mix and strength of PC, the size of coarse and fine aggregates were also
limited to those retained at 10 mm and passing 5 mm sieves, respectively. All fillers
and inert granular materials were oven-dried and the moisture content was
maintained at below 0.5%.
The characteristic of POFA as fillers in PC was examined to determine its
performance from an engineering perspective after the suitable mix design and mix
proportion had been produced. Silica sand and calcium carbonate were also included
as filler to allow comparisons to be made with POFA. Two types of POFA was
employed; ground and unground POFA. In this study, ground and unground POFA
was paired with calcium carbonate and silica sand, respectively. The assessment on
the engineering properties of PC with optimum mix design and mix proportion was
done because it was an important factor in developing the potentially valuable
construction material. The research proceeded with bonding test and covered
investigation on bonding behaviour of PC to normal concrete (NC) substrate.
Therefore, this study provides knowledge on the engineering properties and bonding
behaviour of PC incorporating POFA as micro-filler.
1.6 Research Methodology
This sub-chapter briefly presents the research sequences and method used in
this study. The details explanation on research methodology is discussed in Chapter
3. Three phases had been designed to achieve the research aim and objectives, as
shown in Figure 1.2. Phase 1 addresses the characterizations of raw materials of
polymer binder and filler. Phase 2 addresses the properties of PC incorporating
micro-filler. Meanwhile, the last phase focuses on bonding behaviour of PC.
9
Characterizations of Raw Material:
Binder modification (Objective 1)Filler determination (Objective 2)
Properties of Polymer Concrete Incorporating Micro-Filler:
Optimum mix design and mix proportion (Objective 3)Engineering properties of materials (Objective 4)
Bonding Testing:
Bonding behaviour (Objective 5)
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 1
Figure 1.2 Research phases
Phase 1: Characterizations of raw materials of polymer binder and micro-filler The experimental works for binder modification and micro-filler examination were
included at this stage to achieve objective 1 and objective 2.
Phase 2: Properties of polymer concrete (PC) incorporating micro-filler
Comprehensive experimental works were done on identifying the desired optimum
mix proportion of PC and also the corresponding engineering properties. This phase
was carried out to achieve objective 3 and objective 4.
Phase 3: Bonding behaviour of Polymer Concrete to Normal Concrete Substrate
Last phase encompassed testing on the bonding between PC and NC substrate. This
last phase was executed to achieve objective 5.
10
1.7 Significance of Study
The significant findings of this research will be beneficial in the following
ways:
i. Facilitate in promoting environmental awareness through revival of local
natural resources and agricultural waste with less intensive emission of
carbon dioxide.
ii. Encourage production of PC under tropical temperature and its usage among
Malaysian fabricators and contractors.
iii. Aid in providing novelty database of concrete polymer composites and its
application in the construction industry.
iv. Assist fabricators and engineers in improving the quality of materials and
providing an established database for design works in the future.
v. Assist in developing value-added products from local resources to promote
green materials in the construction industry.
vi. Facilitate the introduction of intelligent materials with proven performance to
contractors
vii. Provide significant market value where the final product can be
commercialized as a novelty in Malaysia.
1.8 Thesis Outlines
This research is presented in seven chapters to achieve the research aim and
five objectives. This thesis has been structured to present the research in such
arrangement:
11
Chapter 1 : Introduction
Chapter 2 : Literature Review
Chapter 3 : Research Methodology
Chapter 4 : Characterizations of Raw Materials of Polymer Binder and Micro-
Filler
Chapter 5 : Properties of Polymer Concrete Incorporating Micro-Filler
Chapter 6 : Bonding Behaviour of Polymer Concrete to Normal Concrete Substrate
Chapter 7 : Conclusions and Recommendations
top related