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No.
JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY (JICA)
URGENT REHABILITATION SUPPORT PROGRAMME IN KANDAHAR (URSP-KDH)
Final Report Part 1
FEBRUARY 2003
PACIFIC CONSULTANTS INTERNATIONAL
COVERING SECTOR CONDITIONS
AND URGENT PROGRAMME LIST
P R E F A C E
In response to a request from the Government of Afganistan, the Government of Japan decided to conduct The Urgent Rehabilitation Support Programme in Kandahar and entrusted the programme to the Japan International Cooperation Agency.
JICA selected and dispatched a study team headed by Mr. Shozo KAWASAKI of Pacific Consultants International to Afghanistan, two times between September 2002 and December 2002.
The team held discussions with the officials of the Government of Afghanistan, Provincial Government of Kandahar, and other related agencies, conducted field surveys, and implemented of the rehabilitation projects at the study area. Upon returning to Japan, the team conducted further studies and prepared this final report.
I hope that this report, as the basic strategy, will contribute to the reconstruction of the country and to the enhancement of friendly relationship between our two countries.
Finally, I wish to express my sincere appreciation to the officials concerned of the Government of Afghanistan to their close cooperation extended to the study.
February 2003
Takao Kawakami
President Japan International Cooperation
Agency
Letter of Transmittal
This Report is prepared to give an official account on the progress of the study and the Urgent Rehabilitation Programme, which is a very first package of the whole URSP-KDH. The Report covers the present situation and rehabilitation/reconstruction needs of post-conflict Kandahar city, institutional issues, the urgent rehabilitation programme, results of resident survey, and so on. By the time of preparing this Report, the pre-construction arrangements for the proposed rehabilitation/reconstruction projects such as preparation of design drawings and tender processing have been completed and the construction work has been commenced by the contractors procured on a local-competitive-bidding (LCB) basis. According to the schedule, the urgent rehabilitation projects will be completed around October 2003. Urgent Rehabilitation Programme aims to propose short-term rehabilitation /reconstruction projects which may be required for the development of Kandahar city, with the smooth and seamless implementation from Humanitarian Relief to Reconstruction. As a matter of fact, Afghanistan currently stands at an extremely fluid situation, coupled with unavailability of any reliable baseline data for its social and economic conditions. And the circumstances lead to the inevitable adoption of a “behavioural approach” in formulating the plans rather than a “normative approach” that pursues a blue print for the future reconstruction process. It is truly hoped that the reconstruction process in Afghanistan will be put on the right track as early as possible, and the nation building, in the true sense of the words, will be pursued by the orchestrated efforts of the people and the Government of Afghanistan supported by international communities based on a normative approach in the not too distant future. This Report aims at providing some useful information on the implementation of the URSP-KDH that is being undertaken by the Government of Japan, so that the concerned parties can understand the objectives of the URSP-KDH and truly support the successful implementation of the URSP-KDH.
Shozo Kawasaki Team Leader
February 2003, in Tokyo
MAP OF SOUTHERN REGION OF AFGHANISTAN
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ABBREVIATION LIST
AACA Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority ACBAR Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief ACB-SA Area Coordination Body for Southern Area ADA Afghan Development Association ADB Asian Development Bank AGO Auditor General Office AHDS Afghan Health & Development Services AIA Afghan Interim Administration AIMS Afghanistan Information Management System AMAC Area Mine Action Centre ARCS Afghan Red Crescent Society ARI Acute Respiratory Infection ATA Afghan (Islamic) Transitional Authority BHC Basic Health Center BHP Basic Health Post BHW Basic Health Worker CDD Control of Diarrhoeal Diseases CHC Comprehensive Health Center CNA Comprehensive Needs Assessment in Education COPD Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases DDR Disarmament, Demobilisation, and Reintegration DF/R Draft Final Report DH District Hospital DOA Department of Agriculture DOE Department of Education DOF Department of Finance DOP Department of Planning DOPH Department of Public Health DOTS Directly Observed Treatment Short-Course DOWA Department of Women’s Affairs ECE Early Childhood Education ENT Ear, Nose, and Throat EPI Expanded Program on Immunization F/R Final Report
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
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FAO Food Agriculture Organization GER Gross Enrolment Rate GOJ Government of Japan HI Handicap International HIS Health Information System HNI Health Net International HP Hospital HPC Haji Pachi Mili Construction HSWG Health Sectoral Working Group HTTC Higher Teacher Training College IA Implementation Arrangement IAHC Islamic Aid Health Centre IC/R Inception Report ICRC International Committee of Red Cross IDA International Development Association IDP Internal displaced People IDPs Internally Displaced Persons IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Crescent Society IMF International Monetary Fund IP Institute of Pedagogy IPD In Patient Department ISRA Islamic Relief Agency IT/R Interim Report JICA Japan International Corporation Agency KDH Kandahar KTTC Kandahar Teacher Training College KU Kandahar University KWA Kandahar Women Association LCB Local Competitive tender MACA Mine Action Centre for Afghanistan MCH Maternal-Child Health Care MDM Medicos del Mundo MLHW Mid Level health Worker MOHE Ministry of Higher Education MOPH Ministry of Public Health MOPH Ministry of Public Health MOWP Ministry of Water and Power
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MPCB Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Biology MRC Malaria Leishmanita Regional Center MSF Medicines Sans Frontiers NDF National Development Framework NFI Non-Food Items NGO Non-governmental Organisation OPD Out Patient Department PAMA Department of Housing and Town Planning PH Provincial Hospital PHC Primary Health Care PR/R Progress Report PWA Public Works Authority RCB Regional Coordination Body REAP Recovery Employment Afghanistan Programme RRD Rural Rehabilitation Department RTC Regional Training Center SC Sub-Center SME Small and Medium Enterprise SWABAC Southern Western Afghanistan & Bolochistan Association for Coordination SWG Sectoral Working Group SWR South-West Region TB Tuberculosis Disease TBA Traditional Birth Attendance UN Habitat United Nations Centre for Human Settlement (UNCHS Habitat) UNAMA United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlement UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNOCHA United Nations Office for Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance UNOPS United Nations Office for Project Service URSP Urgent Rehabilitation Support Program USAID United States Aid for International Development UTI Urinary Tract Infection UXO Unexploded Ordnance WB World Bank WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organisation
Executive Summary
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1 (1)
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY OF THE FINAL REPORT, PART 1, ON THE URGENT REHABILITATION SUPPORT PROGRAMME
IN KANDAHAR (URSP-KDH) This Executive Summary is prepared to give a concise report on Kandahar City and the Urgent Rehabilitation Support Programme based on information as of December 2002, covering the situation and rehabilitation needs analysis of post‐conflict Kandahar City, institutional issues, and the urgent rehabilitation programme in several sectors excluding agriculture sector, results of sub‐contracted resident survey, and so on. After the submission of the Final Report, Part 1, the implementation of the sub‐contracted rehabilitation projects with soft component programmes will be proceeded continuously, and their progress situation and survey results will be reported respectively in the Final Report, Part 2, which will be submitted sometime in the end of 2003.
1. INTRODUCTION OF THE
URSP-KDH Afghanistan has suffered through more than two decades of conflict and destruction brought about by mass unrests and violence, the Soviet invasion, the Taliban regime. Now that the much‐awaited ceasefire has taken place, the long process of rehabilitation and reconstruction begins. To start with, at the International Conference on Reconstruction Assistance held in January 2002 in Tokyo, the international community vowed a 45 billion dollar financial assistance package over the next two‐and‐a‐half years to Afghanistan. Accordingly, the Government of Japan (GOJ) pledged to share the financial assistance of 500 million dollars for the said period, particularly for urgent humanitarian assistance in the sectors of education, health and medical care, resettlement of repatriated refugees, landmine clearance, and empowerment of women. Thus, in March 2002, the GOJ sent a preparatory mission to Afghanistan for the formulation of the Urgent Rehabilitation Support Programme (URSP). The mission held meetings with ministries of the Afghanistan Interim Administration (AIA) and other organisations concerned, and inspected various facilities, with a view to grasping concrete needs for Japanese future assistance. Those concerned on the Afghan side expressed their great expectations for the earliest possible implementation of assistance that could be seen in the immediate future. The outcome of the mission led to the decision of the GOJ to proceed with the URSP. Following the commencement of URSP‐EHB (Education, Health and Broadcasting Sector) and URSP‐SWPT (Rehabilitation Study for
South‐Western Area & Public Transportation Study) in Kabul, URSP‐KDH was formulated to cover Kandahar City, which is the centre of the south‐western region of Afghanistan, according to the Implementation Arrangement (IA) agreed upon by the Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority (AACA), Kandahar Provincial Government, Ministry of Planning and Ministry of Reconstruction of Afghanistan Islamic Transitional Authority (ATA) on 8th August 2002. Along the line of the commitment made by GOJ, the programme aims at realizing earlier implementation of the URSP‐KDH, with the scopes as follows.
Urgent Rehabilitation Project (Batch 1 Component from October 2002, and Batch 2 Component from April 2003) is intended to rehabilitate/reconstruct damaged and destroyed facilities and structures, especially roads, educational and medical facilities.
Urgent Rehabilitation Programme is to formulate a short‐term rehabilitation programme covering not only the physical infrastructure sectors but also other pertinent sectors, so that the above‐stated urgent rehabilitation projects should be rightly positioned and seamlessly sustained from urgent rehabilitation towards future development.
Scope 1: Implementation of Urgent Rehabilitation Project
Scope 2: Establishment of Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
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URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1 (2)
2. PRESENT CONDITION AND REHABILITATION NEEDS OF KANDAHAR
2.1 Overall View of the Situation in the
South‐western Region Kandahar, Helmand, Nimroz, Zabul, Uruzgan, and Ghazni are the six provinces comprising the largest and most arid region in Afghanistan−the south‐western region. The region encompasses an area of 242,900 sq km and is populated by approximately 4,500,000 people. There are also an estimated 1,300,000 refugees exiled from the region to neighbouring Pakistan and Iran, and 413,661 (As of February 2002, UNHCR) internally displaced persons (IDPs). 2.2 Education The plight of education in Afghanistan is evident at once from a UNESCO report, which shows Afghanistan as having the worst education indicators in the world, especially the indicators on education of girls and rural populations. The years of conflict and destruction have taken their toll on school facilities, teachers and pupils. UNICEF has made education a key priority in post‐war Afghanistan. Their Back‐to‐School Campaign saw the return to school of a large number of children when the new school year commenced on September 7, 2002 in Kandahar. Available teachers also went back to teaching. Due to the natural population growth and rapid inflow of returnees into the cities, Kandahar City is facing a need for thousands of additional classrooms by year 2004. The work of rehabilitating schools will be a long and arduous task. There are 211 primary schools in the Province. An estimated 80% of school buildings at all levels have been damaged or destroyed. Particularly, the surrounding area of the City has been more heavily damaged and destroyed. Afghanistan had an early childhood development programme, as far back as 1980. The programme covered children 3‐5 years of age. As of October 2002, only one pre‐school is operating in the City with an enrolment of approximately 100.
There is only one school in the southern region offering vocational education. It has 5 departments, namely, Carpentry, Car Repairing, Electrical Wiring of Houses, Machinery and Plumbing. At present, the school could accommodate only 54 students because of its limited capacity. No practical lessons could be given for Electrical Wiring and Car Repairing due to the destruction of the departments’ workshop from the war. Kandahar University (KU) has 3 faculties (i.e. engineering, medicine, and agriculture) with 650 students currently enrolled. Sixty (60) faculty members (4 female) are teaching in the different departments of the university. KU does not have research facilities such as laboratory, workshop, teaching hospital, and so on. Kandahar Teacher Training College (KTTC) was one of the largest teacher training colleges in Afghanistan. There is a strong demand for teacher training and capacity strengthening in the whole country, particularly for female teachers in Kandahar City. 2.3 Health Afghans used to depend on non‐governmental sources for much of their health concerns. This was during the pre‐war period when popular medical alternatives included local healers, traditional midwives, and bonesetters. The health services at that time were curative based and clinically oriented. The southern region has 83 health facilities in total. Out of this number, 65 (82%) are managed by NGOs, and only 18 are managed by DOPH. Even now there are imbalances in both institutions, in terms of facilities and incentives. Kandahar City has 13 health facilities, which are categorized as public hospitals and clinics, Six (6) facilities are managed by DOPH and 7 are overseen by NGOs. Health service in government facilities in Afghanistan is basically free of charge, but in Mirwis Hospital, patients have to pay 1,000 afg (1 new afg) for the first examination and direct expenses of X‐rays. In general, Afghans have either no access or poor access to basic health care. Diseases such as diarrhoea, acute respiratory infections, other vaccine preventable diseases and malnutrition remain prevalent. As a result, over a quarter of
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all children in Afghanistan die before the age of 5 years. For disabled and trauma cases, there is a disability care centre supported by the Guardians and Handicap International in the Kandahar Nursing School building located in Mirwis Hospital. DOPH‐Kandahar has no substantial programme for these cases. The Maternal and Child Healthcare (MCH) program basically aims at safe births and implementing the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI). The basic strategies for safe births are (1) building an emergency obstetrical diagnosis system particularly emergency transport system of patients and blood transfusion system, (2) expanding antenatal care including anti‐malaria and anti‐anaemia measures, and (3) promotion and education of reproductive health knowledge on a community basis. Many donors and NGOs are supporting the above items (2) and (3) but not the item (1) despite the fact that virtually no hospital or clinic is available at present to provide a reasonable level of obstetrical diagnosis. Efforts by the WHO to expand the integrated Primary Health Care (PHC) Programme, especially in the southern region, are constrained by the lack of budget, human resources and facilities. The programme is to focus on disease prevention and control through immunization and outbreak response. The DOPH referral system in the southern region is in disarray. Linkage of hospitals, clinics and other health facilities is seriously affected by physical constraints in terms of medical equipment, the lack emergency transportation, and the lack of human resources/capacities. There is also the issue of differing medical terminologies by NGOs that has to be resolved in the health sector working group as this causes confusion. In the matter of health information system, DOPH‐Kandahar should take the lead in establishing a well functioning system, in order that health authorities and health facilities are provided with data and other relevant information for planning and decision making. The HIS Department of Mirwis Hospital is manned by a staff of two who take charge of collecting statistics from other districts and provinces in the DOPH format every month.
The Faculty of Medicine of Kandahar University accepts both male and female students. It operates under the Ministry of Higher Education and teaching doctors are from Mirwis Hospital. 2.4 Road and Urban Infrastructure Road Kandahar connects two national roads. One of them is the Kabul‐Kandahar‐Herat Road, which is approximately 600 km. The other is the Kandahar‐Spin Boldak Road going down to Pakistan, which is about 180 km. There are about 100 km of city roads of which approximately 30 km have been paved by asphalt and the remaining 70 km are yet to be paved. Water Supply Kandahar City’s water supply system, which was constructed in 1972, serves drinking water to the 80,000 residents in the area. But there are important issues to address with regard to this old facility. They are: • Lack of operation and maintenance system • No overall master plan for future
improvement • No water meters for collection of fees Sewer Almost all houses in Kandahar City do not have septic tanks. Households use the traditional style of making a 1’x1’ opening in the boundary wall to remove night soil. A metal ladle is then used to scoop out the night soil from the window into a container. Solid Waste Solid waste of Kandahar City can be classified into scrap of sundry bricks and mud from construction sites, agro‐wastes including kitchen waste, plastics and night soil from houses. The garbage is not removed totally and many remain on the roadsides and gutter. Electricity The Kajaki Hydro Power Station is the only major power station that supplies electricity to Kandahar and Helmand provinces. Constructed in 1975, this Station is located about 200 km northwest from Kandahar and consists of 2 x 16.5 MW hydropower generators. It also has one high voltage (110 kV) transmission line for Kandahar, but no back‐up system for the
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URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1 (4)
electrical power supply. The Station supplies electricity to approximately 27,000 houses, 300 offices and 25 factories in Kandahar City. According to the Kandahar Electricity Department, the maximum power demand in Kandahar and Helmand is expected to reach 50 MW and 15 MW respectively. However, the Station’s power generation capacity is only 33 MW, which is just almost half the estimated maximum demand of both provinces. 2.5 Other Sectors Water Resource The Kandahar region depends on three major rivers as main source of surface water, which is used mainly for irrigation. They are Arghandab, Arghistan and Tarnak rivers. However, these rivers and canals have been dried up due to the severe drought that started four years ago and has continued to the present time. Groundwater level has been declining around 25m during the last 20 years in Kandahar City even if it has been used only for domestic purpose. But because of the drought that has continued to ravage the land, groundwater has also been utilized for irrigation. As a result, there has been a sharp drop in groundwater level and people in Kandahar Province have been suffering from shortage of water not only for irrigation purpose but also for domestic purpose. The situation of surface water and the shortage of groundwater have made conditions more severe for some of the refugees and they are forced to move to other places as so‐called Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Agriculture and Food Supply Over 85% of the people in Afghanistan are engaged in agriculture. Even in Kandahar City and surrounding areas, there are a number of farmers. But because of drought these past several years, the production of agriculture has been decreased. Also, livestock are affected by the drought impact significantly. Refugees and IDPs Kandahar Province is one of the Returnees and IDPs concentrated area in the southern region. The returnees tend to concentrate in Kandahar City and surrounding districts such as
Argandab, Panjwayi, Daman and Dand. Forty‐five percent (45%) of returnees live in Kandahar City at present. Security Kandahar City is one of the more stable cities in Afghanistan, although there have been sporadic incidents of violence. On the other hand, the capability of police of Kandahar Province is insufficient to combat criminal activities. The police need to enhance their capacity against various kinds of criminal activities. Women’s Affairs There are many households in the city headed by women and more than half of them seem to be widows. Women empowerment is one of the important issues after the collapse of the Taliban regime. Presently, women have returned gradually to schools and working places. Girls schools have been reopened especially in District 6 which is the most modern‐thinking area in Kandahar City. People in Kandahar now have a positive opinion about female education and working women, if women’s safety is secured. A huge gap seems to exist between educated women and uneducated women, and between urban women and rural women. The situation of uneducated women and women in rural areas has remained unchanged during the past few decades. Culture and Heritage In general, the different tribal groups have forged a peaceful coexistence with each other at the civilian level in Kandahar City. They seem to try to identify themselves as “Afghan” since the collapse of the Taliban regime. The marriage custom is for parents to choose a mate for their children. An engagement follows when both parties reach an agreement. This arrangement is usually entered into during the children’s teenage years. Kandahar City has a rich heritage. But this asset seems unimportant to some people, probably because they have not had the opportunity to learn much about their culture and history. The degradation of cultural heritage is a significant problem.
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URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1 (5)
Mine Action In the southern region, millions of landmines and UXOs are found not only at battlefields but also at agriculture lands, roads, grazing areas, and residential areas. A great number of them still have to be cleared, removed and disposed of. They remain a threat to life and limb to many of civilians in Kandahar. The AMACs are responsible for the field‐level management, coordination and oversight of mine action activities in their respective regions. However, the de‐mining activities in Kandahar was suspended for ten months (December 2001 to September 2002) because of the U.S. Air Force disposal operation of UXOs. According to the AMAC (Kandahar), the de‐mining activities at Kandahar City have restarted and this will have been completed within several months. 2.6 Rehabilitation Needs as Voiced by the
People Aside from its own observations and the government’s opinions, the Study Team considered the people’s opinions to draw up the rehabilitation and development programme for Kandahar. The following surveys were conducted to know what the people’s opinions were with regard to a number of important issues: • Resident Survey • Patients Survey 3. CENTRAL AND LOCAL
GOVERNMENTS AND INSTITUTIONS
Post‐Conflict Institutional Context The institutional base of Afghan economy has been shattered by more than a decade of war due to the Soviet occupation and the internecine conflict that followed. By the mid‐1990s, most of the country’s limited infrastructure was destroyed and traditional systems that supported agriculture and rural economy also suffered. However, damage of physical structures is easily visible but breakdown of state and civil society institutions is not so easily discerned. The Transitional Authority headed by President Hamid Karzai is facing a herculean task of reconstructing the state and civil society with
the reconstruction of institutions. This problem is compounded by a lack of budget and human resources. Aid is coming in but most of the international agencies are still focused on supporting humanitarian relief efforts. The challenge of re‐invention of the state institutions as well as traditional institutions as part of institutional and political reconstruction is as great as the challenge of physical reconstruction and rehabilitation. Central Government‐ Key Features Afghanistan is divided into 31 provinces with 325 districts in total. It has an estimated population of 22 million including the refugees in neighbouring countries. Some of the major provinces, such as Herat, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Mazar‐e Sharif, and regions are virtually outside the control of Kabul and fairly autonomous in managing their business. Basic constraints to Central Administration are as follows: (1) Human resources; (2) Cumbersome and outdated rules and
regulations; (3) Central government as an employer of last
resort; (4) Inadequate planning and financing
capacity; (5) Lack of clear definition of
intergovernmental institutional framework that would demarcate the roles and responsibilities of different levels of the government;
(6) Taxation structure for different levels of government;
(7) Revenue and expenditure assignments to different levels of government;
(8) Inter‐governmental financing methods; (9) Targeting mechanisms for distribution of
resources among districts and within individual districts;
(10) Operational framework for budget formulation;
(11) Salary payment system; (12) Strengthening aid coordination at all
levels; (13) Inter‐ministerial coordination; (14) Review and assessment of civil service for
re‐structuring; (15) Re‐integration of civil servants; (16) Lack of transparency and accountability; (17) Corruption;
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URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1 (6)
(18) Low salaries and wages in public sector; and
(19) Female representation in government service.
The Afghan government also lacks clear policies and regulations with regards to a legal framework for private sector development and the capacity to formulate such policies and implement them. The policy and regulatory vacuum extends to a broad range of fundamental issues beyond private investment and covers issues related to infrastructure development and land, including:
(1) Approval and registration of foreign investment;
(2) Registration and formation of companies; (3) Tax registration; (4) Land ownership and use; (5) Environmental regulations; (6) Expatriate work permits; (7) Import processing and facilitation; (8) Utility provision; and (9) Business licensing. Kandahar Provincial Government‐Key Features The structure of Kandahar provincial government is a replica of the structure of the central government. There are over 30 provincial departments in Kandahar. Majority of the departments are housed in very old structures with no facilities and are not functional. Some of the departments including the departments of health, education, public works, and reconstruction that are the focus of international aid are relatively functional. The key constraints to provincial administration include: (1) Large number of departments with poorly
defined responsibilities; (2) Negligible planning, budgeting, and
financial management capacity; (3) Unclear functions, roles, and
responsibilities; (4) Serious depreciation of human resources
and skills; (5) Disparity between assigned functions and
actual functions; (6) Top‐down and centralized decision‐making
procedures;
(7) Hallowed out middle management; (8) Lack of physical and office facilities; (9) Lack of coordination among departments; (10) Limited and manual information
managements; (11) Lack of planning and financing skills at all
levels; (12) Lack of technical personnel at all levels; (13) Politically controlled administration; and (14) Marginalization of women in government
service. Kandahar Municipality‐Key Features The city is divided into six districts and each district has a municipal body, which is under the jurisdiction of Kandahar municipality. Unlike Kabul municipality, which is directly under the control of the president and the cabinet, the municipality of Kandahar is, in theory, part of the structure of central government and is subject to its rules and regulations. As such the municipality has very limited autonomy. In practice, municipal powers are significantly autonomous as a consequence of a virtual lack of control of municipal functions by the central government. In its day‐to‐day operations, the municipality is dependent upon the Office of the Governor in both financial and administrative spheres. The municipality is part of local politics and hence draws the attention of the Governor more than the provincial departments. The major constraints to municipal management in Kandahar include: (1) Multiple sources of administrative authority,
functions, and accountability; (2) Negligible service production and delivery
capacity; (3) Poor financial resource base; (4) Limited technical and professional capacity; (5) Inadequate public representation; (6) Weak administrative organization; (7) Centralized management; (8) No record keeping and information
management; and (9) Overlapping roles of provincial departments
and Kandahar municipality.
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URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1 (7)
4. URGENT REHABILITATION PROGRAMME
4.1 Strategy It is important for reintegration of the fragmented state to support the reconstruction not only at capital city but also at other regional centres considering balance of distribution. The urgent rehabilitation programme is a support strategy and a list of projects for Kandahar region recommended by the Study Team. The programme is expected to be utilised as a strategic support framework to the region, formulating projects and programmes, which will be supported and funded by donor agencies. However, the priority projects and programmes should be reviewed and modified as necessary based on the transformation of rehabilitation needs and the coordination with other donors. Considering the National Development Framework (NDF) prepared by the Board of AACA, discussions for the regional rehabilitation by the local government, donors and NGOs, and Japan’s assistance policy for Afghanistan, the following five pillars can be set as essential support strategy to Kandahar region: (1) Responding transition from relief,
rehabilitation to development (2) Building efficient institutions (3) Enhancing regional stability (4) Creation of sustainable livelihoods (5) Equality between urban and rural as well as
regions 4.2 Selection Criteria The Study Team proposes a long list of prospective Urgent Rehabilitation Projects and Programmes based on the information obtained from various sources, field surveys, and the strategy for rehabilitation and reconstruction. Criteria for immediate action are as follows.
(1) Urgency: Is it urgently necessary in that without it people’s life suffers extreme inconvenience, unsafe situation, infringement on human rights, and so on?
(2) Necessity: Is it absolutely necessary to secure the minimum requirements for
healthy and civilized life of people, to lay a basic foundation for socio‐economic development, to change obsolete systems towards modernization, to conserve the inherent heritage, and so on?
(3) Appreciability: Is it reasonably and visibly appreciable for beneficiaries in terms of the effects accrued by its implementation?
(4) Viability: Is it prepared for immediate implementation without any serious constraining factors such as negative environmental impacts, resentment of the people affected, land acquisition problems, difficulties in operation and maintenance, and so on?
Criteria for long‐term reconstruction are as follows. (1) Quality Enhancement: Can it substantially
contribute towards the betterment of people’s quality of life by alleviating poverty issues?
(2) Foundation Laying: Can it lay a solid foundation for future improvement and development of the relevant sector?
(3) Equality Assurance: Can it contribute to reduce disparities between city and rural areas as well as between haves and have‐nots?
(4) Sustainable Development: Can it be sustainable with adequate capacity of responsible institutions for post‐implementation operation and maintenance and without generating negative impacts on surrounding environment?
4.3 Sector Strategy Education: Enhancement of education sector is one of the most important issues. Key challenges in the next stage are therefore to increase access opportunities and to reduce disparities (gender, regional, urban/rural). Health: For the improvement of administration in DOPH‐Kandahar and the management of hospitals, the next stage should be more concentrated for software aspect like refresher training for medical and administration staffs, and then improvement of management skill for future planning and services in a sustainable way.
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Area Development: This area development master plan will be a key indicator for not only the physical development of Kandahar but also the establishment of sectoral master plan. Water and Sanitation: Rehabilitation and expansion of the system is essential. The development of sewerage system is also important, but there are considerable difficulties to face in its implementation in terms of feasibility, operation and maintenance. Water Resources Management: Sustainable usage of water resources is fundamental for stable implementation of rehabilitation and development of Afghanistan. In addition, security of safe water is indispensable for livelihood of the people. In order to achieve these, water resources management should be enforced in a proper way. From the hydrogeological aspect, the following items are to be studied: • Potential of groundwater and surface water • Source of contamination of groundwater • Groundwater flow mechanism (including
recharge mechanism) • Formulation of monitoring method for water
resources • Future water demand
On the other hand, the following problems are highlighted based on the discussion with Afghanistan government:
• Unformulated development plan and management for water resources
• Lack of information related to the groundwater resources
• Shortage of skilled manpower • Limited instrument for the investigation of
groundwater • Financial constraints • Lack of coordination among donors
Implementation of the study on groundwater resources potential should solve these problems and contribute to transition from relief, rehabilitation to development of Afghanistan. Natural Resource Management: The prolonged drought has made it imperative to build new irrigation facilities aside from rehabilitating existing ones. The possibility of digging/rehabilitating wells should be discussed after groundwater potential is carefully assessed.
Simultaneously, it is necessary to develop water‐saved irrigation system and cash crops that can save water, rather than general food crops. On the other hand, it is essentially important to consider the integration of agriculture and rural development from the view of sustainable livelihoods. Refugees and IDPs: The support strategy for addressing the problem of refugees and IDPs is reintegration and resettlement, in order to break off the vicious circle of displacement. The support programme should be carried out in cooperation with UNHCR, WFP, and NGOs. Others: In addition to the above sectors, the following sectors are important for durable peace and sustainable development for the region.
Industrial Development and Income Generation
Strengthening Local Governance Protection of Human Rights and Promotion of Democratic System
Mine Action Conservation of Culture and Environment Empowerment of Women
4.4 Time Frame of the Programme For smooth and appropriate implementation, linkage among the projects should be considered. 4.5 Considerations for Implementation For smooth and appropriate implementation, the following issues should be considered: Culture and Society: It is essential to consider respect of Culture and Society in the implementation of programmes in Kandahar. Capacity of Counterpart: During the implementation of projects, it is important to consider contribution to institutional capacity building because the administrative capacity is weak at present. Considering Cross‐cutting Issues: It is important to consider cross‐cutting issues such as Institutional Building, Human Resource Development (Capacity Building), Environment, Gender, Peacebuilding, etc., to ensure efficiency and sustainability and to avoid any negative impact to implementation.
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Security: Security is a key constraint of the implementation. Although Kandahar seems more stable than most other regions in Afghanistan, it is necessary for all experts to take the necessary precautions. The UN security system recommends advising them of visits to places of risks 48 hours in advance so that they can conduct a security assessment. Logistics: There are only three UN flights per week to Kandahar Airport. Finding accommodation in Kandahar City is a problem since the city offers a limited number of hostel facilities. 4.6 Proposed Urgent Rehabilitation
Programme (Priority Projects) Within the long list selected by the Study Team, the following projects are selected as proposed Urgent Rehabilitation Programme: Immediate Action • School Construction in Un‐covered Area • Procurement of Commuter Bus for Female
Students in the Nursing School • Road Paving in the City • Procurement of Equipment for Road
Maintenance • Study on Groundwater Resource Potential • Improvement of Drain • Strengthening of Solid Waste Management • Comprehensive Reintegration Programme
for Returnees Short‐to‐Mid Term Programme • Rehabilitation of Teacher Training College • Rehabilitation of Workshop of Mechanical
School • In‐service Teacher Training Programme on
Strengthening Science and Mathematics • Supplementary Education Programme for
Out‐of‐School Youth and Adult • Strengthening of Medical Services with
Modern Equipment • Training of Medical Staff • Rehabilitation of Maintenance Centre for
Medical Equipment in Mirwis Hospital • Strengthening of PHC Activities • Master Plan Study on Rehabilitation and
Development of Kandahar City
• Master Plan Study on Public Transport for Kandahar Province including Supply of Public Buses and Construction of Workshop
• Study, Design and Construction of Water Supply Network System in Kandahar City
• Replacement of Existing Water Pumps and Motors including New Reservoir Construction
• Promotion of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME)
• Installation of Hydro‐power Generator at Existing Power Station
• Improvement of Existing Transmission Line and Sub‐station
• Re‐integration Programme for Ex‐combatants in Kandahar City
• Strengthening Police System in Kandahar Province
• Integrated Programme for Strengthening Capacity and Activities of Kandahar Women’s Association
5. CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS Limitation of the URSP: Although the urgent rehabilitation projects and the proposed rehabilitation programme do not cover all sectors, the Study Team considers needs and issues in most of sectors and is seeking collaboration or demarcation with other donors, NGOs and the local government for comprehensive, efficient and effective implementation. Recommendation: Physical rehabilitation has development value only to the extent it helps a transition to social and economic recovery. Social and economic recovery essentially entails development of institutions, both formal and informal, and the social capital of a society. Reconstruction in post‐conflict situations, in view of its urgency, may exact a price from sustainable development by neglecting the critical elements of ownership and building of institutional and social capital. Creating employment opportunities is a critical dimension of the ongoing reconstruction process needed to maintain peace and stability in Afghanistan. New employment opportunities are critical to reduce the high levels of poverty,
Executive Summary
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1 (10)
to restore a sense of normalcy and peace, and to support social and economic inclusion of vulnerable groups, especially women. Demand‐driven, community‐based initiatives should be supported, as these initiatives are necessary for strengthening local governance and achieving tangible results in communities across a variety of sectors to be prioritised by the communities themselves. The URSP strategy is primarily meant to support development of a strong framework for local governance and community mobilisation that will be essential for harnessing the social capital needed to improve living conditions of the majority of Afghans. It argues for a balance between quickly acting on the rehabilitation agenda and ensuring that rehabilitation and reconstruction does not overwhelm the medium and long‐term development objectives that will help build institutions and systems of governance and allow people a voice in political decision‐making and enhance their capacity for local action. The key elements of the URSP strategy include: (1) Local Ownership of rehabilitation and
reconstruction process; (2) Local government capacity building; (3) Supporting formation and capacity
development of partnership arrangements between local government institutions and community groups;
(4) Demand‐based, community‐driven rehabilitation activities wherever feasible;
(5) Gender and equity needs to be embodied in all activities;
(6) Sectoral focus to enhance multiplier effects of projects within a sector;
(7) Integrating inter‐sectoral linkages in the design of rehabilitation activities;
(8) Rehabilitation and development in all sectors must accompany capacity building of local government and community organizations;
(9) Ensuring financing for operations and maintenance of rehabilitated facilities; and
(10) Ensuring maximum utilization of rehabilitated activities.
The URSP strategy entails an integration of physical rehabilitation with institutional capacity building measures in order to enhance the prospects of local ownership, and utilization,
operations, and maintenance of rehabilitated infrastructure and services.
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Table of Contents for URSP‐KDH Final Report Part 1
Covering Sector Conditions and Urgent Programme List Preface Letter of Transmittal Map of Southern Region of Afghanistan Map of Kandahar City Map of School in Kandahar City Map of Medical Facility in Kandahar City Abbreviation List Executive Summary Page
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 1 ‐ 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 1 ‐ 1 1.2 Scope of the URSP‐KDH.......................................................................................... 1 ‐ 2 1.3 Approaches and Methodology............................................................................... 1 ‐ 2
1.3.1 Kick‐off Meeting.......................................................................................... 1 ‐ 2 1.3.2 Collection of Information and Data.......................................................... 1 ‐ 2 1.3.3 Reconnaissance Survey............................................................................... 1 ‐ 2 1.3.4 Selection of the Urgent Rehabilitation Project ........................................ 1 ‐ 3 1.3.5 Presentation and Discussion of the Draft Progress Report ................... 1 ‐ 3 1.3.6 Formulation of an Urgent Rehabilitation Programme........................... 1 ‐ 4 1.3.7 Conclusion and Recommendations .......................................................... 1 ‐ 5
1.4 Minutes of Meetings for Implementation of the URSP‐KDH ............................ 1 ‐ 6
CHAPTER 2 PRESENT CONDITION AND REHABILITATION NEEDS OF KANDAHAR ............................................................................................ 2 ‐ 1
2.1 Overall view of the South‐western Region ........................................................... 2 ‐ 1 2.1.1 General.......................................................................................................... 2 ‐ 1 2.1.2 Donor Coordination Framework .............................................................. 2 ‐ 2
2.2 Overall View of Kandahar City and Neighbouring Areas ................................. 2 ‐ 5 2.3 Education Sector ....................................................................................................... 2 ‐ 6
2.3.1 Overall View of the Education Sector in Kandahar Province............... 2 ‐ 6 2.3.2 Primary and Secondary Education........................................................... 2 ‐ 8 2.3.3 Early Childhood Education (ECE)............................................................ 2 ‐10 2.3.4 Technical and Vocational Education......................................................... 2 ‐10 2.3.5 Higher/University Education .................................................................... 2 ‐11 2.3.6 Teacher Training/Education....................................................................... 2 ‐12
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2.4 Health Sector ............................................................................................................. 2 ‐13 2.4.1 Overall View of the Health Sector in the Southern Region................... 2 ‐13 2.4.2 Health Service in Kandahar City .............................................................. 2 ‐17 2.4.3 Maternal‐Child Healthcare ........................................................................ 2 ‐18 2.4.4 Communicable Diseases............................................................................. 2 ‐20 2.4.5 Disabled and Psychological Trauma Care ............................................... 2 ‐22 2.4.6 Primary Health Care................................................................................... 2 ‐23 2.4.7 Referral System............................................................................................ 2 ‐24 2.4.8 Health Information System........................................................................ 2 ‐26 2.4.9 Human Resources ....................................................................................... 2 ‐27 2.4.10 DOPH Kandahar Organization............................................................... 2 ‐29
2.5 Road Sector and Urban Infrastructure .................................................................. 2 ‐30 2.5.1 Road Sector................................................................................................... 2 ‐30 2.5.2 Water Supply ............................................................................................... 2 ‐33 2.5.3 Sewer............................................................................................................. 2 ‐35 2.5.4 Solid Waste ................................................................................................... 2 ‐36 2.5.5 Electricity...................................................................................................... 2 ‐38
2.6 Other Sectors ............................................................................................................. 2 ‐41 2.6.1 Water Resource ............................................................................................ 2 ‐41 2.6.2 Agriculture and Food Supply.................................................................... 2 ‐44 2.6.3 Refugees and IDPs ...................................................................................... 2 ‐45 2.6.4 Security ......................................................................................................... 2 ‐48 2.6.5 Women’s Affairs........................................................................................... 2 ‐49 2.6.6 Culture and Heritage.................................................................................. 2 ‐50 2.6.7 Mine Action.................................................................................................. 2 ‐53
2.7 Realities and Rehabilitation Needs as Voice by the People ................................ 2 ‐54 2.7.1 Resident Survey in Kandahar City ........................................................... 2 ‐54 2.7.2 Patient Survey at Mirwis Hospital............................................................ 2 ‐56
CHAPTER 3 CENTRAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AND INSTITUTIONS................. 3 ‐ 1
3.1 Post‐Conflict Institutional Context in Afghanistan ............................................. 3 ‐ 1 3.2 Central Government‐ Key Features ....................................................................... 3 ‐ 2 3.3 Kandahar Provincial Government‐Key Features................................................. 3 ‐ 8 3.4 Kandahar Municipality‐ Key Features .................................................................. 3 ‐11 3.5 Communities and Institutions of Local Governance........................................... 3 ‐13
CHAPTER 4 PROPOSED URGENT REHABILITATION PROGRAMME ........................... 4 ‐ 1
4.1 Strategy ...................................................................................................................... 4 ‐ 1 4.1.1 Responding Transition from Relief, Rehabilitation to Development ....... 4 ‐ 2 4.1.2 Building Efficient Institutions ................................................................... 4 ‐ 2 4.1.3 Enhancing Regional Stability..................................................................... 4 ‐ 3
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4.1.4 Creation of Sustainable Livelihoods......................................................... 4 ‐ 3 4.1.5 Equality Between Urban and Rural .......................................................... 4 ‐ 3
4.2 Selection Criteria....................................................................................................... 4 ‐ 4 4.3 Sector Strategy .......................................................................................................... 4 ‐ 5
4.3.1 Education...................................................................................................... 4 ‐ 5 4.3.2 Health............................................................................................................ 4 ‐ 5 4.3.3 Urban and Regional Development ........................................................... 4 ‐ 6 4.3.4 Water and Sanitation................................................................................... 4 ‐ 6 4.3.5 Water Resources Management .................................................................. 4 ‐ 7 4.3.6 Natural Resource Management (Agriculture) ........................................ 4 ‐ 8 4.3.7 Refugees and IDPs ...................................................................................... 4 ‐ 8 4.3.8 Others............................................................................................................ 4 ‐ 8
4.4 Proposed Urgent Rehabilitation Programme....................................................... 4 ‐ 9 4.5 Time‐Frame of the Programme .............................................................................. 4 ‐11 4.6 Considerations for Implementation....................................................................... 4 ‐12
4.6.1 Culture and Society..................................................................................... 4 ‐12 4.6.2 Capacity of Counterpart............................................................................. 4 ‐12 4.6.3 Considering Crosscutting Issues............................................................... 4 ‐13 4.6.4 Security ......................................................................................................... 4 ‐14 4.6.5 Logistical Support ....................................................................................... 4 ‐14
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................ 5 ‐ 1
5.1 Limitation of the URSP ............................................................................................ 5 ‐ 1 5.2 A Recommended URSP Strategy............................................................................ 5 ‐ 1 5.3 Donor Coordination................................................................................................. 5 ‐ 6 5.4 Efficient Logistical Arrangement ........................................................................... 5 ‐ 7
Appendix 1 Long List and Project Profiles of Urgent Rehabilitation Programme Appendix 2 Final Report on the Resident Survey in Kandahar City
CHAPTER 1 Introduction
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
In the wake of the demise of the Taliban regime and the long‐awaited cease‐fire of the war‐torn situation in Afghanistan, the international community has resumed to address seriously the urgent rehabilitation and reconstruction of the country by pledging financial assistance amounting to about 4.5 billion dollars over the coming two and a half years. The pledge was made at the International Conference on Reconstruction Assistance to Afghanistan held in January 2002 in Tokyo.
Accordingly, the Government of Japan (GOJ) pledged to share financial assistance of 500 million dollars for the said period particularly for urgent humanitarian assistance in the sectors of education, health and medical care, resettlement of repatriated refugees, landmine clearance, and empowerment of women’s participation in society.
Under the circumstances, GOJ sent a preparatory mission for supporting the Afghanistan Interim Administration (AIA) from March 3 to 13, 2002. The mission held meetings with ministries of AIA and other organizations concerned, and inspected various facilities, with a view to grasping concrete needs for Japanese future assistance. Those concerned on the Afghan side expressed their great expectations for the earliest possible implementation of assistance that could be seen in the immediate future.
As a consequence of the findings by the mission, GOJ decided to proceed with the Urgent Rehabilitation Support Programme (URSP). Following the commencement of URSP‐EHB1 and URSP‐SWPT2 in Kabul, the Urgent Rehabilitation Support Program in Kandahar (hereinafter called as “URSP‐KDH”) was formulated to cover Kandahar city, which is the centre of the south‐western region of Afghanistan, according to the Implementing Arrangement (IA) agreed upon by the Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority (AACA), Kandahar Provincial Government, Ministry of Planning and Ministry of Reconstruction of the Afghanistan Islamic Transitional Authority (ATA) on 8th August 2002.
The URSP‐KDH includes the following project/programme.
1 Urgent Rehabilitation Support Programme in Afghanistan – Education, Health and Broadcasting Sector
Duration: April 2002 – August 2003 2 Urgent Rehabilitation Support Programme in Afghanistan – Rehabilitation Study for South‐Western
Area & Public Transportation Study of Kabul, Duration: July 2002 – February 2003
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(1) Implementation of Urgent Rehabilitation Projects (2) Establishment of Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
1.2 Scope of the URSP‐KDH
Along the line of the commitment made by GOJ, the Programme aims at realizing earlier implementation of the URSP‐KDH, with the scopes as follows.
(1) The first scope: Implementation of Urgent Rehabilitation Projects is to rehabilitate/reconstruct damaged and destroyed facilities and structures, especially roads, educational and medical facilities.
(2) The second scope: Establishment of Urgent Rehabilitation Programme is to formulate a short‐term rehabilitation programme covering not only the physical infrastructure sector but also other pertinent sectors, so that the above‐stated urgent rehabilitation projects should be rightly positioned and seamlessly sustained towards future reconstruction.
1.3 Approaches and Methodology
The following are the explanation of the basic work approach and methodology to be applied for each work item:
1.3.1 Kick‐off Meeting
Upon mobilisation to Kandahar city, a kick‐off meeting was held on 7th September 2002 between the JICA Study Team (hereinafter called as “Study Team”) and the counterpart agencies, who are made up of the Governor of Kandahar Province, the Kandahar Municipal Mayor and a Relief Coordinator at which occasion the Draft Inception Report was presented for discussion.
On 11th September, Mr. Takeshi Naruse, team leader of JICA Advisory Team as one part and Mr. Gul Agha Shirzai, Governor Kandahar Province on the other part had signed the Minutes of Meeting as a conclusion of understanding for the implementation of this programme.
1.3.2 Collection of Information and Data
The Study Team will collect continuously information and data related to the proposed rehabilitation projects by hearing from appropriate sources, carrying out site investigation, and discussing matters with prospective contractors and suppliers.
1.3.3 Reconnaissance Survey
The Study Team conducted a reconnaissance survey to recognize realities of Kandahar city, and to identify rehabilitation needs. Establishment of the urgent rehabilitation
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programme and selection of the urgent rehabilitation projects are based on the results of the survey. The Project Team will also continue the survey to ensure smooth progress of the study.
1.3.4 Selection of the Urgent Rehabilitation Project
(1) Educational Facility Based on the field survey and the consultation with concerned agencies, construction of additional classrooms will be implemented for candidate schools.
(2) Medical Facility Based on the field survey and the discussion with the Department of Public Health of Kandahar, the Study Team decided to rehabilitate and supply new equipment for kitchen and laundry in Mirwis hospital, and to supply commuter buses for the Kandahar Nursing School.
(3) Road The Study Team selected some Kandahar city Roads for rehabilitation.
(4) Solid Waste Based on the field survey and the discussion with Kandahar Municipality and UN Habitat, the Study Team decided to supply vehicles for collecting solid waste in Kandahar city.
1.3.5 Presentation and Discussion of the Draft Progress Report
At the end of this site survey in Kandahar city, all the contents of the Batch One component of the Urgent Rehabilitation Project as well as sector‐wise short term rehabilitation programme including the Batch Two component of the Urgent Rehabilitation Project were summarized in the form of the Draft Progress Report covering the following information for the submission to JICA as well as the ATA counterpart agencies. The Draft Progress Report has been presented to and discussed with the Afghan side as well as UN agencies and NGOs concerned on December 2002. According to the consultation with the ATA counterpart agencies and the stakeholder meeting with UN agencies and NGOs, comments have been properly dealt with and incorporated in the Progress Report.
Urgent Rehabilitation Project (Batch One and Two Component):
(1) Scope of work for the implementation of the batch 1 component; (2) Progress information of the batch 1 component; (3) Estimation of the implementation cost; and (4) Implementation organization.
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Urgent Rehabilitation Programme:
(1) Education Sector; (2) Health Sector; (3) Road Sector; (4) Water and Sanitation Sector; and (5) Others.
1.3.6 Formulation of an Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
It is important for efficient rehabilitation and development of the post‐conflict Kandahar city to formulate a support strategy. The support strategy shall respond to rehabilitation needs of the city and the surrounding areas, to consider consistency with the national development framework and possible schemes of the GOJ. In order for the proposed rehabilitation projects to be more sustainable over the future, in addition, they need to be rightly positioned in the sector‐wise future rehabilitation/development framework. For the purposes, the Study Team will attempt to prepare an urgent rehabilitation program in consultation with the ATA counterpart agencies (both central and provincial), donor agencies and national and international NGOs. It is envisaged that the programme should cover the following aspects:
(1) Target period covering approximately two years from now or by the end of the year 2004, one year after the new Constitutional Loya Jirga will have been convened taking over the ATA;
(2) Positioning of the urgent rehabilitation projects within the short‐term reconstruction framework;
(3) Sector‐wise reconstruction scenario and strategy to substantiate the urgent rehabilitation programme;
(4) Effective and efficient use of the urgent rehabilitation projects in a way widely contributable to community formation with endogenous reconstruction efforts of the people;
(5) Financial requirement to substantiate the urgent rehabilitation programme;
(6) Establishment of the institutional and organizational regime for the programme implementation in coordination with other national and international donor agencies and NGOs; and
(7) Relevance of the rehabilitation programme as Japan’s cooperation to Afghanistan under Japan’s support policy, which was announced at the Tokyo conference. Furthermore, the urgent rehabilitation programme should be met with a
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framework of the Sectorial Working Group (SWG) as the assistance coordination framework in South‐western Afghanistan, as well as the rehabilitation needs and the support framework of the International Community. The programme should cover the sectors listed in the table below. Integrated projects beyond the sectors, nevertheless, may have to be considered. Regarding Agriculture sector, the Study Team recognises its importance. In this sense, JICA will dispatch another study team for the agriculture sector separately.
Table 1.1 Sector Coverage of the Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
Sector Examples of envisaged support areas
Education Rehabilitation/construction of school facilities and equipment, Teacher Training, and Improving quality of education
Health MCH, Reproductive health, EPI, Malaria, TB and other communicable diseases, disability care, and HIS
Infrastructure Rehabilitation Shelter, Road, Bridge, Transportation, Electricity, Water Resources, Disposal, Sewerage,
Water and Sanitation Safe water, environmental sanitation, Community partnership and participation, and Awareness
Others Reducing vulnerability to food insecurity, natural and manmade disasters, Poppy eradication, Promotion of SME, Strengthening civil society, Reconciliation, Environmental conservation, and natural resources management
1.3.7 Conclusion and Recommendations
Comprehensive assessment will be made by the Study Team covering the implementation of the urgent rehabilitation projects along with the formulation of an urgent rehabilitation programme. At the stage of preparing this Progress Report, the following assessment items will be conceived.
(1) Consistency with the post‐conflict reconstruction needs such as racial reconciliation, security maintenance, recreation of sustainable livelihoods, governance, economic reconstruction, poverty reduction, and so on,
(2) Urgency and necessity, (3) Necessity for subsequent follow‐up including maintenance, (4) Positive effects on income distribution and reducing disparity, (5) Effectiveness and efficiency of the projects, (6) Social and environmental impacts by the project, (7) Sustainability of the projects, and (8) Overall justification of the implementation of the projects.
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The comprehensive project assessment will be accompanied by the recommendations for the subsequent actions under the initiative of the ATA counterpart agencies, including how to effectively utilize the completed projects, how to apply adequate maintenance for the projects, and how to realize and implement the formulated urgent rehabilitation programme.
1.4 Minutes of Meetings for Implementation of the URSP‐KDH
The Minutes of Meeting for the Urgent Rehabilitation Support Program in Kandahar, Afghanistan was agreed upon on 11th September 2002 between the provincial government of Kandahar and the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA). Following is the contents of the Minutes of Meeting agreed upon and signed by the representatives of the respective agencies.
Box 1.1 Minutes of Meeting
In accordance with the Implementing Arrangement for the Urgent Rehabilitation Support Program (hereinafter referred to as “URSP”) in Kandahar, agreed on August 7, 2002 between Afghanistan side, which consist of the Afghan Assistance Coordination Authority (AACA), Provincial Government of Kandahar, Ministry of Planning and Ministry of Reconstruction, and Japan International Cooperation Agency (hereinafter referred to as “JICA”), JICA organized and dispatched the study team (hereinafter referred to as the “Team”) headed by Mr. Kawasaki and the Advisory Team headed by Mr. Naruse of JICA HQs in Tokyo, to Afghanistan for the implementation of the program from September 2, 2002. Upon arrival in Kabul then in Kandahar, the Team had a series of meetings with ministries of central government, departments of provincial government and other relevant domestic and international agencies and organizations regarding the implementation of the program. This Minutes of Meeting summarizes the results of the discussions made at the meetings with concerned parties to mutually understand the objectives of URSP in Kandahar. The following are the summary of the results of the meetings. 1. Significance of Rehabilitation of Kandahar The rehabilitation of the war‐torn society and reintegration of people in Afghanistan beyond ethnicity are one of the most important factors for the establishment of peace and the development of Afghanistan. Also, the equity of people and harmonization among regions in Afghanistan is of great importance for the endurance of peace and the sustainable development.
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In this sense, rehabilitation and development of Kandahar, the second largest city in Afghanistan, shall take the leading role in creating durable peace and in enhancing the quality of people’s life in other rural cities in Afghanistan, which in turn leads to the development of new Afghanistan itself.
2. Basic Strategy of the Program
To achieve the stable development through the seamless and surefooted rehabilitation and the reconstruction based on appropriate program is the basic strategy of this program. For above reason, rehabilitation of high priortized public facilities and short‐ and mid‐term rehabilitation program will be proposed as driving force for the development of Kandahar.
3. Program Objectives
The Objectives consists of two major components. The first objective is to rehabilitate damaged and destroyed facilities. The projects will be undertaken as Batch with the targeted completion date by the end of March 2003, and Batch 2 by the end of August 2003.
(1) Batch 1 Component The Team will select the candidate facilities among the followings within the city are of Kandahar
• Rehabilitation of school buildings (including the installation of furniture), • Rehabilitation of utility system of Mirwis hospital, • Rehabilitation of unpaved or damaged roads, etc.
(2) Batch 2 Component The Team will select candidate facilities for reconstruction within or neighboring area, if any, of Kandahar city in close consultation with the counterpart agencies.
The second objective is to formulate a short‐ and mid‐term development program covering not only physical reconstruction but also institutional and capacity building issues to support endogenous efforts of the Afghan people. The program shall be used as a framework of the future assistance extended from the Government of Japan.
4. Others (1) Both sides agreed that the close communication with and the provision of effective and efficient support from each side are the key factor for successful implementation of the program, and the Japanese side promised to consult the Afghan side in the course of selection of the facilities. The Afghan side in turn proposed to provide the project office in the municipality building with engineers to be assigned as full time counterpart.
(2) Both sides confirmed the necessity to establish a permanent supporting facility for the Team and other Japanese missions to Kandahar with the functions of information gathering, communication, security control and accommodation for effective and smooth implementation of the Japanese assistance.
CHAPTER 2 Present Condition and Rehabilitation Needs
of Kandahar
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CHAPTER 2 PRESENT CONDITION AND REHABILITATION NEEDS OF KANDAHAR
2.1 Overall view of the South‐western Region
2.1.1 General
The south‐western region is the largest and most arid region in Afghanistan. It comprises six provinces1 namely Kandahar, Helmand, Nimroz, Zabul, Uruzgan, and Ghazni with a total area 242,900 sq km and a collective population of approximately 4,500,000 populations. The civil war and continuous drought have affected the region bringing enormous damage, especially in agricultural production and people’s life, although it once was known as a granary of Afghanistan, so called “fruit basket of Afghanistan”. In addition, there are estimated 1,300,000 refugees exiled from the region to neighbouring Pakistan and Iran, and 413,6612 internally displaced persons (IDPs) are suffering in the region. Table 2.1 shows a general profile of the south‐western region.
Table 2.1 Profile of the South‐western Region
Total Area: 242,900 sq km
Total Population (est.): 4,500,000
Number of Provinces: 6
Number of Districts: 67
Regional Centre: Kandahar City
Cultivable Land (est.): 922,800 hectares
Irrigated Area (est.): 249,200 hectares
Pastures (est.): 4,521 hectares
Number of Animals (FAO survey – 1997/98): 6,842,675
Industry: Marble, Cotton Processing, Edible oil, Textile (wool/cotton), Ice, Shoes, Milk Processing, Small scale fruit processing
Number of Schools (est.): 400
Number of Hospitals/Health facilities: 10/132
Source: AIMS (2002) Brief Regional Overview for Visitors to South – Western Afghanistan, July 2002
1 Some organisations define the region comprising five provinces (excluding Ghazni province) 2 As of February 2002, UNHCR
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Historically, the region has been a crossroad of culture between East and West. Hellenism and Gandahra Civilisations were brought into the region by ancient empires such as Alexander’s Macedonia or Chandragupta’s Maurya. The ancient civilisation along Arghandab River named “Arakosia” flourished as an orchard of grapes. The centre of Arakosia seemed to be the old city of Kandahar, located at the south‐western part of modern Kandahar city. There are several doctrines concerning an etymology of Kandahar. A possible etymology seems to be “Gandahra”.
After the prolonged struggle of hegemony for the region between Persian and Indian, Mirwis led the region become independent country from the Persian regime in the 18th century. And then, Ahmad Shah Baba established the foundation of modern Afghanistan and Kandahar city. After the period of Ahmad Shah Baba, Kandahar has been the heart of Afghanistan.
2.1.2 Donor Coordination Framework
The Area Coordination Body for Southern Area (ACB‐SA, formerly RCB: Regional Coordinating Body) coordinates all assistance actors in southern Afghanistan and Departments of the ATA. The ACB has Sectoral Working Groups (SWG) and sub SWG as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Sectoral Working Group (SWG) in ACB SA
Sectoral Working Group Sub‐SWG Joint Leadership
Natural Resources Management
Crops, Livestock, Technical Support FAO/DOA/RRD
Education (primary) and vocational training
Teacher training, School material, Monitoring & Supervision
UNICEF/DOE
Emergency Preparedness & Response
Drought Response Operation, Recovery and Development, Preparedness
UNOCHA/DOP/IA RC
Health EPI, Malaria, CDD/ARI, Inf. Disease Control Rapid Response
WHO/DOPH
Area Development Irrigation, Shelter, Road UNOPS/DOPW/RRD
Mine Action Mine Surveying, Mine Clearance, Mine Awareness
UNMAS/DOP
Food Aid Emergency Response, Strategy for Food Security
WFP/DOP
Refugee & Returnee Integration (incl. IDPs)
‐ UNHCR/DORR
Water & Sanitation Pot. Water, Environmental Sanitation UNICEF/DOWP/RRD
Urban Management ‐ UNHSP/Municipality
Protection & Human Rights ‐ UNAMA/UNHCR
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The Southern Western Afghanistan & Balochistan Association for Coordination (SWABAC) is a NGO coordinating body of southern Afghanistan. Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Relief (ACBAR), established its office in Kandahar city to offer security information and to collect information about the members’ activities according to the request of member agencies. The ACBAR considers the importance of cooperating with the SWABAC in its relief efforts in order to share needs of the SWABAC member NGOs with donor agencies, which are based in Kabul, because the SWABAC does not have a representative office in Kabul.
Generally, Area Coordinator of UNAMA has a role of coordination of donors’ activities in Kandahar, although each UN agency has a responsibility of coordination in each specific sector. Donors’ activities in the region have been updated by the Afghanistan Information Management System (AIMS) at the UNAMA office in Kandahar city. Table 2.3 shows a list of organisations by location and sector as of October 2002.
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Table 2.3
Who’s doing What W
here in Kandahar Province
Districts \
Sectors
Agricu
lture
& F
ood
Secu
rity
Com
merc
e &
Indust
ry
Coord
ination
and S
upport
Serv
ices
Culture &
Media
Educa
tion
Food A
id
Govern
ance
& C
ivil
Society
Health &
Social
Welfare
Hum
an
Rig
hts / R
ule
of Law
Infrast
ruct
ur
e (in
c.transp
ort)
Min
e A
ctio
nPublic
Utilities
Shelter &
Housing
Wate
r &
Sanitation
Com
munity
Develo
pm
en
tN
on F
ood
Item
sCH
A F
AO
CH
LC
AH
DS
CH
AFA
OFA
O ICM
CU
NIC
EF
FA
OU
NIC
EF
IbnSin
aVA
RA
IbnSin
aU
NO
PS
MSF‐H
CA
RE
UN
ICEF
AD
AA
HD
S C
ARE
CA
RE
CA
RE
AD
AFA
OW
FP
CA
RE
FA
O W
FP
WFP
MC
WFP
MC
IR (U
K)
MSF‐H
UN
ICEF
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
CA
RE
AD
AU
NIC
EF
CA
RE
AH
DS
CA
RE
CA
RE
CA
RE
AD
AFA
O F
AO
WFP
GTZ
FA
O W
FP
GTZ
UN
ICEF
FA
OTF
ICM
CIR (U
K)
MSF‐H
WFP
WFP
UN
OPS
VA
RA
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
UN
ICEF
IR (U
K)
IbnSin
aU
NIC
EF
IbnSin
aW
FP
WFP
MSF‐H
WFP
WFP
WFP
ACF
AD
AA
CS
AD
AA
CS
ACF
ACS
HI
ACS
ACF
AD
AA
DA
FA
OCH
ACH
ACJC
MO
TF
AH
DS
AD
AW
FP
GTZ
ACS
CH
ACH
A ICM
CCH
LC
GTZ
IR (U
K)
CH
LC
CH
AW
FP
CH
ACJC
MO
TF
CH
LC
IN
TERSO
SCJC
MO
TF
IR (U
K)
UN
DCP
CJC
MO
TF
IO
MCH
LC
FA
OFA
O U
NESCO
HO
PE
UN
HSP
FA
O IR (U
K)
IR (U
K)
IOM
WFP
VA
RA
IR (U
K)
WFP
HO
PE
PA
CTEC
TF
UN
DCP
UN
ICEF
MD
M W
FP
UN
HSP
UN
HSP
WFP
MSF‐H
UN
ICEF
UN
OPS
UN
DCP
WFP
WFP
WFP
AD
A A
DA
UN
ICEF
AD
AA
HD
S A
DA
AD
AFA
O M
CW
FP
IR (U
K)
MSF‐H
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
AD
AU
NIC
EF
AD
AFA
OM
CA
DA
FA
OW
FP
IR (U
K)
MSF‐H
UN
ICEF
WFP
MC
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
AD
AU
NIC
EF
AD
ACH
A C
HA
UN
ICEF
AH
DS
CH
AW
FP
CH
ACO
RD
AID
WFP
WFP
IbnSin
aFA
OIR (U
K)
FA
OW
FP
VA
RA
WFP
IbnSin
aW
FP
MSF‐H
WFP
CA
RE
ICM
CCA
RE
AH
DS
CA
RE
CA
RE
AH
DS
CH
A M
CCH
ACH
A C
HA
UN
ICEF
UN
OPS
FA
OIR (U
K)
FA
OVA
RA
MSF‐H
FA
O A
DA
UN
ICEF
FA
OA
DA
WFP
MC
WFP
MSF‐H
WFP
WFP
FA
OA
HD
SCO
RD
AID
VA
RA
FA
OM
CM
SF‐H
UN
ICEF
MSF‐H
UN
ICEF
WFP
WFP
WFP
FA
OU
NIC
EF
CRS
MSF‐H
CRS
MSF‐H
CO
RD
AID
WFP
WFP
IR (U
K)
WFP
WFP
UN
ICEF
MC
WFP
WFP
WFP
MC
Spin Boldak
MC
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
Shorabak
WFP
MC
WFP
WFP
UN
ICEF
MC
Shah W
ali Kot
MC
UN
ICEF
WFP
WFP
WFP
WFP
MC
Reg
WFP
WFP
WFP
Panjw
ayi
UN
ICEF
WFP
Maywand
AD
A W
FP
WFP
MC
Maruf
AD
A W
FP
WFP
MD
M G
TZ
Khakrez
WFP
WFP
Kandahar
MSF‐H
WFP
WFP
MC
WFP
Ghorak
WFP
MC
Daman
MSF‐H
WFP
GTZ
Arghistan
AD
A W
FP
TF
Arghandab
IR (U
K)
So
urce: A
IMS (O
ctob
er 2002)
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2.2 Overall view of Kandahar City and Neighbouring Areas
Kandahar city is the centre of south‐western region of Afghanistan with six districts, estimated 550,000 populations and 220 sq km of land area. The number of households is estimated 80,000 to 90,000 according to the latest survey by the UN Habitat. However, the number seems to be increased day by day because of the repatriation of refugees and the inflow of IDPs due to the drought. Table 2.4 shows a general profile of the South‐western Region.
Table 2.4 Profile of Kandahar City
Total Area: 220 sq km
Total Population (est.): 550,000
Number of Household: 80,000 – 90,000 (number of houses in planned areas: 16,000, and unplanned areas: 25,000)
Number of Districts: 6
Number of Markets/Bazaars: 8
Total Road Length: 100km (asphalt surfaced: 30km)
Access to Electricity: 85%
Access to Water: Public piped water supply: 20%, Shallow tube wells: 83%
Sewerage: Septic tanks: 0.01%, Dry latrines: 99%
Total Annual Municipal Budget: Afg.27,000,000,000 (Approx. US$675,000)
Local Revenue per Capita: Afg.45,000
Industry: Cotton and woollen factory, textile, plastic manufacturing, zinc, marble
Number of Schools (est.): 38 (Primary: 26, High schools: 10 (incl. 4 female), College: 1, University: 1)
Number of Hospitals/Health Facilities: 9
Source: UN Habitat (2002) City Profile, September 2002
Kandahar city is a centre of commerce in the region. There are thousands of shops in the city centre. Many people who live in the market areas (District 1, 2, 3, and 4) are running small and micro shops, and sell various kinds of commodities. Many of commodities come from Pakistan and Iran, and the others are made at small factories in Kandahar city. In addition, there are some large‐scale factories that produce cotton and woollen products, plastics, and bricks. There was the largest fruit factory of Afghanistan in Kandahar city, but it has not operated in the last ten years. There is no large factory that has capacity of food processing, although it has huge potential for the promotion of export and earn foreign exchange.
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The city was a battlefield during the time of Soviet invasion and the civil war. Much of infrastructure in the city was destroyed at that time. During the Taliban period, Kandahar was a political capital of the ruling government. A great deal of infrastructure such as roads were reconstructed during this period. On the other hand, the Taliban banned and deprived their female of education and work opportunities. Most of women lost their jobs, and many educated people escaped from Kandahar. In addition, many women lost their breadwinners during the civil war. There are many widows and female‐headed households in the city, and they tend to be suffering daily grind of eking out a living in the face of widespread unemployment.
Not only women, but also men are facing unemployment issue. There are a number of unemployed persons including returnees in the city, although there is no statistical data. Some of them who have enough work experience and academic qualifications have employment opportunities with donor agencies and NGOs. However, it is difficult for most of them to find a job, although the Department of Social Works helps them find a job. The prolonged civil war and the Taliban regime contributed to prevail illiteracy. The employment opportunity with the donor agencies and NGOs, on the other hand, seems to affect the staff recruitment of local government, because they employ skilled and knowledgeable persons as their local staff with higher salary than the governmental staff. The opportunity tends to be an obstacle to the improvement of capacity of local government.
2.3 Education Sector
2.3.1 Overall View of the Education Sector in Kandahar Province
By any statistical measure, the educational system in Afghanistan has been undermined seriously by more than 20 years of war. A UNESCO report3 shows that Afghanistan’s education indicators are among the worst in the world, with girls and rural populations being particularly disadvantaged. Even before the war, the gross enrolment rates (GER) for boys and girls at the primary level were 54% and 12% respectively. Especially in the southern region such as Kandahar, given that girl’s enrolment was negligible even prior to the Taliban regime. During the 6 years of Taliban regime, educational standards clearly deteriorated as girls and female teachers were not allowed in schools, nothing secular was allowed to be taught in educational institutions and most schools were essentially converted to religious schools leaving no room for school rehabilitation or teacher development or training. In fact, there was only one formal school called “Shpay Lyee School” in Kandahar.
3 UNESCO, EFA (2000) Afghanistan Draft Final Report
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It is widely recognized that the situation of the education sector infrastructure in Afghanistan, as a whole, and within Kandahar, in particular, is quite dismal. The more than 20 years of war either badly damaged or destroyed almost all schools in Kandahar. As the situation worsened, many good teachers left the country in hopes of getting jobs in the refugee camps where international NGOs were financing some type of schooling for refugee children.
However, after the September 11 attack, when the Taliban regime fell and donors flocked in Afghanistan, education became a priority issue for all, including local NGOs and the interim government of Afghanistan. A large number of children of school age and available teachers have gone back to schools since the Back‐to‐School Campaign4 commenced in March 2002. Considering a natural population growth and rapid inflow of refugees into the cities, it is likely that Kandahar city will face a need for thousands of additional classrooms by year 2004 from the destroyed classrooms, plus the accelerated population growth due to returning refugees. The latest information shows that 894,020 girls are attending classes, making up 30 percent of the total number of pupils in Afghanistan as a whole. The ratio between girls and boys is relatively similar across the country. However there are some differences between certain sectors of Afghanistan – in Kabul, girls enrolment makes up over 40% of pupils, while in Kandahar rates are just 10% of the student population. Although Kabul has established a co‐education system which include girls and boys from grade 1 through grade 6, Kandahar has co‐education school only for grade 1 through grade 3; there is not enough school capacity only for girls. Nonetheless, given that girl’s enrolment was negligible in the southern region even prior to the Taliban regime, some comfort should be taken from these figures. According to a World Bank report5, the primary gross enrolment rate has been most recently estimated at 43% for boys and 3% for girls. As the number of students and teachers increased, the educational infrastructure needed to be rehabilitated on urgent basis in Kandahar city. Most donor agencies and NGOs that are working in Kandahar city made school rehabilitation a priority so that students and teachers would have some shelter. Although a lot remains to be done, signs of progress in Kandahar city are obvious and slowly but surely the city is coming back to life.
4 Back‐to‐School Campaign: Spear‐headed by UNICEF and financed by several donor agencies, including
the GOJ, aimed to bring a large number of children of school age and available teachers back to schools. The campaign has supported school‐age children and teachers in Kandahar since its commencement, although the new school year in Kandahar started on 7th September 2002.
5 World Bank (2002) Technical Annex for an Emergency Education Rehabilitation and Development Project
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The following sections provide a summary of current situation and available statistics (however not completely reliable) by each sub‐sector within the educational system in Kandahar city and lay out the basis for the Education Rehabilitation Programme and future intervention by stakeholders.
2.3.2 Primary and Secondary Education
School Facilities in Kandahar
It is said that some 2,000 schools have been destroyed during the turmoil in Afghanistan and there is a vast need for school rehabilitation and reconstruction everywhere in the country. In Kandahar province, there are 211 schools. An estimated 80% of school buildings at all levels have been damaged or destroyed due to more than 20 years of conflict. Particularly, the surrounding area of Kandahar city has been more heavily damaged and destroyed. Table 2.5 shows the damage levels of the schools in Kandahar province. Table 2.6 shows the results of the Rapid Assessment of Learning Spaces in Afghanistan (RALS) implemented by UNICEF in June 2002.
Table 2.5 Damage Level of School for Kandahar Province
Level 1 2 3 4 5 N/A No. of School 33 51 29 24 65 9
Source: UNICEF, Kandahar, * Damage Level: Level 1 ‐ Minor cosmetic repair only, Level 2 ‐ Minor damage only, Level 3 ‐ Partially destroyed building, Level 4 ‐ Mostly destroyed building, Level 5 ‐ Completely destroyed
Table 2.6 Summary Sheet of Second School Assessment for Kandahar Province (As of July 2002)
No. Name of District Total Number of Schools
Total Number of Girl Pupils
Total Number of Boy Pupils
Total Number of Female Teachers
Total Number of Male Teachers
1 City 35 7,415 25,368 193 664 2 Panjwai 39 150 6,611 7 222 3 Dand 25 42 3,759 2 134 4 Arghandahb 16 6 4,300 0 125 5 Maruf 31 98 4,179 0 138 6 Arghistan 11 0 1,241 0 46 7 Spin Boldak 7 258 2,758 0 83 8 Maiwand 7 18 1,221 1 48 9 Nish 8 0 965 0 23 10 Shahwali 8 12 750 0 36 11 Khak Riz 6 0 695 0 25 12 Shiga 9 68 404 3 18 13 Daman 3 64 220 0 9 14 Ghorak 5 0 224 0 14 15 Mian Nishin 1 0 100 0 3
Total 211 8,131 52,795 206 1,588
Source: UNICEF Kandahar
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Several NGOs and donor agencies have started rehabilitation of schools in Kandahar city and the rehabilitation work is at various stages of completion. In October 2002, UNICEF and other concerned donors, in collaboration with DOE, decided to coordinate school rehabilitation efforts by preparing a list of schools where rehabilitation is needed and which donor is contributing to desirable schools. This list is updated on a regular basis to reflect the changing situation and time.
Girls School
As mentioned above, the formal education was strictly prohibited for about 6‐7 years by the former Taliban government. Students, especially girl students have huge gap of formal education. There were eight schools in Kandahar city. Zhainab, Kaka Sayde Ahmad, Aino Middle have closed due to some reasons. For example, for Zainab School, people have been living illegally in the school facilities since the school closed caused by the prohibition of the female education. Even though the girls schools have reopened, some schools tend to be co‐educational or boys school. In addition, there are no female students over 9th grade due to the huge gap created during the Taliban regime. Table 2.7 shows the situation of girls schools in Kandahar city.
Table 2.7 Profile of Girl School in Kandahar City (As of September and December, 2002)
Name G‐1 G‐2 G‐3 G‐4 G‐5 G‐6 G‐7 G‐8 G‐9 G‐10 G‐11 G‐12 Total
M 730* (120)**
1000 (100)
100 (120)
50 (60)
‐ (60)
‐ (60)
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1880(520)Zhagona
Ana Middle F
300 (360)
600 (980)
100 (120)
50 (60)
40( ‐ )
30( ‐ )
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1120(1520)
M ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Zhagona Ana High F
380 (210)
880 (920)
220 (250)
220(150)
90(80)
45(50)
40(40)
20( ‐ )
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1895(1700)
M 326 (194)
424 (341)
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 750 (535)Malalai
High F
228 (244)
238 (220)
55 (70)
53 (50)
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 574 (584)
M ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ Aeno High F
380 (1500)
786 (25)
137 ( ‐ )
120( ‐ )
40( ‐ )
25( ‐ )
15(23)
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 1503(1550)
M 825 (270)
794 (590)
200 (130)
150(138)
50(50)
30(35)
20 20 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 2089(1213)Sufi Sahib
High F
316 (120)
295 (280)
70 (20)
2 (2)
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 683 (422)
M 160 (130)
519 (440)
101 (90)
59 (72)
19(32)
11(15)
13(15)
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 882 (794)Mirwis
Mena High F
56 (62)
97 (88)
25 (40)
26 (35)
‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 204 (225)
Source: URSP Team; * Upper; Data on December, ** Below; Data on September
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Learning and teaching materials
Learning and teaching materials were distributed to the primary sections of almost all schools in Kandahar city and in progress in Kandahar province as a whole under UNICEF’s Back‐to‐School Campaign. During the Study Team’s school visits, it was found that, as the enrolment has continued to increase on a daily basis, there was a lack of UNICEF kits for the newcomers. As a result, schools are trying to maximise the usage by asking the old students to share stationeries with the new students.
2.3.3 Early Childhood Education (ECE)
According to the Comprehensive Needs Assessment in Education (CNA) report, it is estimated that 2.5 million Afghan children are under the age of six. Malnutrition, disease, poverty and trauma have resulted in one of the highest infant mortality rates in Afghanistan. Confronted with these challenges, children arrive at schools unable to take full advantage of learning opportunities. It is, therefore, extremely important that donors direct their attention to Early Childhood Education (ECE) in Afghanistan. ECE is not only a building block for universal primary education, but can also instigate positive attitudes about gender integration, women’s role in nation building, value of peace, and religious and tribal harmony, at an early age. Afghanistan had an early childhood development programme, as far back as 1980. The programme covered children 3‐5 years of age. As of October 2002, only one pre‐school is functional in Kandahar with an enrolment of approximately 100 children. This is at the Kandahar Women’s Association (KWA) day care centre (kindergarten) which was renovated by Islamic Relief UK. But there is still no furniture. The provincial government, on the other hand, is considering moving the day care centre to somewhere in Kandahar city, although no concrete plans have emerged as yet.
2.3.4 Technical and Vocational Education
Strengthening of technical and vocational education is an urgent requirement for the reconstruction of Afghanistan. Vocational trainings have been implemented or supported by both governmental and non‐governmental organisations, although technical school facilities have suffered during the two decades of war and conflicts. The following are major institutions for technical and vocational education in Kandahar city.
Mechanical School
There is only one mechanical school in the south region; it was established in 1957 with an enrolment over 700‐800 students each year prior to the Taliban regime. Now, the school has 5 departments, which consists of Carpentry, Car Repairing, Electrical Wiring of House, Machinery and Plumbing. Because Kandahar University is temporarily located within the campus of the mechanical school, it has only 54 students in total due
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to the limited capacity. Also, it could no longer have practical lessons in the department of Electricity and Car Repairing due to the destruction of its workshop from the war.
Sharzai Training Academy of Reliability
Sharzai Training Academy of Reliability (STAR) was established in the campus of Aino High School by the donation of the Governor, Glu Agha Sharzai, on 1st August, 2002. STAR has English Language Course and Computer Operation Course with an enrolment over 1,500 including 170 female students. These students were screened from qualified applicants with an educational level above 8th grade. STAR has been managed under the Governor’s Office and does not belong to DOE. Gradually, private English schools and computer schools have begun to open in Kandahar city.
Kandahar Women’s Association
Kandahar Women’s Association (KWA) was established on December 2001. There are four departments, and the KWA is implementing vocational training and informal education for women (e.g. tailoring, embroidery, adult education, and out-of-school girls education). There are 12 staff and 12 students who receive their salary and allowance, respectively, from the government. The students are selected by tests.
2.3.5 Higher/University Education
Kandahar University (KU) has 3 faculties (i.e. engineering, medicine, agriculture), which currently has an enrolment of 650 students. Sixty (60) staff members (4 females) are teaching in different departments of the university. Chancellor of KU has his own development framework that KU will be composed of over 10 faculties, like in Kabul University, in the future. KU has already applied to the Ministry of Higher Education in Kabul to establish additional new faculties and approval has been given. However, KU is temporarily located inside the campus of the mechanical school and does not have the capacity for the additional faculties. Under this circumstance, students of KU cannot take practical courses within its departments because KU does not have the research facilities such as laboratory, workshop, teaching hospital, and so on. At present, for the expansion of KU, vast land area has been reserved in the north of Kandahar city by the Kandahar Provincial Government. There are a few donor agencies negotiating with university officials to rehabilitate the KU. However, there are no commitments in this regard. The number of students is shown in Table 2.8.
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Table 2.8 Number of Student of Kandahar University
MPCB 1 2 3 4 5 Master Total TeacherM 50 62 65 51 66 42 55 391 33 Medicine (7) F 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 3 2 M 60 15 35 40 ‐ ‐ ‐ 150 14 Agriculture (4) F 2 0 0 0 ‐ ‐ ‐ 2 2 M 48 30 20 0 0 ‐ ‐ 98 10 Engineering (5) F 2 0 0 0 0 ‐ ‐ 2 0 M 158 107 120 91 66 42 55 639 57 Total F 6 0 1 0 0 0 0 7 4
Source; Kandahar University
2.3.6 Teacher Training/Education
In Afghanistan, minimum pre‐requisite to qualify for a teaching position is set at 14 years of education including high school plus 2 years of course work at Higher Teacher Training College (HTTC) for primary teachers ‐ and 16 years of education (BA degree from Institute of Pedagogy (IP) /Faculty of Education of universities) for secondary teachers. Out of 14 HTTCs for primary teachers and 7 IPs in Afghanistan, one HTTC is located in Kandahar city. Kandahar Teacher Training College (KTTC) was one of the largest teacher training colleges in Afghanistan. The rehabilitation/reconstruction of HTTC and IP facilities is required immediately. There is a strong demand for teacher training and capacity strengthening in the whole country, particularly for female teachers in Kandahar city. KTTC has a total enrolment of 185 students (140 male students and 45 female students) and has been under rehabilitation of existing damaged facilities by the NGOs assistance. That assistance, however, covers only some portions of the whole required by KTTC. The scale and contents of outside assistants are not sufficient for KTTC.
Because the formal education programme was prohibited completely in the Taliban regime, a large number of qualified teachers have fled the country, taking jobs outside of education, work in refugee camps, or have been killed. The multi‐donor CNA report states:
“In the short term, the urgent need for primary and secondary school teachers will require flexible and innovative approaches for rapid deployment, training, and support of teachers who lack traditional qualifications. This is an urgent priority for the MOE and donors to ensure that acceptable levels of quality are maintained in a rapidly expanding education system. The Afghan people’s commitment to education, and to the new government, could falter quickly if they perceive that the education on offer is of such low quality that children are better off outside of school.”
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Pre‐service teacher training is largely defunct, although some in‐service teacher training programmes have been provided primarily by NGOs and other agencies. Some in‐service teacher training programmes, which are assisted by NGOs and other agencies, have been launched since the Taliban government has collapsed. These activities, however, do not have enough scale in relation to their demand. Now, the demobilization of teachers (especially female teachers) is an urgent mission.
2.4 Health Sector
2.4.1 Overall View of the Health Sector in the Southern Region
In the pre‐war period, Afghans used non‐governmental sources for much of their health, namely, local healers, traditional midwives, bone‐setters, medicine sellers, and shopkeepers. These were the first line health approach for the population. The health services at that time were highly clinically oriented and curative based. In the mid 1970’s, centralized, hospital‐oriented curative care began to shift to more decentralized, community‐centred primary care. Besides administrative reforms of health management, local responsibility for services also made progress. Unfortunately, the coup of 1978 changed the supportive environment for the health action. During the time of the Taliban, in Kandahar, that plan was discontinued.
In 1995, the Health Sectoral Working Group (HSWG) for the southern region was established in Kandahar. The HSWG is composed of WHO, DOPH, UNICEF, AHDS, Al‐khidmat Al ‐hajeri, Guardians, Health Net, Ibnsina, ARCS, IAHC, UNOCHS, WFP, CI, ISRA (and ADAG, MSF IFRC, ICRC and HI attended as observers). The activities of major donors and NGOs are described in Table 2.9.
Table 2.9 Health Partners in Southern Region
Donor /NGO Activities
1 WHO Donor program, Technical and financial support to DOPH, capacity building, strengthening primary health care, Polio eradication program, AFP surveillance, Mother child healthcare, Control of endemic diseases, response to the outbreaks, up grading health facilities for essential drugs and equipment. Coordination of health activities.
2 AHDS Primary healthcare program through 37 health facilities in Kandahar and Urozgan provinces.
3 Ibnsina Primary healthcare program, in 10 health facilities including IDPs in Helmand and Kandahar provinces.
4 IAHC Five Health facilities in Kandahar province (maternity centre, MCH clinics).
5 MSF‐H Working in emergency healthcare, early warning system, IDPs camp in Zhary dasht district, infectious disease ward.
6 MC Primary healthcare program through five health facilities in Helmand province (Garamsir and Khanashin districts).
7 Health Net Health Net International providing Malaria control program with support of WHO through 37 malaria units in the region.
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Donor /NGO Activities
8 Guardians Providing orthopaedic care for disabilities in the region.
9 ICRC Supporting surgical ward of Mirwis hospital in Kandahar.
10 IFRC Providing support to Afghan Red Crescent Society. Emergency healthcare, in Provinces of Kandahar, Zarnag, Helmand, Zabul and mobile teams.
11 NGO from Kuwait, providing healthcare through Al‐khidmat hospital (12 beds) in Kandahar city.
13 ADAG NGO running MCH clinic in Kandahar city.
14 MDM Support to TB program and MCH clinic in Kandahar city.
Source: WHO Kandahar
The Department of Public Health, Kandahar, (DOPH) is supposed to be the main implementing body and provides support to all health activities in Kandahar province. They have regular meetings every month and the minutes are circulated to all concerned organizations, and they discuss recent situations and future plans in terms of sharing information about health activities.
The condition of health services in rural areas of the southern region is totally different. In the southern region, there are 52 districts and 21 of them have no health facilities except for some private pharmacies. A detailed list of health facilities in southern region is shown in Table 2.10.
There are in total 83 facilities in southern region, and 65 (82%) of facilities are managed by NGOs, and only 18 are managed by DOPH; this is less than the 36 facilities managed by AHDS. Even now there are imbalances in both institutions, in terms of facilities and incentives. For example, salaries and incentives in NGO‐managed health facilities are nearly double or three times higher in comparison with DOPH‐run health facilities, and they have new equipment because of the donor support.
In the future, coordination of DOPH, Donors and NGOs is very important for equality in health services for people as well as cost effectiveness for MOPH and donors.
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Table 2.10 Health Resources District Southern Region Afghanistan Revised on 20 May, 2002
Tabl
e 2.
10 H
ealth
Res
ourc
es D
istri
ct, S
outh
ern
Reg
ion
Afg
hani
stan
-Rev
ised
on 2
0 M
ay, 2
002
Hea
lth F
acili
tyN
o. o
f bed
sH
uman
Res
ourc
es/H
ealth
per
sonn
el
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
124
01K
anda
har
456,
177
MO
PH, I
AH
C, IC
RC,
IFR
C1
02
00
02
150
213
104
2434
195
887
4413
66
134
01
415
021
814
67
224
02Bo
ldak
46,2
68M
OPH
00
10
00
018
66
012
31
70
20
10
20
00
10
12
00
00
10
324
03Sh
ega
8,04
40
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
20
00
01
04
2404
Dan
d15
3,54
1A
HD
S, Ib
nsin
a0
00
10
00
35
50
101
11
11
01
01
02
00
01
61
201
151
15
2405
Dam
an31
,361
AH
DS
00
01
12
02
00
00
21
11
20
10
10
00
00
12
14
030
11
624
06A
rghi
stan
32,6
59A
HD
S0
00
10
20
15
50
101
11
11
01
01
00
00
01
21
40
401
17
2407
Kha
krez
21,6
43A
HD
S0
00
10
30
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
02
00
00
20
80
01
18
2408
Gho
rak
9,06
5Ib
nsin
a0
00
10
00
10
00
01
00
01
00
01
00
00
00
20
00
01
19
2409
Nes
h12
,790
00
00
00
04
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
1024
10Sh
raba
k10
,876
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
1124
11R
eg1,
814
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
1224
12A
rgha
ndab
82,4
48A
HD
S, IA
HC
00
02
10
02
55
010
21
21
20
20
30
20
00
16
120
130
23
1324
13Pa
njw
ai12
2,83
2IA
HC
, AH
DS
00
01
10
011
55
010
32
31
20
10
10
00
00
14
120
10
21
1424
14M
aiw
and
68,4
30A
HD
S0
00
10
00
55
50
104
21
12
01
04
00
00
01
42
10
402
215
2415
Shah
wal
ikot
67,5
80A
HD
S0
00
11
60
15
50
101
11
11
01
02
02
00
01
41
140
502
116
2416
Mar
uf31
,300
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
02
00
00
10
Kan
daha
r1,
156,
828
10
310
413
219
924
914
024
413
113
1810
451
276
151
500
94
160
2946
2291
320
522
19
123
01La
shka
rgan
Bus
t92
,557
MO
PH0
10
00
01
4540
5060
150
276
385
10
40
80
10
40
56
40
050
22
223
02R
eg28
,063
00
00
10
00
00
00
01
02
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
323
03N
ahr-e
-ser
aj11
4,95
7M
OPH
, Ibn
sina
00
10
00
125
24
410
51
30
20
20
50
40
10
52
20
010
22
423
04Sa
rban
Qal
a27
,046
MO
PH0
00
10
00
320
00
08
13
00
01
05
00
00
03
20
00
01
05
2305
Mos
a Q
ala
61,0
19M
OPH
00
00
00
015
00
00
52
40
00
20
30
50
10
12
00
00
10
623
06K
ajak
ai11
4,48
8M
OPH
00
00
00
010
00
00
51
40
00
10
30
20
10
12
00
00
10
723
07N
auza
d55
,219
MO
PH, I
bnsin
a0
01
00
01
122
44
104
16
01
01
04
04
00
02
11
00
01
18
2308
Was
her
19,0
130
00
00
00
40
00
00
02
10
00
00
00
00
01
20
00
01
09
2309
Gar
amse
r83
,316
MCI
00
14
00
118
24
410
41
41
10
10
30
50
10
22
00
00
11
1023
10N
ad-e
-Ali
111,
979
Ibn+
MO
PH0
00
10
00
60
00
01
04
01
02
04
00
00
02
20
00
01
111
2311
Naw
a Ba
rakz
ai88
,079
MO
PH0
00
10
00
50
00
03
12
00
00
02
02
00
01
50
00
02
212
2312
Bagh
ran
77,2
65M
OPH
00
01
00
03
00
00
10
20
00
00
10
20
10
10
00
00
00
1323
13D
eshu
25,3
860
00
00
00
10
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0H
elm
and
898,
387
01
38
10
417
646
6272
180
6315
729
60
140
380
250
90
2426
70
060
139
No
District Code
District Name
Population 2002 Unidata
Supporting Agency
Regional hospital
Provincial hospital
Polyclinic
Pharmacy
Male
District Hospital
BHC
Sub-Center
Health Post
Female
Children
Total
TBA
Midwife
Physician
Nurse
Pharmacist/Assist
Dentis/Assist
Lab-technician
EPI Fixed Centers
Malaria Center
Midlevel/Assist/Doctor
X-Ray-Technian
Vaccinators
VHV/BHW/CHW
2-16
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
So
urce: W
HO Kan
daha
r
Hea
lth F
acili
tyN
o. o
f bed
sH
uman
Res
ourc
es/H
ealth
per
sonn
el
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
MF
126
01Te
rinko
t71
,468
MO
PH, A
HD
S, IA
HC
01
00
06
033
3010
040
11
42
21
10
20
01
00
12
210
020
92
01
02
2602
Kha
s U
rozg
an64
,874
MO
PH0
00
10
00
1010
100
201
02
01
00
00
00
00
00
20
00
01
00
03
2603
Deh
raud
67,6
17A
HD
S0
00
10
60
3010
100
201
01
11
01
01
00
00
01
20
110
233
10
10
426
04D
aiku
ndi
175,
728
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
526
05Sh
ahris
tan
122,
990
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
626
06C
hora
h39
,520
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
726
07A
jeris
tan
57,5
340
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
20
00
01
00
08
2608
Giz
ab61
,918
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
02
00
00
10
00
926
09K
ejra
n64
,714
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
Uro
zgan
726,
363
01
02
012
073
5030
080
31
73
41
20
30
01
00
210
221
044
26
02
0
125
01Q
alat
32,0
83M
OPH
, IFR
C, A
RC
S0
10
10
00
2230
300
606
09
12
01
03
00
01
02
23
00
02
20
02
2502
Jald
ak16
,247
00
00
00
03
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
02
00
00
10
00
325
03M
ezan
a12
,950
00
00
00
04
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
02
00
00
10
00
425
04Sh
ahjo
y55
,424
MO
PH0
00
10
00
200
00
01
14
01
00
01
00
00
00
20
00
01
00
05
2505
Arg
hand
ab30
,939
MO
PH0
00
10
00
40
00
01
04
01
00
00
00
00
00
20
00
01
00
06
2506
Day
e C
hopa
n74
,342
00
00
00
010
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
02
00
00
10
00
725
07Sh
inka
y22
,279
MO
PH0
00
10
00
60
00
01
04
01
00
01
00
00
00
20
00
02
00
08
2508
Atg
har
8,23
00
00
00
00
30
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
20
00
01
00
09
2509
Sham
olza
i42
,349
00
00
00
06
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
02
00
00
10
00
Zab
u l29
4,84
30
10
40
00
7830
300
609
121
15
01
05
00
01
02
183
00
011
20
0
122
01Za
ranj
50,7
41M
OPH
, IFR
C0
10
10
01
2410
103
237
23
324
02
01
01
01
02
42
00
53
00
02
2202
Kan
g49
,382
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
322
03C
hakh
ansu
r38
,515
MO
PH0
00
10
00
10
00
00
01
01
00
00
01
00
00
20
00
21
00
04
2204
Khs
hrod
21,2
94M
OPH
00
01
00
00
00
00
10
10
10
00
10
10
00
02
00
00
10
00
522
05C
harb
orja
k41
,067
MO
PH0
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
0N
imro
z20
0,99
90
10
30
01
2510
103
238
25
326
02
02
03
01
02
82
00
75
00
0
124
00K
anda
har
1,15
6,82
81
03
104
132
199
249
140
2441
311
318
104
5127
615
150
09
416
029
4622
913
205
2219
181
223
00H
elm
and
898,
387
01
39
00
417
646
6272
180
6414
747
61
140
380
250
90
2426
70
060
139
62
326
00U
rozg
an72
6,36
30
10
20
120
7350
300
803
17
34
12
03
00
10
02
102
210
442
60
20
425
00Za
bul
294,
843
01
04
00
078
3030
060
91
211
50
10
50
00
10
218
30
00
112
00
522
00N
imro
z20
0,99
90
10
30
01
2510
103
238
25
326
02
02
03
01
02
82
00
75
00
0So
uthe
rn R
egio
n3,
277,
420
14
628
425
755
138
527
299
756
197
3621
165
688
341
980
375
270
5910
836
112
371
457
3026
3
Midlevel/Assist/Doctor
X-Ray-Technian
Vaccinators
VHV/BHW/CHW
EPI Fixed Centers
Malaria Center
MCH Clinics/Services
TB Control Centers
Female
Children
Total
TBA
Midwife
Physician
Nurse
Pharmacist/Assist
Dentis/Assist
Lab-technician
Pharmacy
Male
District Hospital
BHC
Sub-Center
Health Post
Supporting Agency
Regional hospital
Provincial hospital
Polyclinic
No
District Code
District Name
Population 2002 Unidata
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
2-17
2.4.2 Health Service in Kandahar City
Within the health facilities in Kandahar city, 6 facilities are managed by DOPH, 7 facilities are managed by NGOs; all these 13 facilities are categorized as public hospitals and clinics. Basically, in government facilities in Afghanistan, health service is free of charge, but in Mirwis hospital, a patient has to pay Afg. 1,000 for the first examination and direct expenses of X‐rays. Most NGOs collect some fee for laboratory tests and drugs. Service and conditions of DOPH facility are described below.
Mirwis Regional Hospital:
Mirwis Regional Hospital is the biggest hospital in Southern region and the top referral hospital (listed as 250 beds, but actually 328 beds were installed). The number of patients is shown in Table 2.11. The hospital is managed by DOPH under the support of NGOs. ICRC provides support for surgery, MSF provides support for infectious disease. Other sections face the lack of medical services and employees’ salaries due to non‐support from NGOs.
Table 2.11 Number of Patients in OPD and IPD of Mirwis Hospital (Jan‐Jun 2002)
OPD IPD Total Ward Male Female Male Female Male Female
Surgical 1,600 1,888 300 437 1,900 2,325Gynaecology/Obstetric 0 210 0 99 0 309ENT 220 376 23 47 243 423Eye 827 1,100 8 10 835 1,110Dental 500 511 0 0 500 511Paediatric 1,390 1,000 60 60 1,450 1,060Internal medicine 1,990 85 1,290 700 3,280 785
6,527 5,170 1,681 1,353 8,208 6,523Total 11,697 3,034 14,731
Source: DOPH, HIS Dept
Al‐Khidmat Al‐Hajeri Hospital:
The building belongs to DOPH but in practice, a Kuwaiti NGO is managing the hospital. Hospital services are Internal medicine, Paediatrics and Obstetrics in OPD and there are 12 beds in the ward.
Polyclinic:
DOPH and Cure International are planning to rehabilitate a polyclinic and establish a section for outpatients of Mirwis hospital. The location is about 5 minutes by car from the hospital. DOPH is expecting that all outpatients will transfer to the polyclinic for
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
2-18
consultations and that the hospital will concentrate only on inpatients. The system is expected to be implemented in April 2003. Equipment for polyclinic will be supplied by Cure International.
MCH Clinic:
The building has been renovated by MDM (NGO). Medical equipment will be installed by MDM with support from UNICEF and WHO. MDM will also dispatch a specialist for medical services and for training local staff.
Regional TB Centre:
Renovation of TB Centre has been completed by MDM. Required equipment will be installed by MDM with support from WHO. MDM will dispatch a specialist/s for medical services and training of local staff.
Regional Malaria/Leishmania Centre:
The building itself is very old with poor plumbing and electrical lines that it has to be renovated in many places. Due to drought, the incidence of malaria and leishmania is decreasing in the southern region. They have few microscopes in the laboratory, which is supported by WHO.
Private sector clinics and pharmacists:
The private sector contribution to the healthcare services in Kandahar is crucial. There are 80 private clinics and 160 private pharmacies in the city. Pharmacists are particularly important since the population most often go to them for their first contact for health services and consultations. Often the people seek medicine there first in case of illness. Therefore, to a large extent, the private sector (clinics and pharmacists) is part of the system to be taken into consideration for healthcare planning. Most DOPH doctors concurrently work at both governmental facilities in the morning and private clinics in the afternoon because of the low salaries from DOPH. Also for that reason, most of them prefer to locate their clinics in the centre of the city. In consideration of that situation, DOPH can play a key role in regulating and controlling both private and public health sectors and in improving equality in access to healthcare. Simultaneously, the capacity of DOPH can be enlarged.
2.4.3 Maternal‐Child Healthcare
Kandahar area is best known for its conservative view towards women. Gender inequality and discrimination have deprived women of empowerment and have had a significant effect on women’s life expectancy and health. In the city, fewer females are seen walking down the street than in Kabul. Most of the population does not have access to health services such as hospitals or MCH clinics. There are massive unmet
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
2-19
health needs in Kandahar province although too often data is lacking. A huge amount of work is required to rectify the situation of long‐neglected women’s health and reproductive rights.
As shown in Table 2.10, there are about 10 BHCs in Kandahar province. Various donors or NGOs support all of them and they are managed in different ways. Figure 2.1 shows the number of patients in MCH wards of BHCs in Kandahar province.
Source: DOPH, HIS
Figure 2.1 New Antenatal and Postpartum Visits in MCH wards of BHCs
Some clinics have effective programs such as training for TBAs or lab technicians but there is not much positive linkage for other programs under DOPH.
MDM is one of the NGOs supporting health facilities in the southern region. They are rehabilitating a MCH clinic in a medical compartment, which used to be a civilian hospital in the city. It will have 6 beds and a delivery room providing 24‐hour coverage. Medical staff will be supplied by DOPH including 2 doctors, but the actual plan has not been elaborated at present.
MCH care basically aims at the safe delivery of babies and implementing the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI). The basic strategy for safe childbirths is (1) building an urgent obstetrical diagnosis system particularly urgent transport system of patients and blood transfusion system, (2) expanding antenatal care including anti‐malaria and anti‐anaemia measures, and (3) promotion and education of reproductive health knowledge on a community basis. Many donors and NGOs are supporting the above items (2) and (3) but not the item (1) despite the fact that virtually no hospital or clinic is available at present to provide a reasonable level of obstetrical diagnosis.
820
840
860
880
900
920
940
960
980
1000
1020
New Antenal Postrartum Visit
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
2-20
Currently, many NGOs and donors are supporting MCH clinics or BHCs in a rather haphazard manner without proper coordination among them, thus risking the potential to produce different quality levels of service, arbitrary registration and data compilation of patients, non‐standardized diagnostic and curative methods, inefficient operation and management, and so on. In the light of these risks, there is a need to establish a unified system for operation and management to enhance service levels by system integration and standardizing.
2.4.4 Communicable Diseases
In Afghanistan, poverty‐related diseases will remain major burdens. Afghanistan as a low income country continues to have high mortality rate among children under the age of five, largely as a result of conditions that are preventable, such as diarrhoea, acute respiratory infections, other vaccine preventable diseases and malnutrition. It will take time before the financial situation which affects the health condition of the population is improved. These conditions will continue to add to the burden of disease in the southern region if poverty is not reduced and DOPH does not have leadership capacity.
Table 2.12 OPD; Infectious ward in Mirwis Hospital (February 2002)
/age <5 yrs. 5‐15 >15 yrs. Acute Viral Hepatitis ‐ ‐ 3 Acute Watery Diarrhoea 34 9 22 Cholera ‐ ‐ ‐ Dysentery Amobiasis 5 6 13 Dysentery Bacterial ‐ 3 3 Malaria ‐ ‐ ‐ Malnutrition 3 ‐ ‐ Measles ‐ ‐ ‐ Meningitis ‐ 4 2 Tuberculosis ‐ 1 2 Typhoid 1 6 4 Others 40 32 91 Total 83 61 146 % 28.6 21 50.4 Source: DOPH, HIS
In Mirwis Hospital, there is an isolation ward with 50 beds for infectious diseases. It is supported by MSF in terms of incentive salaries, drug supply and supervision. In the ward, there are 7 doctors, 16 nurses (12 males, 4 females), and 2 technicians for testing blood, urine and stool. They do not have their own x‐ray machines in the ward so that patients are sent to the main ward or the surgical ward when x‐rays are needed.
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
2-21
Main diseases are diarrhoea (including suspected shigella or cholera or food poisoning), typhoid, malaria, hepatitis B, measles and meningitis. It is difficult for them to keep a quality level of lab technician and performance suffers from defective microscopes so that the above data do not fully describe the situation of the Southern Region DOPH, Health Information System (DOPH, HIS). Malaria, typhoid, cholera and meningitis have occurred as deadly outbreaks in the rural areas in the past. Therefore, early warning systems and response systems need to be put in place and integrated all across the southern region.
Health Net and WHO have been wrestling with Malaria treatment since 1998. Their two main activities (improving the diagnosis and strengthening the prevention of Malaria) are provided in the Malaria Leishmania Regional Centre (MRC) in Kandahar city and at 34 Field Units in the 4 provinces. MRC provides mosquito nets for patients and health education as well as blood tests and consultations. At present, the coverage of the nets in Kandahar city is speculated to be about 30%.
Table 2.13 Malaria Incidence in Kandahar City (January to June 2002)
TSE 107 153 192 574 587 465 2078 PV 1 5 5 11 19 25 66 PF 0 2 0 0 0 1 3
TOTAL MRC
Mx 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
TSE: total slides examined, PV: plasmodium vivax, PF: plasmodium falaparum, Mx: mixed infections (Source: AHDS)
Table 2.14 Leishmania Cases in Kandahar city
KANDAHAR CITY Leishmaniasis Incidence Data
Date: M<5 F<5 M>5 F>5 Total Jan 2002 28 13 47 25 113 Feb 2002 55 53 71 69 248 Mar 2002 58 43 54 66 221 Apr 2002 35 30 66 67 198 May 2002 53 44 79 125 301 Jun 2002 33 27 55 68 183 Jul 2002 30 27 43 43 143 Aug 2002 29 17 48 68 162 Source: AHDS
Fields Units can be classified into two categories: 5 of the 34 units are fully supported by Health Net (with facilities, salary, equipment and drugs in Kandahar province), and the other 29 units provide only teaching programs for lab technicians in four provinces (Kandahar, Zabul, Uruzuca and Helmand). In the Health Net office in Kandahar city,
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
2-22
there is a lecture room with 10 microscopes and a meeting room so that lab technicians from MRC or each unit can refresh their knowledge regularly. Therefore their level of diagnosis is becoming more reliable. Information is shared every month during a Malaria subcommittee meeting.
Since 1996, the Directly Observed Treatment Short‐Course (DOTS) for the tuberculosis strategy has been held in selected areas of Afghanistan. In Kandahar, however, there are no “DOTS sub‐centres” and no NGOs who actively support the DOTS treatment system. These systems must be put in place to ensure that drugs are made available constantly over the months of treatment and cases are supervised by medical staff. According to WHO, Kandahar, it seems quite difficult to implement the system there because of the lack of DOPH management and knowledge of doctors. Most private clinics do not closely track DOTS treatments in the city.
In the medical compartments of what used to be a civilian hospital, MDM has rehabilitated the TB regional centre and an MCH clinic. TB regional centre has an outpatient ward and an inpatient ward (20 beds) for both males and females staffed by 3 doctors and 4 nurses. It also has an x‐ray machine and microscopes. MDM is trying to get foreign doctors from DOPH to provide in‐service training to the local doctors and nurses, but the details have not been decided yet. Moreover, MDM wonders if they can introduce the DOTS treatment there since there are no other DOTS sub‐centres; there is insufficient treatment capacity, and gender issues exist. The management system has become a complicated matter for them. Consequently, DOPH has not planned any practical system to implement DOTS treatment in Kandahar province.
There is no effective or efficient coordination or referral system at present, since neither hospitals nor regional centres have been available up to now to control such an integrated system. After the rehabilitation of the medical department, it will be used as one of the main facilities to provide central functions for undertaking provincial communicable disease measures in the southern region. In the light of this, it is deemed essential to substantiate the functions to be assumed by DOPH to ensure coverage includes supervision and evaluation of those measures, surveillance of performance, logistic system to supply materials and equipment, training of laboratory technicians, quality control systems of regional laboratories, expansion of referral system to other regions, and so on.
2.4.5 Disabled and Psychological Trauma Care
This is one of WHO’s Priority Health Programs, but in Kandahar, it seems to be a forgotten subject. Disabled and traumatized people due to war, landmines, and unexploded ordinances should be taken care of in the future, and should be rehabilitated over the long‐term in order for them to be integrated into society and lead
URSP-KDH Final Report Part 1
2-23
productive lives. At present, DOPH in Kandahar has no substantial program for them. There is a disability care centre supported by the Guardians and Handicapped International in the Kandahar Nursing School building located in Mirwis Hospital. It provides training for fabrication and fitting of artificial limbs and a program of physiotherapy free of charge.
Virtually all such people can get support culturally from their families or the neighbourhood for living, but it is necessary for DOPH to establish a public care system for disabled people and traumatized people in the future.
Concerning the number of patients, the statistical report of the Guardians shows the breakdown of 420 consultations in September 2002 as follows:
Table 2.15 Number of Consultations of the Guardians Institute in September 2002
Male Female Child Total Consultations 239 95 86 420
Source: The Guardians Institute of Orthopaedics
Table 2.16 Detail of Pathologies in Physiotherapy (as of Sept 2002)
HANDICAP MALE FEMALE CHILD TOTAL Arthritis 14 38 0 52 B.K. Amputation 0 13 0 13 Cerebral Palsy 0 0 36 36 Club Foot 4 0 15 19 Fractured 34 5 23 62 Hemiplegia 5 7 1 13 Osteo Arthritis 5 0 0 5 Paraplegia 0 3 2 5 Nerve Injury 8 2 1 11 Poliomyelitis 2 5 54 61 Spine Problem 204 134 0 338 Trauma 80 1 80 89 Tuberculosis 0 4 1 5 Vertebral Col Deformity 0 1 3
Source: The Guardians Institute of Orthopaedics
2.4.6 Primary Health Care
WHO is trying to expand coverage of integrated Primary Health Care (PHC) for the population, focusing on disease prevention and control through immunization and outbreak response, and on essential obstetric care and trauma care, as they regard these as key issues in order to turn around the worsening trends of morbidity and mortality.
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Focusing on the Primary Healthcare and making it available to all the population is important for effective and efficient health services that can save and improve lives. Community‐based initiatives associated with poverty reduction policies need to be strengthened in parallel with the institutional capacity in order to rehabilitate the health sector in the region.
In Southern region, the PHC unit mainly consists of 8 doctors and 1 administrator. There are 8 essential components in ”Health For All” adopted by WHO; however, since 1979 the country has suffered seriously in terms of both economic and social development, and is now among the world’s least developed countries.
The main activity components in Kandahar province (listed below) are restricted for lack of budget and human resources. They do not have any donors who totally support the whole unit, hence, they are facing difficulty of management in terms of human resources as well as allocating money.
The 8 PHC Components:
Mobile team: supervising of PHC activities in the 5 provinces by car Essential drug program: supported by WHO and UNICEF Health education: regular radio program by PHC doctor HIS: collecting and analysing data from the health facilities in the southern region Nutrition program: supported by WFP Communicable disease program, surveillance and gathering information EPI: supported by UNICEF Water & sanitation: supervise and campaign of cleaning street and market place,
etc.
2.4.7 Referral System
The DOPH referral system has not been functioning properly in the southern region. Mirwis Hospital is supposed to be a referral hospital for the southern region (as happens in other parts of the country) and it is expected to provide effective linkage to other health facilities.
In reality, the health facilities have common constraints in hospitals and clinics. The major constraints in terms of medical equipment are: 1) poor condition of x‐ray machines and microscopes and shortage of film and other equipment, 2) no systematic maintenance due to lack of funds, spare parts and skills, 3) no adequate blood bank system, and 4) no management and leadership capacity from Mirwis Regional Hospital. And like other parts of this country, one of the problems is also transportation, especially emergency public ambulance cars.
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Level Health Facility Health Services (Health Staff)
Central Level ・Central Hospital
3rd Referral
Regional Level ・Regional Hospital (250 beds)
3rd Referral
Provincial Level ・Provincial Hospital (PH)
3rd Referral
District Level ・District Hospital (10 beds) (DH)
(Comprehensive Health Centre)
2nd Referral - Male/Female Doctor - Nurse, Midwife - Lab technician - TBA Trainer
Community Level ・Basic Health Centre (BHC) ・Sub‐Centre (SC) or Health Post
1st Referral - Nurse - Village Health Worker
Source: DOPH Kandahar
Figure 2.2 Standard Referral System
Figure 2.3 Present Referral Situation in the Southern Region
Mirwis Regional Hospital
BHC
DH
SC
DHDH
PH
BHC
BHC BHC
SC
SC
SC
BHC
SC SC
SC
SC
Urban Area
(Difficult access)
Rural Area (no facility)
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Many donors and NGOs are providing support for hospitals and clinics, but the conditions of most are seriously inadequate except in the centre of Kandahar city. Moreover, other than physical constraining factors, they need more human resource development by in‐service training of medical staff as well as staff for operation and maintenance.
The system in the southern region is not clear. DOPH states that Mirwis hospital is a regional hospital, but proper district hospitals (see Figure 2.3 above) do not exist except in Spin Boldak and when some basic health centres and polyclinics are substituted for them. IAHC or AHDS (NGOs) provide good management for those kinds of facilities. Some Comprehensive Health Centres have inpatients wards with 6 to 8 beds and some don’t, depending on the capacity of supporting NGOs. BHC have no doctors, but have 1 nurse and 1 pharmacist to provide minimum healthcare. In the rural area of the region, at Health Posts, Visiting Health Workers can take care of the population without facilities.
Concerning medical terminology of health facilities, it is very confusing here because each NGO uses their own categories such as basic health centre, comprehensive health centre, polyclinic, sub‐centre or MCH clinic. The categories are also different from those in Kabul. It is necessary for all of this to be worked out clearly in the health sector working group.
Cure International is planning to have a fully equipped mobile team with 10 to 15 staff for IDP camps and rural areas. They can perform minor surgeries, dental treatment and some kinds of specialized cures during their stay in a village. They expect that the mobile medical unit can function as a substitute for BHC in rural areas.
2.4.8 Health Information System
Health management information systems are still in their infancy in this region and need strengthening with information technology and training. In the Mirwis Hospital, the HIS department has two staff with a computer system. They collect the statistics from other districts and provinces in the DOPH format every month. This survey data is mostly submitted by NGOs such as AHDS or MDM and then sent to MOPH Kabul headquarters. However, at present, they do not get any feedback from DOPH and it is obvious that the headquarters will need to aim at establishment of a well‐functioning health management system.
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Table 2.17 Frequency of Cases, Jan. to Jun., 2002
CATEGORIES M0‐4 F0‐4 M5‐14 F5‐14 M>=15 F>=15 TOTAL
TOTAL OPD VISITS 21775 17128 13935 11546 36793 59749 160926
ARI – COUGH AND COLD (NO PNEUMONIA) 2098 1632 1160 880 1945 1926 9641
ARI – ENT 3825 3072 2575 2226 2807 4166 18671
COPD & ASTHMA 1666 1268 1373 1166 4113 4805 14391
HYPERTENSION 41 30 33 27 652 1812 2595
ACUTE WATER DIARRHEA 2974 2336 933 805 1764 1780 10592
ACUTE BLOODY DIARRHEA 3760 2754 1153 839 2760 1518 12784
GASTROENTERITIS 11 14 176 354 3904 8518 12977
WORMS INFESTATION 733 625 1152 879 1026 675 5090
HEPATITIS 27 7 22 12 54 31 153
MEASLES 14 4 4 3 25
PERTUSSIS 119 88 76 47 3 3 336
PULMONARY TUBERCULOSIS 5 3 9 7 20 48 92
MALARIA 131 141 250 230 471 455 1678
TYPHOID 182 130 383 226 585 471 1977
CUTANEOUS LEISHMANIASIS 54 61 25 32 33 25 230
SCABIES, PYODERMA, DERMATOPHYTE INFE 712 620 899 609 1525 1350 5715
TRACHOMA 11 8 9 8 14 19 69
CONJUCTIVITIS 739 633 600 385 825 1031 4213
URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS 189 135 363 299 2504 3219 6709
REPRODUCTIVE TRACT INFECTIONS/STD 109 5775 5884
OTHERS 121 144 267 337 1079 5704 7652
Source: DOPH S.W.R H.I.S
2.4.9 Human Resources
Kandahar University has a medical school for males and females. They study together in the same class but as the table shows, the number of female students is very low because of rare educational opportunity at high school. The property belongs to the Mechanical School and the whole university will move to the east part of the city in the near future.
The medical school is under the Ministry of Higher Education and teaching doctors are from Mirwis Hospital. The Principal expects to have their own teaching hospital under MOHE in the new location and retain doctors or lecturers. At present, the
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Kandahar provincial government and Cure International are planning to join the proposal for Teaching Hospital Construction Project.
Table 2.18 Number of Students in Medical School
Year MPCB 1 2 3 4 5 Master Male 50 62 65 51 66 42 55 Female 2 ‐ 1 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐
Source: Kandahar University
In reality, female workers in hospitals and clinics or nursing school students are facing difficulties to commute, the same as female patients. Female doctors, nurses and midwives are sorely needed; existing health workers also need further training.
Concerning the number of female workers, there is a world of difference between Kandahar and Kabul. In Kandahar, it is very difficult to find females who have medical potential for becoming doctors and nurses. Some NGOs are hiring them from Kabul for their BHC or MCH clinics but it is not that simple. The students of the nursing school are from various areas, mostly Kabul.
AHDS is one of the biggest NGOs having 8 CHC, 4 BHC, 11 BHP and 8 MCH clinics in Kandahar province. They have their own training programs for male and female medical practitioners as shown in Table 2.19 and Table 2.20.
Table 2.19 Training Centre Plan for Male Workers
ACTIVITIES DURATION LOCATION INPUT BHWs refresher course 1 week RTC BHWs Nurse refresher course 1 week RTC Nurse MLHWs refresher course 1 week RTC MLHWs Health educators refresher course 1 week RTC H.E Lab. Tech. Refresher course 1 week RTC Lab. tech. Detal Tech. Refresher course 1 week RTC Den. tech. PHC workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MLHWs UTI workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MLHWs Early warning system workshop 1 day RTC Doctors, MLHWs CDD workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MLHWs HIS workshop 1 day RTC Doctors, MLHWs, RHBNutrition / Malnutrition workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MLHWs EPI plus workshop 2 days RTC Vaccinators Program Management workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MHLWs Malaria workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MHLWs Poisoning Seminar 2 days RTC Doctors, MHLWs Disaster Management & Firs aid workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MHLWs Ari workshop 2 days RTC Doctors, MHLWs
Source: AHDS
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Table 2.20 Training Centre for Female Workers
DURATION LOCATION Disaster & Firs aid Management 2 days City Clinic HIS workshop 2 days City Clinic Poisoning Seminar 1 day City Clinic Ari workshop 2 days City Clinic Nutrition / Malnutrition workshop 2 days City Clinic PHC workshop 2 days City Clinic TBA Trainer Refresher Course 2 days City Clinic EMOC Workshop 1 week City Clinic Family Planning 2 days City Clinic Nurse refresher course 2 days City Clinic Health Educators refresher course 1 week City Clinic Medical Problems during pregnancy 1 week City Clinic CDD Workshop 2 days City Clinic Early Warning System Workshop 2 days City Clinic
Source: AHDS
There are 5 nursing schools in the country, one of them being in Mirwis hospital. There are 3 classes for males and 3 classes for females as shown in Table 2.21. Most of the teachers are doctors of the hospital and hold several posts concurrently. The school year begins in June every year and finishes after 9 months. All school expenses are free for students. Students who finish 9th grade, at the age of 14, can apply and take examinations. Most female students have studied in Kabul or Pakistan before entering.
Table 2.21 Number of students in Kandahar Nursing School (Sep. 2002)
/ Grade 1 2 3 Male 35 19 24 Female 18 24 37 Source: Kandahar Nursing School
In 2002, they had 75 male candidates and 25 females, of which 35 males and 18 females were accepted. At the end of each year, there is an examination for promotion to the next grade. After 27 months study including practical training, they become qualified nurses. The facility used to be a three‐storey building with a dormitory, but at present, the ground and first floor are used for disabled people with artificial limbs. They do not have any practical plan for withdrawal.
2.4.10 DOPH Kandahar Organization
DOPH Kandahar is located on the second floor of Mirwis Hospital. They hold regular meetings with WHO or Mirwis hospital staff as well as with the Kandahar government.
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As mentioned in the beginning of the report the working groups function closely with each other in the region. Concerning the linkage with MOPH Kabul, they have occasional communication, but because of the difficulty of contact and also the lack of budget, DOPH have to work out matters by themselves.
Figure 2.4 The Organization of DOPH Kandahar
2.5 Road Sector and Urban Infrastructure
2.5.1 Road Sector
(1) Existing Conditions of Road Development
By virtue of its geographic location, Kandahar city had prospered by trade not only with other domestic cities such as Kabul and Herat but also with neighbouring countries such as Pakistan and Iran.
Director
Deputy
Curative Dept
Preventive Dep.
Admin Dep.
T.B. RegionalCentre
Malaria&Leshmania Reg. Centre
MirwisHospital
Surgical W.
Medical W.
Paediatric W.
ID. W. Gyn&Obs.W ENT.W.
X‐Ray Lab Optical W.
B.H.Cs
Services
Accounting
Transport
Pharmacy
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There are two national roads; one is connecting Kabul, Kandahar and Herat, and the other is connection Kandahar to Spin Boldak down to Pakistan. The road lengths from Kandahar to Kabul and Kandahar to Spin Boldak are about 460 km and about 180 km, respectively. The existing conditions of these roads are very poor except for the parts in cities. The road pavement mostly had become almost nonexistent or cracked severely at many parts. Moreover, almost all bridges of these roads had collapsed. Japan, the U.S., and Saudi Arabia have jointly committed to rehabilitate the road from Kabul to Kandahar down to Herat. Japan and the U.S. have recently selected consultants to study and design this road section for reconstruction. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has also committed the rehabilitation of the road between Kandahar and Spin Boldak; in fact, rehabilitation work is already ongoing.
In the central area of Kandahar city, a national highway runs from east to west, and this road is very crowded with vehicles for various rehabilitation activities and for other economic activities. Constant traffic congestion is observed at the intersection in the city centre especially during the rush hours in the morning and evening.
Roads and streets, which form the city blocks, are allocated in a grid pattern in parallel to and at right angles with the national road. Except for some roads, many roads in the city have narrow width, especially the roads in the old city area have only about 6 m width.
The Kandahar municipality has a very old city master plan prepared about 30 years ago, and the road network within the city had been constructed based on this plan. With the recent increasing inflow of returned refugees and IDPs, the surrounding area of the city has been occupied by their settlement, and the roads in this area have been used in a disorderly manner.
(2) Road Pavement
There are roads of about 100 km length in total in Kandahar city, of which about 30 km have been paved by asphalt and the remaining 70 km have not been paved yet. Because of less rainfalls and dry climate, unpaved roads are covered heavily by sandy dust. Every car driving on such unpaved roads lifts a cloud of dust in the air as it passes along, which leads to almost zero visibility. Also, dust causes various diseases particularly respiratory diseases. The municipality is resorting to sprinkling water on streets by using a sprinkler truck every morning and evening, and also spreading crushed stones on roads to control dust fling. However, it appears to be almost ineffective because of the extremely dry climatic condition.
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There is a truck yard located in the old city area, where many heavy‐duty freight trucks with full loads go in and out. These trucks are in fact prohibited from entering the city centre. They enter and exit the truck yard through the roads located in the southern part of the city. These roads are not yet paved except for some parts, and therefore, the vehicles driving through the roads raise heavy cloud of dust. The municipality has a plan to make these roads a by‐pass road of the existing national road that passes through the central area of the city.
Figure 2.5 Present Road Network and Conditions of Road Paving in Kandahar City
(3) Road Constructions and Maintenance
Roads in Afghanistan have been constructed, operated and maintained for a long time directly by governmental agencies. In Kandahar, the Kandahar municipality and the Public Works Authority (PWA), which is under the control of the Ministry of Public Works in Kabul, are responsible agencies for construction, operation and maintenance of roads. In principle, the municipality is responsible for the roads within the city area, and PWA is responsible for the roads outside the city area. These two agencies maintain staff, workers and construction machinery within the respective jurisdictions. Due to insufficient budgets and staff, as well as inadequate machinery in terms of quantity, performance and conditions, their operational performance appears to be quite low.
Old City
Mirwize Hospital
Court
Gate To Kabul
To PakistanTo Herat
National Highway
National Highway
Paved Road
Unpaved Road
Under Paving Road
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(4) Issues
(i) Dust from Unpaved Roads within the City
There exist many unpaved roads and roads covered by sandy dust in Kandahar city, which causes a swirling cloud of dust by vehicles driving through. Those unpaved roads should be paved immediately, as they cause damage to the health of the people living in the city. Paving of roads in Kandahar city is needed significantly.
(ii) Insufficient Construction Equipment of Public Sectors
The municipality and the PWA are desirous to pave all roads in and around the city to improve the poor road conditions. However, they do not have adequate quality and quantity of equipment for road construction and maintenance, and they cannot improve the situation due to shortage of annual budget. There is a real need to provide them with reasonably adequate number and quality of equipment for road construction and maintenance as soon as possible. At the same time, workshops for proper maintenance of the equipment should be developed.
(iii) No Future Plan on the City and Road Development
The existing Master Plan had been prepared almost 30 years before and the present situation of Kandahar city has completely changed over the period particularly due to continuous drought damages and long‐lasted civil war. A new master plan of Kandahar city associated with a road master plan should be formulated for the rehabilitation and development of the city from now on.
2.5.2 Water Supply
(1) Existing Conditions of Water Supply Facility
Main facilities of water supply, such as wells, purification plant, pump stations, generators, reservoir, and pipe network, in Kandahar city were constructed by the Japanese Loan in 1972 to serve drinking water to 80,000 people living in the city area. Facilities had been gradually expanded since then in order to cope with the increasing population and expansion of the city area. These facilities are still being used partly but have been mostly damaged and/or broken during the civil war. The damaged and/or broken parts have never been replaced or renewed due to lack of budget.
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(2) Operation and Maintenance
The Water Supply Department in Kandahar city is responsible for water supply within the city area. Approximately 4,200 m3/day of water, which is taken from 8 wells with 60~120m depth, is being supplied at present. Water is supplied only seven (7) hours a day because of shortage of groundwater volume and electricity volume generated. Only 5,000 families out of about 50,000 families in Kandahar city are served with drinking water from piped water. Almost all other families obtain drinking water from shallow wells with a hand pump provided by them.
The Water Supply Department charges a fixed rate of Afg. 50,000/month/family for water service. But more than 20% of the families who receive water service do not pay the water charge because no water meter is installed at any household and building. Not only the small percentage of families receiving water but also marginal volume of water (840 l/family) served per family is a big problem. The Water Supply Department is eager to improve this situation. The Department is looking for donors that will give 10,000 water meters to the department to start collecting water charge based on water consumption volume.
(3) Activity of Other Donor
USAID is now studying and repairing the existing pipe network, transformers and chlorination system in the city. A study on the groundwater for securing a new source of drinking water is also being carried out. US$ 400,000 had been provided for this project.
(4) Issues
(i) No Overall Plan on the Water Supply in/around Kandahar City
Due to long‐lasted drought, many displaced persons from rural areas have come to and lived in the periphery of the city area where water supply system has not been developed. It caused rapid increase of population in/around Kandahar city which is facing shortage of drinking water. People who are not served with piped water are obliged to obtain drinking water from shallow dug wells provided by themselves or NGOs. A new water supply network system in Kandahar city should be studied immediately to improve the situation and to serve safe water to the people living in the city. A study on the groundwater potential in Kandahar province should also be implemented to ensure a new water supply system. Groundwater, especially water under an impermeable layer, is a very fascinating study for a new water resource, to rehabilitate and develop Kandahar province. However, it is necessary to pay careful attention for using this new water
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resource. A development master plan of Kandahar province is needed for balancing of water demand and supply.
(ii) Old and Damaged Facilities for Water Supply
All the facilities for water supply in Kandahar city had been constructed 30 years ago and have been used partly even at present. Some of them are very obsolete or damaged by the civil war. This is one of the reasons that enough drinking water cannot be supplied. These obsolete or damaged facilities should be replaced and repaired immediately.
(iii) No Water Mater Installed at Households and Buildings
No water meter is installed at households and buildings in Kandahar city. The Water Department cannot collect proper water charge based on water consumption volume because there is no water meter installed. Installation of water meter is urgently required to improve the existing situation of water charge collection. It also contributes to control water consumption in each household and building.
2.5.3 Sewer
(1) Status of Night Soil in Kandahar City
According to the city profile, 99% of houses do not have any septic tank for night soil outlet. Method of removal of the night soil is the traditional style. A small 1’x1’ opening is made in the boundary wall. A metal ladle is used to scoop out the night soil from the small opening into a container. There is a special group of people who do this kind of work and no payment is required. They bring the night soil to the desert to dry and use them as fertilizer.
There is no data for the collection of the night soil, but it is decreasing due to the decrease in farmers as a result of the drought that has ravaged the land the past four years. Because of this situation people just carry the night soil to the garbage bin/bench.
A septic tank system also affects the city’s sanitation and environment. One percent (1%) of houses have septic tanks in own land but there is no system to remove the night soil by vacuum car. When the tank is full, the night soil is pumped out to the street gutter.
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(2) Status of Ongoing Project for Solid Waste Management of Kandahar City
At present, the following two projects are ongoing in Kandahar for improvement of night soil condition:
1) Construction Project of Gutters
In Kandahar, most of gutters are natural mud ditch and are not maintained. Therefore, some waste and night soil are stuck on gutters. This leads to unsanitary conditions in the city and affect people’s health as well. Under this situation, UN Habitat has supported the construction of concrete gutter and laying of culvert in 20 km of roads.
2) A Pakistan consultant has surveyed a sewage system in Kandahar city. The schedule of the future development of the sewage and treatment systems is not known at present.
2.5.4 Solid Waste
(1) Status of Garbage of Kandahar City
Solid waste of Kandahar city can be classified into the scrap of sundry bricks and mud from civil construction sites, agro‐wastes including kitchen waste, plastics and night soil from houses. Some people throw the solid waste into the garbage bin/bench; others throw it on roadside or gutter. The garbage is not removed totally and some remain in the same place. Data of garbage is not available, but a lot of soil and mud is found in garbage trucks and the poor sanitation in the city affects the health of the urban people.
General information from interview and municipality profile:
Solid waste generated per day: 350 ton/day (630g/day/people) Solid waste removed per day: 108 ton/day (200g/day/people) Number of vehicles of municipality: 15 trucks but only 9 trucks are
functioning Staff in the municipality for solid waste management: 210 Expenditure of municipality for solid waste (year of 2002):
a. Salary (2,700,000afg×210×12 month)= Afg. 6,804,000,000 (US$136,080‐) b. Fuel (70km÷7km/liter×4 trip×300 day×Afg. 11,000/liter×9 truck) = Afg. 1,188,000,000 (US$23,760‐)
c. Maintenance: N.A Total : Afg. 7,992,000,000 (US$160,000‐/year)
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Unresolved solid waste in city: 242 ton/day Industrial waste: N.A Medical waste: N.A Garbage dumping places (bin/bench): 270 places Dumping site: Koto moreha, 15km from city to the north. Dumping site
will be replaced because it is affecting ground water resource.
(2) Status of Ongoing Project for Solid Waste Management of Kandahar City
The project of health education and community‐based waste collecting is ongoing at several areas in Kandahar city by collaboration of UN Habitat. This programme is an essential activity for health as well as proper management of solid waste. Due to limited fund, however, activity is still small scale. More funds are needed to expand the activity of health education in the city and surrounding area. Summary of the project is as follows:
‐ Background and Activities:
It is impossible to collect garbage by truck in downtown area due to the narrow roads. Given this situation groups were formed for garbage collection from these city areas. These groups collect the garbage from houses and transfer it to rubbish bin/bench located in main road. Each house should pay Afg. 30,000/month to the group leader for this work. At present, 450 households are participating in this activity. One group consists of 40 to 50 houses.
Simultaneously, female facilitators are going house‐to‐house in pairs to pass on the basic health and hygiene message to the families. Besides, some members are going to girls schools, sharing the benefit of having a clean environment and the need for a viable system of solid waste management with students.
‐ Project duration: One year from August 2002.
‐ Project member:
Under one General Supervisor, several supervisors and facilitators carry out the project in communities as follows:
District 1~4 District 5 District 6 Total Supervisor 1×4 2 8 8 Facilitator 4×4 8 8 32 Grand total 20 10 10 40
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2.5.5 Electricity
(1) Organization of the Electricity Administration
The Kandahar Electricity Department is the responsible authority for electric power supply in Kandahar, Helmand, Zabul and Uruzgan provinces under the management of the Ministry of Water and Power (MOWP) in Kabul. The organization of the Kandahar Electricity Department is shown in Figure 2.6.
Figure 2.6 Organization of Kandahar Electricity Department
The Kandahar Electricity Department has a staff of 412 including 300 for technical division and 112 for administration and financial divisions. The Technical Division is maintaining the power generating plant, transformers/substations and overhead transmission lines in Kandahar.
At present, there is no budgetary support from the central government on the electrical administration. Tariff collection is only a source of revenues for the annual budget. The amount of Afg. 3,518,203,652 (equivalent to US$ 70,000) was collected in the recent months of August and September (the lunar calendar). From this figure, annual budget can be expected to reach approximately US$ 840,000 for the electricity administration in Kandahar.
The tariff system in Kandahar is shown in Table 2.22.
Table 2.22 Tariff System in Kandahar
Category Rate
Residence 0 to 600kWh 601 to 1,200kWh 1,201KWh and over
200 Afg/kWh 400 Afg/kWh 2,000 Afg/kWh
Others (office, industry, etc.) 1,000 Afg/kWh
MOWP
General Director of Power Department
Kandahar Electricity Department
Financial Div. Administration Div. Technical Div.
Jalalabad Kabul Other Provinces
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(2) Existing Power Generating Plant, Substation and Transmission Line
There is only one power generation plant, one main substation and one high voltage (110 kV) transmission line for Kandahar, and no back‐up system exists for the electrical power supply. Lack of the maintenance requirements for the transformer, transmission lines as well as a reason of the difficulty of obtaining the spare parts will be causes of occasional power interruption.
The Kajaki Hydro Power Station (33 MW), which had been constructed in 1975 by Westinghouse, U.S.A., is the only major power station that supplies electricity to Kandahar and Helmand provinces. The Kajaki Power Station is located about 200 km northwest from Kandahar and is composed of 2 x 16.5 MW hydropower generators. It supplies electricity to approximately 27,000 houses, 300 offices and 25 factories in Kandahar city.
The Philco Hydro Power Station, which has had a 1 MW hydropower generator, was totally destroyed during the war. There is other micro hydropower station named Babawali having a capacity of 400 KW. Outline of the power stations in Kandahar is shown in the Table 2.23.
Table 2.23 Outline of Power Generation Plants
Power Generation
Plant Type Capacity Description
Kajaki Hydro 2 x 16.5MW
It was constructed in 1975 by Westinghouse, U.S.A.. It is working and the original plan had been to install 3 x 16.5 MW generators but only 2 were actually installed; therefore, there is a space for future installation.
Philco Hydro 1 MW It was constructed in 1990: German made Not working and totally destroyed during war.
Babawali Hydro 400 KW It was constructed in 1936 and operational condition.
The Kajaki Hydro Power Station and the Kandahar main substation (25 MVA) are connected by a single circuit of 110 kV high voltage transmission line and supply voltage is reduced to 20 kV in the Kandahar substation to supply electricity to district substations. There are 6 circuits of 20 kV transmission lines, which supply electricity to 180 district substations that exist in Kandahar city, and electric voltage is further reduced to 400 V for the end consumers. Some parts of the transmission/distribution line network were damaged during war; however, they were already repaired by the Electricity Department.
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The maximum power demand in Kandahar and Helmand is expected to reach 50 MW and 15 MW respectively, according to the Kandahar Electricity Department. The installed power generation capacity is only 33 MW, which is almost half of the capacity to meet the maximum demand.
Presently, there is no donor for the rehabilitation of the electricity supply administration. The Kandahar Electricity Department will be expected to contribute to a 16.5‐MW hydro power generator in the existing Kajaki Power Station or construction of a new 50 MW hydropower generation plant by international assistance.
The power consumption of the Kandahar city in the year 2,000 is listed in Table 2.24.
Table 2.24 Power Consumption in the Year 2000
Month Consumption (kWh) March 8,302,000 April 5,736,000 May 6,452,000 June 6,716,000 July 6,650,000 August 6,818,000 September 6,727,000 October 8,127,000 November 11,945,000 December 13,060,000 January 13,425,000 February 9,530,000 Total 103,488,000
(3) Issues
(i) Shortage of Electricity Generated
Kandahar province always faces shortage of electricity. The reason is the insufficient capacity of electricity generators. This is an obstacle for the rehabilitation and development of Kandahar province. The following projects should be implemented immediately to ensure the rehabilitation and development.
‐ Installation of New Hydroelectric Power Generator at the Existing Power Station
‐ Construction of New Hydroelectric Power Station and New Transmission Line
‐ Study on Electricity Supply in Kandahar Province
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(ii) Frequent Power Supply Cut Off caused by Old Facilities and No Back‐up System
There is only one transmission line from the existing power station to Kandahar city with one sub‐station, which has no back‐up system. These facilities are also too obsolete requiring regular repairs. Power supply cut‐off occurs frequently because of the regular repairs and no back‐up system. The existing transmission line and sub‐station should be improved immediately to supply electricity to the city constantly. Improvement of the existing transmission line and sub‐station is needed.
2.6 Other Sectors
2.6.1 Water Resource
(1) Precipitation
Kandahar province is located at the medium elevation climatic and desert climatic belt. Monthly average precipitation and temperature calculated by using data from 1964 to 1978 in Kandahar province is shown in Figure 2.7.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month
Prec
ipita
tion
(mm
)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
Tem
pera
ture
( ℃)
Rainfall Average Temperature Source : Ministry of Water and Power, Kabul 1982
Figure 2.7 Annual Rainfall and Temperature in Kandahar Province (1964‐1978)
Precipitation has mainly been observed from November to April in the following year. Annual average precipitation was 156mm. However, precipitation has not been observed in the last four years.
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(2) Surface Water
In the study area, there are three major rivers, namely, Arghandab, Arghistan and Tarnak. Surface water has been mainly used for irrigation purpose. Canals taking water from Arghandab river are constructed systematically in Kandahar area. However, these rivers and canals have dried up since the severe drought that started four years ago. During the long‐term conflict, most of data related to hydrology were lost, and periodical measurement could not be done. According to the existing data prepared by the Ministry of Water and Power, discharge amount of Arghandab and Arghistan rivers have been observed from December to June in the following year. On the other hand, Tarnak river had small amount of water perennially. Annual discharges of these rivers are as follows:
‐ Arghandab River (1964 – 1975): 146.8 m3/sec (1970) as a minimum and 1886.5 m3/sec (1965) as a maximum
‐ Arghistan River (1964 – 1978): 24.1 m3/sec (1977) as a minimum and 209.8 m3/sec (1965) as a maximum
‐ Tarnak River (1969 – 1978) : 21.4 m3/sec (1974) as a minimum and 59.5 m3/sec (1976) as a maximum
All other small rivers are seasonal. Water flow in these rivers was observed during rainfall and melting of snow.
(3) Groundwater
Groundwater has been used only for domestic purpose for a long time. However, groundwater level has been declining around 25m during the last 20 years in Kandahar city (interview basis). In addition, since the severe drought started four years ago, groundwater has also been utilized for irrigation purpose. As a result, groundwater level has been falling drastically and people in Kandahar province have been suffering from shortage of water not only for irrigation purposes but also for domestic purposes.
In Kandahar city, approximately 50% of hand pump equipped wells are not available due to inclination of groundwater table. The ratio of access to safe water in the city is only 20%, although people living in the city can obtain water from the water supply network. On the other hand, people in the remote areas are dependent on domestic water manually pumped out of shallow wells. They have also suffered from surface water as well as groundwater shortage. Some of them, who face more severe condition, have been forced to move to other places as Internally Displaced People (IDP) due to water shortage.
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Most of wells in Kandahar province extract water from alluvial deposit. It is reported that around 25 litre/sec with 10m drawdown can be extracted from one well. Without any recharge from surface water and rainfall, it would be over extraction. Under the alluvial deposit, Neogene deposit is distributed. Yield of one well extracting water from this aquifer is estimated at around 10 litre/sec in Neogene aquifer. However, potential of these aquifers has not been studied in detail. As mentioned above, groundwater level has been declining day by day. If such condition is continued, groundwater level will be decreased even more.
The results of water quality measurement, which was carried out in December 2002 is summarized in Table 2.25. The results revealed that the electric conductivity that is a parameter representing inorganic substances of groundwater in the eastern and southern area of Kandahar district is considerably high, indicative of less desirable potable water (from Nos. 6 to 16 in the Table). On the other hand, western area of the province can be classified as low conductivity area (from Nos. 1 to 5 in the Table).
Table 2.25 Results of Water Quality Measurement
Location Well Information
Well No.
Date Visited Name Latitude Longitude
Elevation(m)
Depth(m)
EC (mS/m)
pHTemp. (℃)
Remarks
1 HP1 9-Dec-02 31.61692 65.62123 1010 no data 49 7.51 19.6
2 EPIR1 9-Dec-02 31.62585 65.56760 990 no data N.A. N.A. N.A. pump did not work
3 EPIR2 9-Dec-02 31.71493 65.66048 1045 19 69 8.03 22
4 HP2 9-Dec-02 Mayshowen 31.73412 65.69297 1054 25 dry dry dry dried up on Nov 02
5 HP 12-Dec-02 Marghar 31.54 65.50 - 45 25 8.06 23.7 coordination from map
6 EPIR3 13-Dec-02 Daykhtay 31.59752 65.70967 1007 40 N.A. N.A. N.A. pump did not work
7 HP3 13-Dec-02 31.57723 65.72300 1009 no data 201 7.36 17.3
8 HP4 13-Dec-02 31.52600 65.69293 991 no data 396 7.35 17.2
9 HP5 13-Dec-02 31.52512 65.69372 994 30 375 7.3 17.5
10 EPIR4 13-Dec-02 Murthkala 31.50525 65.69597 992 12 299 7.49 19.4
11 HP6 13-Dec-02 31.48245 65.69645 993 45 156 7.75 19.5 turbidity
12 HP7 13-Dec-02 Rorabath 31.46668 65.69535 994 35 204 7.65 19.4
13 HP8 13-Dec-02 to Kabul 31.61375 65.78725 1034 50 343 7.65 20.2
14 HP9 13-Dec-02 to Kabul 31.61807 65.83798 1038 55 144 7.89 19.8
15 HP10 13-Dec-02 to Airport 31.58470 65.81500 1056 50 415 7.48 20.7
16 HP11 13-Dec-02 to Airport 31.54547 65.85122 1046 50 239 7.49 20.2
It was reported that high value of E.C. was caused by existence of gypsum in the geological strata. However, source of contamination has not been studied in detail.
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(4) Water Usage for Irrigation Purpose
The irrigated area for the agricultural productions such as grape, pomegranate, melon, watermelon and vegetables is around 500,000 hectares. According to the Irrigation Department of Kandahar provincial government, surface water from Arghandab river with the rate of 105 m3/sec was used for irrigation purpose. These productions, however, have been damaged as a result of this severe drought. Rivers and canals in the study area have completely dried up. The Arghandab reservoir, which is located on the upstream of Arghandab river, is empty too.
Under such conditions, the farmers have commenced to utilize groundwater for irrigation purpose since the year 2000. In the year 2002, groundwater was utilized at 150,000 hectares land that corresponds to 30% of whole irrigated area. According to interviews, the farmer extract groundwater for 2 days continuously with around 1.0 m3/min extraction rate. The groundwater utilization for irrigation purposes could accelerate the decline of groundwater level in the area. So far, groundwater extractions for irrigation purposes have not been properly regulated.
2.6.2 Agriculture and Food Supply
Over 85% of the population in Afghanistan is engaged in agriculture. Even in Kandahar city and surrounding areas, there are a number of farmers. Kandahar used to be famous as fruit producer such as grapes, melons, watermelons and pomegranates, and export them to South Asia, Middle East, and European countries. However, many farmers are facing serious drought since the past few years, and the production of agriculture has been decreased. Also, livestock are affected by the drought impact significantly. The number of livestock and pasture has decreased as well. Farmers and Kuchi (nomads), especially those living in rural remote areas, are suffering from the effects of drought and are sometimes displaced. According to a FAO/WFP report, the situations of the region seem to be better than the past two years. The situation in Kandahar province, however, has not recovered significantly. For instance, Table 2.26 shows a wheat production estimate in the region. It is still in a difficult condition.
Table 2.26 Wheat Production Estimate for 2002 in the South‐western Region
Irrigated wheat 2002 Rainfed wheat 2002 Total wheat 2002 Province Area (ha)
Yield (t/ha)
Prod. (t)
Area (ha)
Yield (t/ha)
Prod. (t)
Area (ha)
Yield (t/ha)
Prod. (t)
Kandahar 58 2.0 116 0 0.0 0 58 2.0 116Helmand 63 2.6 164 0 0.0 0 63 2.6 164Zabul 30 1.6 48 0 0.0 0 30 1.6 48Nimroz 20 1.4 28 10 0.8 8 30 1.2 36Urzgan 15 1.2 18 20 0.8 16 35 1.0 34Total 186 2.0 374 30 0.8 24 216 1.8 398
Source: FAO/WFP Crop and Food Supply Assessment Mission Report 2002
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As a matter of fact, it is difficult to analyse in detail the current agricultural situation in Kandahar, because statistical data concerning renewable natural resources such as production of each crop or livestock is not available. Nevertheless, according to existing reports and discussions with stakeholders of the sector in Kandahar, it can be said that it is necessary for the region to rehabilitate irrigation systems, especially intake facilities on groundwater. On the other hand, the drought and hot climate affect other impacts to farmers especially for peasants. Brokers tend to exploit peasants in terms of the purchase of products. During summer, many of peasants cannot preserve their produce and are forced to sell to the brokers because of the hot climate. The revitalisation of fruit market is a significant demand to improve conditions of farmers. It is necessary for the revitalisation to rehabilitate main roads between cities and reconstruct factories for processing and packing as well as secure water for agriculture.
The Department of Agriculture and NGOs such as ADA and Mercy Corps are conducting the seed distribution and technical training. The assistance from donors and NGOs, however, are insufficient in the sector. It is necessary to secure water for irrigation in the region. It is difficult for the department to rehabilitate existing facilities and to develop new ones related to irrigation without financial support. In addition, it is necessary for efficient and effective recovery of agriculture sector to integrate with other sector development such as road construction and mine clearance.
2.6.3 Refugees and IDPs
(1) General Situation of Returnees and IDPs in the Region
After the collapse of the Taliban regime, a number of refugees have been repatriated to their homeland in Afghanistan from neighbouring countries such as Pakistan and Iran. Some of refugees from the region in the neighbouring countries have returned to Kandahar province since the collapse. However, many of them have displaced again because of the prolonged drought. It is difficult for them to recreate sustainable livelihoods at their homelands. The lack of water and employment opportunity at the rural areas tends to make the returnees destitute. Table 2.27 shows the number of IDPs in the Southern Region6.
6 UNHCR (2002) A Summation Note on IDP Population in Kandahar, Urzgan, Nimroz, Hilmand and
Zabul (partially) Provinces in Southern Afghanistan based on IDP Rapid Assessment in January – February 2002
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Table 2.27 IDPs in the Southern Region
Province Total Household IDP Household IDP Individuals Kandahar 55,317 22,387 170,948Helmand 14,808 15,843 110,901Urzgan 6,275 1,308 5,446Nimroz 8,426 4,697 27,535Zabul 37,690 14,891 98,891Total 122,516 59,126 413,661
Source: UNHCR (April 2002)
Those numbers may include “ex‐returnees”. There are some 22,387 internally displaced families or 170,948 IDPs in 273 locations in districts in Kandahar province as of 1 April 2002 according to UNHCR. Of the total number of IDPs, 98,223 are internally displaced in Kandahar province. However, the rest of them originate from other provinces including outside of the region, especially from the Northern area. Some seem to evacuate from their homeland to escape from violent conflicts or discriminations. A total of 123,097, on the other escape hand, had been displaced before September 2001, and the rest had been displaced after September 2001 due to the air bombing by the U.S. and by the drought. Many of them seemed to become refugees to escape the civil war and the drought. The 71 percent of IDPs live in camps, and others live in the communal buildings and with host families. However, 16 percent of them are without shelter in the open air.
(2) Situation of Returnees and IDPs in Kandahar Province
Kandahar province is a returnees and IDP concentrated area in the region. The location of them is shown in Table 2.28.
Table 2.28 Returnees and IDPs in Kandahar Province
District IDP Households IDP Individuals Returnees HH Returnees Ind.Kandahar 0 0 4,911 25,124Khakrez 809 3,335 97 467Shah Wali Kot 673 4,100 149 797Ghorak 313 1,715 13 65Arghandab 328 1,829 938 4,774Maywand 2,035 16,811 337 1,818Panjwayi 9,359 90,002 1,511 7,826Maruf 204 885 121 647Shegah 1,261 7,834 86 413Daman 337 2,119 838 4,178Spin Boldak 6,825 40,617 502 1,327Dand 243 1,701 1,085 5,555Total 22,387 170,948 10,766 55,341
Source: UNHCR (November 2002)
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Concerning returnees, they tend to concentrate in Kandahar city and surrounding districts such as Argandab, Panjwayi, Daman and Dand. Especially, 45 percent of returnees live in Kandahar city. Some of them, especially educated returnees, could get jobs as local staff of UN agencies and NGOs. However, many of them tend to be unemployed and live together with their relatives or stay at illegal lands in the urban areas. It is not clear whether those returnees live there continually under the situation of serious drought and unemployment.
IDPs, on the other hand, there are concentrated areas such as Panjwayi, Maywand and Spin Boldak. Most of IDPs there are those that have been affected by drought the last three or four years. Most of them are Baloch people who come from Registan district. They had lost their livestock and properties. As of December 2002, there is no school and clinic, and only a limited number of wells and toilets are available. They have survived using food and non‐food‐items (NFI) from WFP and other humanitarian assistance. Some of them have livelihoods such as working as labourer, selling firewood and blanket, and livestock. However, people in the neighbouring communities tend to be unwilling to live together with them because IDPs encroach on the labour market, offering cheaper labour force. On the other hand, many of IDPs are willing to return to their homeland, if they can secure water there.
Zhare Dasht IDP Relocation Site, on the other hand, is a newly constructed relocation area located at an isolated desert approximately 30 km from Kandahar city. There are approximately 4,700 families or 22,000 individuals at the site. They have been relocated from Chaman Waiting Area, Spin Boldak, and Kandahar city. Those IDPs are Pahutun and comprise returnees from Pakistan, and political IDPs from Northern and Western region. There are several resident sections. There is only one temporary school at a resident section. After winter has come, UNHCR reported that tens of children living in IDP sites have died because of the cold weather and lack of heating fuel.
(3) Obstacles of Repatriation
UNHCR, WFP and NGOs have supported refugees and IDPs concerning foods and non‐food items (NFI) supply and shelter construction. However, they do not have enough capacity to support reintegration of IDPs and returnees because of the lack of human and financial resources. The emergency relief phase in the sector has been still continued. In addition, the situation of serious drought, power struggle among warlords, landmines, and lack of livelihood opportunity makes refugees in the neighbouring countries accelerate “fear of the future”, and prevent them from returning to Afghanistan. The lack of livelihood assets such as employment, water resources, education and health is a serious obstacle to the
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repatriation of refugees, especially for educated and skilled people. It is necessary for them to recreate sustainable livelihoods that include education, training, health, reintegration into society, employment generation and reconstruction of infrastructure, as well as the emergency support. An integrated approach beyond the sectors for reintegration is needed.
2.6.4 Security
(1) Security Situation of Kandahar City
Kandahar city can be said to be one of the more stable cities in Afghanistan, although there are sporadic incidents of violence such as bomb explosions or assassination attempts. The city used to be of highly unstable condition during the civil war. There were a number of atrocious crimes such as murders and rapes. After the Taliban settled the security situation, the criminal activities have been reduced under its radical policy. After the collapse of the Taliban regime, however, the criminal activities such as smuggling, opium poppy cultivation, and sexual abuse have increased gradually.
On the other hand, capability of police of Kandahar province is insufficient against the criminal activities. The police do not have enough arms, vehicles, and equipment for criminal investigation, although they are struggling to address various kinds of activities such as disarmament of civilians and drug control. The emancipation from the Taliban brought not only essential human rights but also social disorder to the civilians. The police need to enhance the capacity against various kinds of criminal activities.
(2) Security Issues of Aid Workers
On the issue of security of foreigners, UN Security Office at UNAMA Kandahar gathers security information and briefs UN staff on security considerations. Also, it holds security meetings every Thursday to brief UN agencies and NGOs on the current security situation and to exchange security information among them. The UN security phase of Kandahar is Phase 4 ‐that means the second highest phase. The UN sets its own curfew of 2100 HRS in Kandahar city and during nighttime outside of the city. It is necessary for UN staff to ask security clearance to the security office 48 hours before they have to go outside of the city area. Nevertheless, it can be said that Kandahar city and neighbouring areas are safe generally7. Also, the main roads between Kandahar and Spin Boldak, and between Kandahar and Qalat are safe, although foreigners need army escort to travel the road between Qalat and Gazni. Even within Kandahar city and surrounding areas within 30 km from its city centre, on the other hand, there are
7 Information as of December 2002
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areas where careful attention is needed. The UN Security Office recommends to have an office or accommodation in the security area (part of District 1, 2, and 68), and to not enter the valley at Gul Kalacha, which is located 10 km from the city centre. In addition, there are landmines and UXOs in the city area as well as the surrounding areas. Stones painted in red are the sign of minefield.
2.6.5 Women’s Affairs
(1) Women’s Situation in Kandahar City
Before the Taliban period, educated women in Kandahar are working outside as teachers, medical officers, and administrative staff including police staff. During the Taliban period, they banned female education and work, and restricted public education. Most of women lost their jobs, and many of educated people escaped from Kandahar. In addition, many women lost their breadwinners during the civil war. There are many widows or female‐headed households in the city. More than half the number of women seem to be widow9. It is difficult for them to find jobs because they tend to be uneducated and unskilled due to the deprivation of opportunities of education and employment during the civil war and the Taliban period. After the collapse of the Taliban regime, women have returned gradually to schools and working places. Girls schools have been reopened especially in District 6, which is the most modern‐thinking area in Kandahar city. Some educated women have gotten jobs at UN agencies and NGOs as a secretary or a surveyor, although the percentage of women who work for those organisations is less than those in Kabul. Therefore, “empowerment of women” through getting life skills is an important issue in Kandahar city. Many of people in Kandahar are willing to send their daughters to schools and have a positive attitude towards women working outside of homes, if their safety can be ensured.
However, there seem to be a huge gap between educated women and uneducated women, and between women in the urban area and women in rural areas. Situation of uneducated women or women in the rural areas has not been changed during the few decades.
Although each tribal group of Pashtun has slightly different behaviour, activities of women tend to be restricted. On the other hand, the huge number of widows is caused by the abuse of dowry system (“wal wal” in Pashtun). Some parents force their daughter to marry with an elder man to get a dowry, although,
8 There are areas in Kandahar city where careful attention is needed in terms of security, because people
there tend to be conservative and not familiar with foreigners. 9 Interview with the Head of Department of Women’s Affairs of Kandahar. She estimated from 60 to 70
per cent of women are widow in Kandahar city.
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originally, a dowry is used for a bride. Sometimes educated young girls run away and seek refuge at the Department of Women’s Affairs (DoWA) to escape the arranged marriage with an elder man.
(2) Support Activities for Women
The newly established DoWA is the responsible department in charge of women issues. The head of the Kandahar Women Association (KWA) has been appointed as the Head of DoWA recently. However, the DoWA has only budget for staff salary including the staff of KWA. The Ministry of Women’s Affairs is presently formulating details of roles and responsibilities of DoWA.
The Kandahar Women Association and NGOs are supporting women, especially for female‐headed household in terms of literacy education, vocational training, and day care services for working mothers10. However, both the Kandahar Women Association and NGOs do not have enough capacity to support huge numbers of jobless women or out‐of‐school girls and to create employment or education opportunity. On the other hand, there are limited job opportunities for women such as in handicraft, embroidery, tailoring and bakery work. There is a significant need to increase the capacity of women to empower them and to create employment opportunities for them as well.
2.6.6 Culture and Heritage
(1) Tribal Groups
Majority of the population of Kandahar city are Pashtun (95% of population). There are few numbers of Persions (mostly in District 1), Hazaras and Tajiks. Pashtun can be categorised Durrani and Ghilzai, and the majority group in Kandahar city is Durrani. Durrani can be divided into several tribal groups such as Barakzai, Popolzai, and Alikozai. Figure 2.8 shows a genealogical chart of Pashtun. Popolzai tribe is concentrated in Daman district. Alikozai tribe is concentrated in the districts of Arghandab and Panjwayi. Population density by ethnic group in Kandahar city, however, is mixed especially in the city centre. Generally, the tribal groups live together and there is no significant confrontation or conflict between the groups at civilian level. They seem to try to identify themselves not a tribal group or Pashtun but “Afghan” since the collapse of the Taliban regime.
10 The day nursery or kindergarten is located at the same land of the KWA/DoWA and accommodated
around 100 children. Working mothers bring their children there before they go to work. As of information of December 2002, the day nursery will move out to another place.
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Figure 2.8 Genealogical Chart of Pashtun
(2) Marriage system
Marriage system in Kandahar is basically arranged marriage. Parents select a partner, and make an engagement if both parties agree. Most of people get engaged during their teenage years. In urban area, men tend to get married at around 22 years old and women, at around 20 years old. In rural area, on the other hand, people tend to get married at 15 to 18 years old. However, there are many cases that women get married even before reaching the age of 10. Approximately five percent of men have more than one wife. However, most of the men have only one wife, although they are allowed to have a maximum of four wives according to the law and Islamic behaviour. In terms of children, a couple tend to have three or four children in the urban area, and seven to ten children in the rural area. On the other hand, divorce is recognised as a shameful act in Pashtun society. Thus, the divorce rate in Kandahar seems to be less than three percent11. Although there are many uneducated people who have a conservative or fundamental mind because of the prolonged civil war, people in Kandahar have gradually become aware of the need to change this way of thinking.
(3) Cultural Heritage
Kandahar city has been a centre of Afghan culture and history. It has a rich cultural and historical heritage, and the major ones are shown in Figure 2.9. However, some people do not care about or put importance on the cultural and historical values, because there has been no opportunity to learn about these things in Kandahar. The degradation of cultural heritage is a significant problem in Kandahar city.
11 Interview with Deputy Head of the Department of Culture and Information on September 2002.
Pashtun
Ghilzai
Durrani
Alikozai Barakzai Noorzai Popalzai Others
Hutak Taraki Tokhi Others
Other Ethnic Groups: Persion, Hazara, etc.
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Figure 2.9 Cultural Heritages in Kandahar City
(4) Library
The Kandahar Library is the only library in southern region. Previously, many people from other provinces visited it. After it was destroyed by war, however, the people forgot the library. In 1999, the library was re‐established for use in one room in the Information and Culture Department. But still the library is not utilized well, due to lack of interesting books and its small capacity. People want to have a good source of knowledge and information of the world and to find the identity of Afghanistan in the world.
The present status of the Kandahar Library is as follows:
Location: located about 200m north of the central memorial place of Kandahar and is easily accessible.
Library room size: 5m×10m with open shelf library. Total amount of books held: 6,500 books (3,000 books each in Dari and
Pashtun languages, 209 in English, others are in Uzbekistan and Turkish), some magazines and maps.
Users: daily about 10 visitors between 15 ‐ 30 years old. About 70 visitors in 1970.
Book lending system: started from last month for a limited number of members (about 20 people).
Working hours: 8:00 am to 6:00 pm, Friday is a holiday. Staff of library: 2 Donor and NGO support: During the Taliban regime UNHCR donated
US$5,000 for re‐establishment/rehabilitation. ARIC (NGO) donated 1,000 books.
Old City
Mirwize Hospital
Court
Gate To Kabul
To PakistanTo Herat
National Highway
National Highway
Paved Road
Unpaved Road
Under Paving Road
‐ Eid Gah Sishk (Gate) ‐ Ahamad Shah Baba Shrine & Khallca Shalif
‐ Bazaar ‐ Nalinji Kila (Old Fort and
old town centre)
‐ Mir Wais Mica Shrine ‐ Chil Zina (Epitaph)
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Major constraints of the existing library are as follows:
Lack of books: Librarians prefer to collect books on culture, geography, history of Afghanistan and books on any kind of information of the world.
Lack of storybooks and illustrative books for children Lack of space for books and meeting place Lack of audio‐visual aids
2.6.7 Mine Action
There are millions of landmines and UXOs in the Southern region because of the prolonged civil war. The locations of landmines are not only in battlefields but also in agriculture lands, roads, grazing areas, and residential areas. Thus, the landmines have affected many civilians in Kandahar. The Mine Action Programme for Afghanistan (MAPA) has been operating in co‐ordination with the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Assistance (UNOCHA) since 1989 on the issue of landmines. The MAPA is composed of the UN Mine Action Centre for Afghanistan (MACA), 5 UN Area Mine Action Centres (AMACs12) and 15 NGOs working as implementation partners. The AMACs are responsible for the field‐level management, coordination and oversight of mine action activities in their respective regions13. The AMAC (Kandahar) is coordinating all aspects of the restoration of mine action operations in the Southern region, working closely with the Afghan implementing partners. The 15 NGOs implement most of the physical activities associated with mine action, including awareness, technical training, survey and clearance, in coordination with the MACA. In the Southern region, MCPA, MDC, ATC, META, HI, DAFA, and OMAR have been implementing activities. Table 2.29 shows mine action in Kandahar. However, the de‐mining activity in Kandahar had been suspended from December 2001 to September 2002 due to the clearance of UXOs of the cluster bomb, which had been dropped by the US air force during the war against terrorism. According to the AMAC (Kandahar), the de‐mining activities at Kandahar city have restarted and will have been completed within several months.
Table 2.29 Mine Action Teams in Kandahar
Activities Number of Teams Manual Clearance 9 Mechanical Clearance 3 Mine Dog Clearance 5 Survey 7 Quick Impact Programme 2 Mine Awareness 29
12 Former RMAC (Regional Mine Action Centre) 13 UN Mine Action Homepage (2002) http://www.mineaction.org/index.cfm
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2.7 Realities and Rehabilitation Needs as Voice by the People
It is necessary to consider civilian opinions concerning the rehabilitation and development for Kandahar in addition to the Study Team’s observation and opinions of the government. The Study Team has conducted the following surveys to identify people’s opinions.
Resident Survey Patient Survey
2.7.1 Resident Survey in Kandahar City
The Study Team sub‐contracted to Islamic Relief UK the conduct of the resident survey in Kandahar city. Islamic Relief UK had conducted the resident survey from the end of September to the beginning of November as follows.
(1) Objectives
The objectives of the survey are to know the residents’ opinions concerning the Batch 1 rehabilitation projects, to understand the socio‐economic characteristics of the study area and to grasp problems and needs for rehabilitation and development from the viewpoint of local people and communities. The result of the survey is utilized for the selection of the Batch 2 projects, and for assessment of the Urgent Rehabilitation Programme.
(2) Survey Site
Four sites in Kandahar city
(3) Survey Outline
Islamic Relief UK carried out the survey at 4 sites in Kandahar city by using several methods shown in the table below. The information to be collected is also listed in the table.
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Table 2.30 Survey Outline of Resident Survey
Survey area Survey methods
Information should be collected
1 Resident Survey
Kandahar City including the Batch 1 project sites (4sites)
• Key informant interview
• Focus group discussion
• Household interview
- Opinion on rehabilitation project concerned - Socio‐economic overview - Opinions on rehabilitation process in
Kandahar and Afghanistan - Rehabilitation/Development needs and
potentials - Opinion on Central and Local Government
(Present and past) - Attitude on other tribal groups - Attitude on gender issue - Education (Access, Enrolment, Learning needs)- Health (Access, Diseases, KAP, Health
education) - Roles of public infrastructure such as wells in
the community - Willingness to participate for operation and
maintenance of public infrastructure - Decision making system - Problems and constraints - Livelihood system at household level
2 Data analysis and report writing
(4) Summary of Survey Results
The collected materials, which include 4 key informant interviews, 8 focus group discussions, and xx household interview surveys, were analysed by Islamic Relief UK including social scientists from Afghanistan Academy of Sciences. Contents of the resident survey are summarised in Table 2.31. In addition, the details of survey result are shown in Appendix 2: Report on Resident Survey.
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Table 2.31 Contents of the Resident Survey
Categories Contents Political Economy of Kandahar Geography of Afghanistan
Recent History of Afghanistan Southern Region: An Overview A Glance to History of Kandahar Geography and Climate Current Situation of Kandahar Economy Tribal Affairs Decision Making System Livelihood System at Household Level Assistance Community
Sectoral Focus Education Sector Health Sector Public Infrastructure Environment Dwellings and Houses Water and Sanitation Gender Issues
Survey Results Results of Key Informant Interview Results of Focus Group Discussion Results of Household Questionnaire Interview Results of Resident Meeting at Schools which will be reconstructed on the URSP‐KDH
Source: Islamic Relief UK (2003) Report on Resident Survey in Kandahar City
2.7.2 Patient Survey at Mirwis Hospital
Mirwis hospital is located at the centre of Kandahar city and is the top referral hospital in the Southern region. There are many patients not only from Kandahar city but also from other districts and provinces. It is possible to identify people’s accessibility and burden of health care, and their behaviour by asking patients in the hospital. For the purpose, the Study Team conducted a patient survey at Mirwis hospital in the latter part of September 2002.
(1) Survey Methodology
The survey was conducted by local enumerators who could speak Pashtun and was trained by the Study Team. The method was random sampling interview survey using questionnaires. The informants were 60 in total (30 for inpatients and 30 for outpatients).
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(2) Summary of Survey Results
Accessibility and burden of health care
Twenty‐six percent (26%) of patients are from Kandahar city and another 19% are from other districts in Kandahar province. However, half of patients seem to be from outside of the province (Figure 2.10).
City26%
Kandahar19%Helmand
17%
Urzgan19%
Zabul3%
Other2%
N.A.14%
Figure 2.10 Where patients come from?
The patients who are from outside of Kandahar province or the remote rural areas tend to have burden of health care in terms of time and transportation cost (Figure 2.12, and 2.13). Most of them need to hire cars because of lack of public transportation system (Figure 2.11).
On foot7%
Car67%
Own car14%
Raksha10%
Coach2%
Figure 2.11 What kinds of transportation patients use?
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~15min5% ~30min
17%
~1h21%
~2h12%
~3h9%
~6h17%
~9h10%
10h~9%
Figure 2.12 Transportation Time
Free20%
Less than $125%$1 - $5
15%
$5 - $1010%
$10 - $2015%
More than $2015%
Figure 2.13 Transportation Cost
On the question regarding patients’ expectations about the hospital, patients from the rural areas tend to expect better treatment from the hospital. On the other hand, patients from the city tend to be concerned more with treatment cost rather than quality.
Behaviour
The Study Team has identified some issues concerning behaviour on reproductive health. Although there is not sufficient information concerning marriage age of female patients because of Pashtun behaviour, the Study Team found there are many women who married under 10 years of age (Figure 2.14). It is significant to know that those from the rural areas tend to marry earlier than those from the urban areas.
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0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
~9 ~14 ~19 ~24 ~29 30~ N.A.
Male Female
Figure 2.14 Marriage Age
The number of children is shown in Figure 2.15. Although the number of children depends on the age of informants, it can be said that many of the women tend to have more than 5 children, especially in the rural areas. Rural people tend to have many children than urban people. However, both urban and rural people tend to not practise contraception. Especially, men tend to not care about contraception and family planning.
117%
20%
318%
411%
518%
611%
711%
87%
90%
107%
Figure 2.15 Number of Children
0
5
10
15
20
Yes No
Male Female
Figure 2.16 Contraception
CHAPTER 3 Central and Local
Governments and Institutions
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CHAPTER 3 CENTRAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENTS AND INSTITUTIONS
3.1 Post‐Conflict Institutional Context in Afghanistan
Afghanistan is a landlocked, mountainous, and ethnically diverse society. Its strategic geopolitical location has been the source of a turbulent and troubled history that has allowed for limited development and modernization. The country had a modicum of peace and stability until late 1970s and underwent a modest degree of modernization, which was mainly concentrated in cities and towns. The Soviet occupation in December 1979 in support of the communist government of Afghanistan marked the beginning of more than two decades of conflict. The Soviet withdrawal in 1989 as the result of the protracted and violent resistance by the Mujaheedin plunged the country into a civil war among different ethnic tribes. The Taliban, who took over power in 1994, presented themselves as an Islamic solution to the widespread criminality and anarchy. They came to control ninety percent of the country until the American invasion in October 2002 forced them to relinquish power.
The long drawn out war of the Soviet occupation and subsequent internecine conflict has severely damaged the institutional base of the Afghan economy. By the mid‐1990s, most of the country’s limited infrastructure was destroyed and traditional systems that supported agriculture and rural economy suffered. Even more important than the physical damage has been the increasing breakdown of state and civil society over time and the progressive erosion of institution –both state and informal.
Following the fall of the Taliban regime, various Afghan factions concluded a settlement as part of the Bonn Agreement in December 2001 regarding the establishment of an Afghan Interim Authority (AIA) for six months, from December 2001 to June 2002. According to the provisions of the Bonn Agreement, a Loya Jirga was convened in June 2002 which deliberated and approved the structure of a Transitional Authority to remain in power for about two and a half years till the time a new constitution is formulated and elections are held to elect a democratic government. At present, the Afghan Transitional Authority (ATA) represents the “sovereign” power of the nation. The Transitional Authority is headed by Hamid Karzai as the Chairperson of the Authority and the president of Afghanistan. The Authority has five chairpersons who along with the Ministers are members of the cabinet. The Transitional Authority governs the country in accordance with the 1964 constitution.
More than two decades of conflict in Afghanistan, since 1978, combined with three‐year severe drought, have caused widespread human suffering and massive displacement of the Afghan people. Afghanistan’s infrastructure has been degraded
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or destroyed; its human and environmental resources are seriously depleted; and its institutional and social capital seriously eroded. While the damage to the physical infrastructure is easily visible, the breakdown of state and civil society institutions is not so easily discerned. State institutions are largely non‐functional and economy and society continues to be fragmented under the burden of past legacies. The process of reconciliation that has been initiated under the Bonn Agreement is far from achieving a desirable level of national consensus and integration.
The process of reconstruction, supported by international community, is not only constrained by the material and physical damage but equally by the erosion of state and civil society institutions. The basic institutions of governance have either been destroyed or rendered dysfunctional. Peace, reconstruction, and economic recovery hinge upon the revival and strengthening of the basic institutions of governance including justice, rule of law, and a transparent and accountable government. A good part of the administrative and financial system, especially in the provinces, is barely functional and yet being maintained at a very high cost. The Transitional Administration lacks the very basic budget to meet its requirements of recurrent expenditures. Most international funding is still directed at humanitarian relief and is not sufficient to support the revival and development of institutions necessary for containing conflict and bringing about peace and stability to the country. Without massive job creation to integrate vulnerable groups including women into the economy, which requires substantial and steady international public investment, peace building is a difficult task to achieve. The productive utilization of international public investment depends more on building Afghan institutions at all levels of the state and society rather than on physical reconstruction that is driven by outsiders. The challenge of re‐invention of the state institutions as well as traditional institutions as part of institutional and political reconstruction is as great as the challenge of physical reconstruction and rehabilitation.
3.2 Central Government‐ Key Features
Afghanistan is divided into 31 provinces with a total of 325 districts. The population of the country is estimated as 22 million including the refugees in neighbouring countries. The geographical spread of the country and the difficulties in logistics, transport, and communication make the centralized delivery of services costly and inefficient. Some of the major provinces, such as Herat, Kandahar, Jalalabad, Mazar‐e Sharif, and regions are virtually outside the control of Kabul and fairly autonomous in managing their business.
The Interim Administration has inherited a core public administration including national and provincial administrators, teachers, and health workers. However, the skills of the manpower and institutional capabilities have been depreciating for more than two decades. A reliable estimate of the skill levels in the government
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administration is unavailable. Since 1994, when Taliban took over the power, the retardation in educational development at all levels including at the higher level, has been immense. Institutions of higher education functioned partially during the Taliban period. A sizeable number of teachers and educational professionals were either killed during the civil war or fled the country. The skills acquired by the current population of graduates, who are working in government and non‐government sectors, are seriously outdated and deficient with the exception of those who were educated abroad. Skill development of majority of the workforce is critical to building institutional capacity that is required for reconstruction and development. The process of skill development is a long‐term process. Part of the needs of skilled manpower could be partially met through a scheme of recruitment of overseas Afghani on fixed term contracts as part of the capacity building to be financed by the international assistance. Until such time as a substantial cadre of professional and technical Afghan people could be trained and retrained, substantial dependence on foreign expertise will continue.
The core institutions managing the economy broke down completely in the 1990s during the Taliban regime. The orderly post‐conflict recovery and construction requires restoration of economic and financial management institutions such as the Central Bank, Ministry of Finance, and the key sectoral ministries. The functional capacity for budgetary planning, financial management, and audit and accounting is weak and is in the process of being developed through international assistance. Consequently, transparency in the conduct of the government and its financial transactions is limited. Corruption is believed to be widespread although there are no estimates.
The Interim Administration is preparing a budget for FYO3, which starts on March 21, 2002. Several partners, including IDA, the IMF, the USAID, and UNDP are providing assistance. The short time span and the high degree of uncertainty around expenditure needs have made this process very difficult. While a reasonable first quarter budget is likely, figures for the last three quarters will be more indicative. Further, lack of firm commitments by donors, especially with regards to the recurrent expenditures, have made it difficult for the Afghan authorities to finalize even the first quarter budget that is fully financed.
The current budget comprises the portfolio of projects and programs at varying stages of development, which the government intends to implement during the present and following fiscal year. The projects and programs have been identified by the ministries through a consultation process. Cross cutting issues such as governance, drug control, gender, and environment have been mainstreamed within each program and sub‐program. The National Development Budget comprises the following programs: education, refugee return, health and nutrition, rural livelihoods and social protection, transport and telecommunication, energy and mining, urban management, natural resource management, trade and investment, public administration, and rule of law.
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A preliminary assessment indicates that the expenditure process as set out in the existing budget law, accounting regulations and Treasury Manual, while overly complex, seems functional with requisite checks and balances. Financial management systems continue to operate largely in the same manner through various political periods, although recently much of the accounting and nearly all the reporting aspects have not been carried out. The organizational structure for the expenditure management within the Ministry of Finance (MOF) consists of the Departments of Accounting and Treasury, financial controllers in Ministries and Agencies, and regional offices. There are no well specified procedures for tracking and making budget expenditures, starting with the release of appropriations by the MOF to pay suppliers. Further, the use of a chart of General Ledger Accounts would in theory, allow budget allotments, commitments, accounts payable and completed payments to be tracked and reported at regular intervals. While workable on paper, there are some practical difficulties in making the system functional. First, while re‐establishing the system at the centre may be relatively straightforward, extending it to the provinces may prove more challenging. Some preliminary steps towards extending payments (payroll) outside of Kabul have started, but these payments have not yet been made. Second, lack of fiscal discipline at the commitment stage, coupled with infrequent offsetting within the government’s single account, means there is a real risk that a deficit can build up. Third, the entire operation is manual making it impossible to produce timely, complete and accurate reports. Further, once fully functional, the expenditure management system can still only confirm that funds have been withdrawn from the Treasury for approved purposes. The system cannot control what happens to the funds after they are withdrawn.
The Auditor General is responsible for the audit of budget execution in accordance with budget appropriation and financial regulations. The Auditor General Office (AGO) is required to provide an audit report on the annual final accounts when available, but accounts have not been produced by the MOF for at least eight years. It appears that the AGO has continued to function in a limited fashion. There is a well defined organizational structure with key positions staffed by individuals who have received international training, albeit some 25 years ago. There are 150 auditors; however, no assessment has been made of their qualifications and capacity.
The Central Bank appears to have adequate regulations and procedures for facilitating governmental payments. Historically, its branches in each province around the country had cash available to make payments as requested by the treasury. Currently, the Central Bank branches outside of Kabul are not fully functioning and are not able to make payments. The IMF is currently working with the Central Bank to re‐establish its operations both in Kabul and throughout the country. There is an urgent need for the Central Bank to become functional throughout the country as soon as possible so that payments can be made by the Interim Administration.
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At the central level, there are 29 ministries in Kabul. The structure of central government is shown as Table 3.1. Most of the ministries, with the exception of the Ministry of Finance, Reconstruction, Planning, Education, Public Works and Public Health, who are the focus of the attention of international donors, are war damaged shells without the requisite manpower, office supplies and facilities, record keeping, and other basic necessities.
Table 3.1 Composition of the Afghan Interim Administration
Chairmen Vice chairmen Vice chair & Women’s Affairs Vice Chair & Defence Vice Chair & Planning Vice Chair & Water & Electricity Vice Chair & Finance Members: Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of the Interior Ministry of Commerce Ministry of Mines & Industries Ministry of Small Industries Ministry of Information & Culture Ministry of Communication Ministry Labour & Social affairs Ministry of Hajj & Auqaf: Ministry of Martyrs & Disabled Ministry of Education Ministry of Higher Education Ministry of Public Health Ministry of Public Works Ministry of Rural Development Ministry of Urban Development Ministry of Reconstruction Ministry of Transport Ministry for the Return of Refugees Ministry of Agriculture Ministry of Irrigation Ministry of Justice Ministry of Air Transport & Tourism Ministry of Border Affairs
Reliable data on the number of active public employees in Afghanistan is not available. According to the estimates by the current government, there are approximately 220,000 sanctioned posts in the public sector. The estimates are based on the government structure of 1970. UNDP, in its estimates, accounts for about 80,000 personnel who are actually in place in Kabul city and Kabul province. There is considerable uncertainty associated with estimates of the current size of civil service. Payment of salaries is one way to ascertain the number of government personnel. However, the inability of Kabul government to pay the salaries of the staff of the provinces and the
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non‐transparent methods of payment do not allow reasonable calculation. Currently, wage payments are made through the UNDP Start‐up Fund where the funds are transferred to the government treasury for salary payments based upon manual check payment process. Verification of the list of provincial employees has not yet begun.
Government staff is paid intermittently, if at all, and many of senior personnel have either left or sought alternative employment overseas. Salaries are very low by comparison to most of the developing countries. Salary structure and grades for the central government employees can been seen in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3. Civil salaries are very compressed. The average total compensation at the highest grade is only 1.2 times higher than in the lowest grade. Average gross pay ranges form a low of $ 36 to a high of $ 42. Pension levels are negligible. The forthcoming budget will likely contain an envelope that would permit a doubling of the salary of an average employee as well as significant decompression of the salary scale.
Table 3.2 Central Government Employment by Grade
GRADE NUMBER OF EMPLOYES % OF EMPLOYEES 1‐Highest Grade 579 1.3 2 1,613 3.5 3 4,138 9.0 4 4,504 9.8 5 3,547 7.7 6 3,994 8.7 7 3,641 7.9 8 5,340 11.6 9 117 0.3 10 505 1.1 11 9,047 19.6 12‐Lowest grade 9,047 19.6 Total 46,072 100.0
Table 3.3 Central Government Salary Structure
GRADE BASE PAY FOOD ALLOWNACE
TRANSPORT ALLOWANCE
PROFFESIONAL ALLOWANCE TOTAL PAY
Monthly compensation in AFA 1 210,000 1,200,000 154,000 16,000 1,580,0002 170,000 1,200,000 154,000 8,000 1,532,0003 130,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,448,0004 110,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,428,0005 95,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,413,0006 78,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,396,0007 70,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,388,0008 63,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,381,0009 57,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,375,00010 51,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,369,00011 46,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,364,00012 40,000 1,200,000 110,000 8,000 1,358,000
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The pre‐emption of women from the government service and especially health and education sectors has been a major blow to the human resources of Afghanistan. Before Taliban, about 43% of the government employees were women most of whom were dismissed. Similarly, in other walks of life, women were prohibited from work. This has had a profound effect not only on the government but the society as a whole. At present, female teachers and doctors even in Kabul are scarce.
Basic constraints to Central Administration are as follows:
(1) Human resources; (2) Cumbersome and outdated rules and regulations; (3) Central government as an employer of last resort; (4) Inadequate planning and financing capacity (5) Lack of clear definition of intergovernmental institutional framework that would
demarcate the roles and responsibilities of different levels of the government; (6) Taxation structure for different levels of government; (7) Revenue and expenditure assignments to different levels of government; (8) Inter‐governmental financing methods; (9) Targeting mechanisms for distribution of resources among districts and within
individual districts; (10) Operational framework for budget formulation; (11) Salary payment system; (12) Strengthening aid coordination at all levels; (13) Inter‐ministerial coordination; (14) Review and assessment of civil service for re‐structuring; (15) Re‐integration of civil servants; (16) Lack of transparency and accountability; (17) Corruption; (18) Low salaries and wages in public sector; and (19) Female representation in government service.
The Afghan government also lack clear policies and regulations with regards to a legal framework for private sector development and the capacity to formulate such policies and implement them. The policy and regulatory vacuum extends to a broad range of fundamental issues beyond private investment and cover issues related infrastructure development and land, including:
(1) Approval and registration of foreign investment; (2) Registration and formation of companies; (3) Tax registration; (4) Land ownership and use; (5) Environmental regulations; (6) Expatriate work permits;
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(7) Import processing and facilitation; (8) Utility provision; and (9) Business licensing.
3.3 Kandahar Provincial Government‐Key Features
Kandahar city is the capital of Kandahar province as well as the centre of the Southern Region of Afghanistan. The structure of the provincial government in Kandahar, as is other provinces, is uniform. Kandahar provincial departments, in theory, are extension of the central ministries in Kabul. The structure of the provincial government in Kandahar and other provinces is a replica of the structure of the central government. Each ministry has its subordinate departments at the provincial level and the majority of the departments serve as regional centres. The district level administration is subordinate to the provincial structure and in most of the cases skilled manpower and capacity is scarce.
There are over 30 provincial departments in Kandahar. Table 3.4 shows the designations of the Interim Authority of Kandahar. A reliable estimate of the number of people employed in provincial departments is not available. The majority of the departments are housed in dilapidated structures with no facilities and active functions. Some of the departments including the departments of health, education, public works, and reconstruction that are the focus of international aid are relatively functional.
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Table 3.4 The Interim Authority of Kandahar
DESIGNATIONS Number of Staff Governor of Kandahar 1 Deputy Governor 1 Administrator (Governor’s Secretariat) 1 Head of Intelligence Department 500 Commander of the 2nd Military Garrison Chairman of the Kandahar Military Shura
Mayor/Head of the Municipality 526 Head of the Public Works Department 80 Head of the Public Health Department 372 Head of Trade/Commerce Department 41 Head of Finance (Provincial Accountant) Department 161 Head of Taxation/Customs Department 76 Head of Social Affairs/Welfare Department 17 Head of Communication Department 57 Head of Rural Rehabilitation Department 44 Head of Planning Department 14 Head of Refugees & Martyrs Department 66 Head of Education Department 2246 Head of Energy/Power Department 371 Head of Pilgrimage (hajj) & Religious Endowment Department 16 Head of Justice & Law Department 226 Head of Information & Culture Department 49 Head of Water & Sanitation Department 41 Head of Mines & Industries Department 31 Head of Traffic Department 85 Head of Kandahar University 97 Head of Transportation Department 27 Head of Women Affairs Department 36 Head of Prosecution Department Head of Mille Da Afghani Bank (National Bank of Kandahar) 65 Head of Sports Department 6 Head of Agriculture Department 155 Head of Tribal Affairs Department 34 Head of QDCCU Southern Zone (Drug Control) 6 Advisor (Political & Security) (Acting) Head of Foreign Affairs Department 33 Coordinator for Humanitarian Relief Advisor to the Governor
20
Total 5501
The assigned functions are of the provincial departments’, as defined by the past governments and generally based on the 1964 constitution, and are archaic and not carried out in actual practice. The “actual” activities of the departments are limited in scope and are undertaken on an ad hoc basis. The rules and regulations, the work methods, and the personnel practices of the departments have been carried over from the past regimes. Kandahar, as a hub of the Taliban, regime, has witnessed greater institutional erosion and decay than other places as a result of the aversion of Taliban
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to modern organizations and methods of public administration. Taliban destroyed most of the facilities, office structure, and furnishings of the provincial government.
Some of the departments including education, planning, finance, health, and water supply serve as the regional offices for Southern Afghanistan. The Departments, in their provincial as well as regional capacity, have practically no financial and human resources for undertaking the presumed functions. The Departments do not have development budget and funds are occasionally allocated by the Office of the Governor for specific purposes. The departments’ staff spends a considerable amount of time in facilitating the work of NGOs and donors in planning and execution of reconstruction activities. More than twenty years of war disrupted the education system and has caused serious gaps in technical and professional skills of the Afghani people. The professionals and engineers who have adequate skills and speak English are recruited by NGOs and donors. The salaries of engineers in government offices are inadequate to keep them in government jobs. In the past, each District in the province had a Development Committee which provided an assessment of the local needs and preferences. During the Civil War and the Taliban period, the District Committees became defunct. It will be useful to revive these committees for local consultation in planning.
The capacity for budgeting, financial management, accounting, and procurement, and civil works is non‐existent in most of the departments. Multiple channels of accountability represent the most serious problem in the provincial departments. The departments and their employees are subject to the directions and control of the central ministries, which also do the hiring and payment of salaries. However, the current inability of the central government to pay the provincial employees and hire and supervise their work means a virtual non‐centralization and regionalization of departments in the hands of provincial governors. The salaries of the staff of Kandahar provincial departments have been generally paid by the Governor of the province in recent months. The Governor also exerts considerable influence in designating the top personnel of the departments and directing their activities. Thus, there are no clear lines of accountability for the department personnel, and the centre’s jurisdiction over the provincial departments is largely symbolic.
The key constraints to provincial administration include:
(1) Large number of departments with poorly defined responsibilities; (2) Negligible planning, budgeting, and financial management capacity; (3) Unclear functions, roles, and responsibilities; (4) Serious depreciation of human resources and skills; (5) Disparity between assigned functions and actual functions; (6) Top‐down and centralized decision‐making procedures; (7) Hallowed out middle management;
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(8) Lack of physical and office facilities; (9) Lack of coordination among departments; (10) Limited and manual information managements; (11) Lack of planning and financing skills at all levels; (12) Lack of technical personnel at all levels; (13) Politically controlled administration; and (14) Marginalization of women in government service.
3.4 Kandahar Municipality‐ Key Features
The city of Kandahar is the second largest city in Afghanistan and Kandahar municipality has the second largest municipal jurisdiction after Kabul. The city is divided in six districts and each district has a municipal body which is under the jurisdiction of Kandahar municipality. Unlike Kabul municipality, which is directly under the control of the president and the cabinet, the municipality of Kandahar is, in theory, part of the structure of central government and is subject to its rules and regulations. As such the municipality has very limited autonomy. In practice, municipal powers are significantly autonomous as a consequence of a virtual lack of control of municipal functions by the central government. In its day‐to‐day operations, the municipality is dependent upon the Office of the Governor in both financial and administrative spheres. The municipality is part of local politics and hence draws the attention of the Governor more than the provincial departments.
The structure of the municipality is a legacy of the past except that during the elected governments, the position of the Mayor in the past was considered to be an elected position. At present, the Mayor is appointed by the Governor in consultation with the central government. It is anticipated that the Mayor will be elected as part of the local elections to hold in the coming years. The municipality constitutes 22 departments although at present only 6 departments can be considered as functional. The taxation department is the largest department with 23 staff. Given the size of the city, the staff and capacity of the taxation department is extremely inadequate for revenue collection purposes. The technical capability of the municipality is negligible. It has about six engineers who do not have adequate education and skills. The employment opportunities provided by international donors and NGOs are an impediment to upgrading the technical capability of the municipality.
The municipality is assigned basic municipal functions including local tax collection, repairs and maintenance of roads, street cleaning, garbage collection, construction of shops and markets, and maintaining parks and recreational areas. There is a significant gap between the presumed and actual functions of the municipality. The responsibility for a number of functions like tax collection road construction and repair are spread over a number of provincial departments such as the department of planning and department of public works and the Kandahar municipality. A clear demarcation of
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functional responsibilities between the provincial government and the municipality is necessary for the building of local government capacity. At present, the coordination among the provincial departments and between the provincial departments and the municipality is ad‐hoc and informal.
Kandahar municipality has negligible sources of revenues and assets. Major local taxes such as property tax, land tax, business tax, and sales tax are not currently levied for a variety of political and organizational reasons. The income of the municipality is limited to the rents applied to municipal shops and markets as well as minor taxes on sales and inter‐city transit. The total income of the municipality is estimated to be between $ 500,000‐600,000 per annum and most of the income supports the salaries and operational expenditure of the municipality. The municipality has no financial capacity to undertake maintenance and development functions.
There is an immense scope for building Kandahar municipal capacity. The capacity building needs include all aspects of municipal development including organizational and management, operational, financial, and public relations. Kandahar municipality is expected to be a major player in the reconstruction of Kandahar in general and in the JICA Urgent Rehabilitation program in particular. A number of capacity building measures are necessary to assist the Kandahar municipality become an adequate counterpart to implement the JICA Rehabilitation program. First, it would be important to streamline the existing and multiple accountability mechanisms so that the municipality as an organization is less subject to conflicting sources of administrative control and financing. Second, introduction of computer technology and staff training for establishing basic information management system will be very beneficial. Third, the interface between municipal operations and local communities should be improved through introducing participatory planning processes to mobilize local resources and enhance municipal accountability. Last, it is important to foster close coordination between the municipality and key provincial departments both as a means of municipal capacity development and improving the delivery of public services.
The major constraints to municipal management in Kandahar include:
(1) Multiple sources of administrative authority, functions, and accountability; (2) Negligible service production and delivery capacity; (3) Poor financial resource base; (4) Limited technical and professional capacity; (5) Inadequate public representation; (6) Weak administrative organization; (7) Centralized management; (8) No record keeping and information management; and (9) Overlapping roles of provincial departments and Kandahar municipality.
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3.5 Communities and Institutions of Local Governance
Communities represent significant social capital that should be harnessed in the process of reconstruction. Despite the destruction of physical capital and economic assets, Afghan communities have demonstrated their resilience and have been at work for years reconstructing mosques, schools, clinics, and irrigation and water supply systems. The dormant resources at community level are substantial and represent an important asset for reconstruction and could serve as an organizing principle for targeted and demand driven programming at the local level. It is important to find a means to leverage this capacity to achieve immediate results at the local level and to support broad‐based participation of Afghans in reconstruction. In addition to enhancing the provision of basic service and mobilizing human resources, this approach is necessary for the stabilization of the country and its social cohesion.
The local institutions at the community level in Afghanistan vary from region to region in their functions and structure and are referred to as Shura and Jirga. In broad terms, these institutions are ad hoc groups of respected people in a community convened for such functions as resolution of disputes, local planning and development, and other forms of collective action. Shura and Jirga also signify ad hoc groups of a similar nature representing two or more communities at the woluswali (district) level as a means to interact with government institutions. In several areas, women have their own shuras‐ even if they are not allowed to be part of male shuras.
The institutions of the local government at district level are largely defunct and do not have the manpower and resources to plan and implement programs for basic services. Under the circumstance, local communities can meet the deficiencies in local resource planning and mobilization and act as primary stakeholders in the reconstruction process.
The Transitional Authority strongly supports decentralized community‐based strategies for reconstruction and development, as reflected in the statement of the Chairman of the Authority made at the Tokyo Conference.
“We intend to implement a local empowerment program that would allow communities to manage their own resources…. Such a program would allow legitimate leaders to deal with issues facing their communities and form the basis of deliberative democracy in the future. Block grants would be distributed to villages and districts, and allocated to projects through inclusive and participatory processes and on the basis of transparent criteria.”
CHAPTER 4 Proposed Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
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CHAPTER 4 PROPOSED URGENT REHABILITATION PROGRAMME
4.1 Strategy
It is important for reintegration of the fragmented state to support the reconstruction not only at the capital city but also at other regional centres considering balance of distribution. Kandahar is the second largest city in Afghanistan and a commercial centre, located at the crossroads to Kabul, Pakistan and Iran. Kandahar city and surrounding areas, in addition, used to be called “fruit basket of Afghanistan”. Kandahar has a huge potential to take a role of driving force for durable peace and sustainable development of Afghanistan.
The urgent rehabilitation programme is a support strategy and a list of projects for Kandahar region recommended by the Study Team. It is expected that the programme will be utilised as a strategic support framework to the region, and for the formulation of projects and programmes which will be supported and funded by Japan and other donor agencies, although the programme does not mean a clear commitment by the GOJ. The programme consists of a support strategy and a long list of priority projects and programmes. However, the priority projects and programmes should be reviewed and modified whenever necessary based on the transformation of rehabilitation needs and the coordination with other donors. Figure 4.1 shows the framework of Urgent Rehabilitation Programme.
Figure 4.1 Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
Relief >>> Rehabilitation >>> Development
Strategy
Projects/Programmes Sectors (Urban and Regional Development, Education, Health, Natural Resources Management, Water & Sanitation, Refugees & IDPs, and Others) Crosscutting Issues (Institution Building, Human Resource Development <Capacity Building>, Gender, Environment, Peacebuilding)
Donor Coordination
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The urgent rehabilitation programme will apply to Kandahar region for the next two years or until the end of 2004. Kandahar region can be defined as Kandahar city and surrounding districts on the programme initially. However, the target area will be reconsidered according to the security condition and the transformation of rehabilitation needs in the South‐western region, as well as the duration of programme.
Considering the National Development Framework (NDF) prepared by the Board of AACA, discussions for the regional rehabilitation by the local government, donors and NGOs, and Japan’s assistance policy for Afghanistan, the following five pillars can be set as essential support strategy to Kandahar region:
(1) Responding transition from relief, rehabilitation to development (2) Building efficient institutions (3) Enhancing regional stability (4) Creation of sustainable livelihoods (5) Equality between urban and rural as well as regions
4.1.1 Responding Transition from Relief, Rehabilitation to Development
Transition from relief, rehabilitation to development is a significant issue of post‐conflict peacebuilding. Rehabilitation needs or demands tend to change day by day in the post‐conflict country. Especially in Kandahar, the process of transition seems to be unstable and there are various kinds of needs at different levels. Thus, relief, rehabilitation and development needs are altogether in the region. For instance, although there are various needs for the development in Kandahar city, there are a number of IDPs that are suffering at the surrounding districts because of the drought. It is important to respond flexibly to the various kinds of needs in terms of relief, rehabilitation and development. Simultaneously, it is important to respond quickly to fill in gaps of the transition.
4.1.2 Building Efficient Institutions
Rebuilding efficient institutions is essential for collapsed government in post‐conflict countries. In Afghanistan, the governmental structure has been paralysed during the civil war and the Taliban regime. In addition, experience of the communist regime had brought up extremely inefficient administration and huge organisations. It is necessary to build efficient institutions for strengthening local governance considering both the process of globalisation and the revitalisation of endogenous social capitals such as Jirga or shura.
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4.1.3 Enhancing Regional Stability
National solidarity and reconciliation among the ethnic or military groups are essential for post‐conflict peacebuilding. During the prolonged civil war, the military groups and the political and military intervention from the neighbouring countries and the superpowers have fragmented Afghanistan. There are warlords who control regions practically, although the transitional administration led by President Hamid Karzai has been authorised at the Emergency Loya Jirga on June 2002. There is no significant confrontation among tribal groups in Kandahar at civilian level. However, there are still unstable factors in the region such as the incident of bomb explosion and the attempted assassination of the President on September 2002. Those incidents incite people’s fear for the future. Due care should be practised to the issues of regional stability to implement the projects and programmes. Simultaneously, it is deemed essential to support enhancing regional stability through the implementation of projects and programmes.
4.1.4 Creation of Sustainable Livelihoods
Creating sustainable livelihoods is important to move the development phase from relief and rehabilitation. Sustainable livelihoods comprise education, health, skills, social capital, land, equipment, infrastructure, environment and financial resources. People in Kandahar have lost their livelihoods by the civil war and the drought. People lost opportunities of education and employment as well as land and other properties. It is impossible for them to improve quality of life without recreating sustainable livelihoods. It is necessary to support recreating sustainable livelihoods as well as economic development in case of the post‐conflict country. For the purpose of creation of sustainable livelihoods, integrated approach beyond sectors is important. An integrated approach is preferred to formulate the support projects and programmes.
4.1.5 Equality Between Urban and Rural
Assistance from the international community tends to concentrate in the capital city in post‐conflict countries because of security conditions and accessibility. In Afghanistan, the donors’ assistance has concentrated on Kabul since the birth of the new government, and inequality between Kabul and other regions has been expanded. Inequality between urban and rural, in addition, has also been expanded. The inequality is one of the causes of rapid urbanisation, and lead political or military leaders to provoke civilians. The equality between urban and rural should be addressed properly, otherwise, implement the projects and programmes in the urban areas, which benefit both rural and urban.
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4.2 Selection Criteria
The Study Team proposes a long list of prospective Urgent Rehabilitation Projects and Programmes based on the information obtained from various sources, field surveys, and the strategy for rehabilitation and reconstruction as described above. More specifically, the information obtained was translated into the following “selection criteria” to examine the rationale for selecting the prospective Projects and Programmes as well as for prioritising them for future implementation.
Criteria for immediate action are as follows.
(1) Urgency : Is it urgently necessary in that without it people’s life suffers extreme inconvenience, unsafe situation, infringement on human rights, and so on?
(2) Necessity : Is it absolutely necessary to secure the minimum requirements for healthy and civilized people, to lay a basic foundation for socio‐economic development, to change obsolete systems towards modernization, to conserve the inherent heritage, and so on?
(3) Appreciability : Are the effects accrued by its implementation reasonably and visibly appreciable for beneficiaries?
(4) Viability : Is it prepared for immediate implementation without any serious constraining factors such as negative environmental impacts, resentment of the people affected, land acquisition problems, difficulties in operation and maintenance, and so on?
Criteria for long‐term reconstruction are as follows.
(1) Quality Enhancement : Can it substantially contribute towards the betterment of people’s quality of life by alleviating poverty issues?
(2) Foundation Laying : Can it lay a solid foundation for future improvement and development of the relevant sector?
(3) Equality Assurance : Can it contribute to reduce disparities between city and rural areas as well as between haves and have‐nots?
(4) Sustainable Development : Can it be sustainable with adequate capacity of responsible institutions for post‐implementation operation and maintenance and without generating negative impacts on surrounding environment?
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4.3 Sector Strategy
4.3.1 Education
Enhancement of education sector is one of the most important issues for not only urgent rehabilitation but also in a long‐term development of Kandahar as well as the whole country of Afghanistan. And moreover, good quality of education is the foundation for poverty reduction and economic growth. Demand and public expectation for education still remain high. Key challenges in the next stage are therefore to increase access opportunities, to reduce disparities (gender, regional, urban/rural), and to improve the quality of primary and secondary education. Primary education, science and mathematic education, and female education were emphasised as high priority areas of the education sector during the stakeholder meeting in December 2002 with participation from local government, UN agencies and NGOs.
The necessity of rehabilitation of higher education in Kandahar is undoubted, but in reality there are considerable difficulties in its implementation in terms of feasibility, operation and maintenance in the short term. In fact, the rehabilitation project for the higher education sector was not selected in the stakeholder meeting.
4.3.2 Health
Major urgent rehabilitation of medical facilities has been implemented by NGOs in Kandahar city. Only Mirwais hospital facilities have not been rehabilitated much because large‐scale re‐construction work is required there. Regarding the management and skill in health services, medical staffs have remained unskilful due to the lack of training in these years. Health administration in DOPH‐Kandahar and management of hospitals are also in the same situation with limited budget for program implementation. In the next stage, the rehabilitation programme should concentrate more on software components like refresher training for medical and administration staffs, and upgrading of management skill for future planning so as to provide medical services in a sustainable way.
The condition of health services in the rural area of Kandahar province and southern region are really different; 30% of districts do not have any medical facility. Construction and establishment of medical facilities is made difficult due to the problem of road accessibility. The security of facilities and assignment of staff is also a matter of concern. Therefore, it is recommended to extend support to the PHC activities by way of mobile clinics and health education for the peoples. Special project with support from the donor is very much required to strengthen the PHC activity in the region. Additionally, because of the different situation in this area, the rehabilitation program for Kandahar city should be effective for both the urban and as well as the rural area in this region.
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Lack of health plan is also a big issue in Kandahar’s health sector. Some of the urgent programs should be initiated even without a health plan, but a Mid‐term Health Plan should be provided as soon as possible so that collaboration between the donor and NGOs under the leadership of DOPH could be started.
According to the understanding of issue and as discussed in the stakeholder meeting in Kandahar city in December 2002, the following three programmes should be implemented as soon as possible by collaboration of donor and NGO.
Training for Medical Staff Strengthening of PHC activities in the region Study on Mid‐Term Plan (2004‐2009) of Health Service in Kandahar Province
Regarding Japanese cooperation in the health sector for short term 2002‐2003, Japanese cooperation will follow Japan’s Cooperation Strategy of “Action for Health Equity”, which was mentioned in the agreement between MOPH and JICA mission signed on 22nd August 2002. As mentioned in the strategy paper, the following four focus area were confirmed:
Enhancing women’s health Protecting children against preventable diseases Combating communicable disease (TB) Improving managerial capacities for health service deliveries
4.3.3 Urban and Regional Development
Though the establishment of an urban and regional development programme (overall development master plan) will not immediately contribute for urgent rehabilitation, the establishment of medium and long term plan is an essential issue for reconstruction and future development of Kandahar. This area development master plan will be a key indicator for not only the physical development of Kandahar but also the establishment of sectoral master plan. In short team, however, there are needs to reconstruct basic infrastructure such as paving city roads.
4.3.4 Water and Sanitation
In Kandahar city, water supply system was established more than 30 years ago with Japanese assistance and is still functioning partly. Rehabilitation and expansion of water supply system will be required essentially.
The necessity of a well‐functioning sewerage system development in Kandahar city is undoubted, but in reality there are considerable difficulties in its implementation in terms of feasibility, operation and maintenance. However, in the NDF, it warned of “a mammoth task for the country in sewage and rural sanitation. With the onset of
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summer, there is an urgent need to tackle urban sewage if a major health epidemic is to be averted”.
4.3.5 Water Resources Management
Sustainable usage of water resources is fundamental for stable implementation of rehabilitation and development of Afghanistan. In addition, securement of safe water is indispensable for the livelihood of the people. In order to achieve these necessities, water resources management should be enforced in proper way.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, since water resources management plan has not been regulated properly, groundwater level has been declining during the last 20 years. In addition, it has been falling drastically in the recent 4 years past due to no recharge and utilization of groundwater for irrigation caused by the severe drought. As a result, people in Kandahar province have been suffering from shortage of water not only for irrigation purposes but also for domestic purposes. In the remote area, some of them were forced to move to other place as IDPs. Groundwater has become the only water source for all activities in Kandahar province in recent years.
The government of Afghanistan understands that safe water supply should be given priority to other projects. In fact, some organizations have already commenced to support them in terms of water and sanitation necessity. Besides, it is also stated that the understanding of groundwater potential is indispensable for sustainable usage of this limited precious resources in Kandahar province and should be carried out immediately. Thereafter, based on the results of the study, groundwater resources development and management plan should be formulated.
Items to be studied for water resources management from the hydrogeological point of view are listed below:
‐ potential of groundwater and surface water ‐ source of contamination of groundwater ‐ groundwater flow mechanism (including recharge mechanism) ‐ formulation of monitoring method for water resources ‐ future water demand
On the other hand, the following problems are highlighted based on the discussion with Afghanistan government.
‐ unformulated development plan and management for water resources ‐ lack of the information related to the groundwater resources ‐ shortage of skilled manpower ‐ limited instrument for the investigation of groundwater ‐ financial constraints ‐ lack of coordination among donors
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Implementation of the study on groundwater resources potential should solve these problems and contribute to transition from relief, rehabilitation to development of Afghanistan.
4.3.6 Natural Resource Management (Agriculture)1
Agriculture is one of the most important sectors for rehabilitation and development of the region. Revitalisation of “the fruit basket” should be key strategy of the sector. However, it is difficult for the revitalisation without securing water for irrigation. Because of the prolonged drought, agriculture needs new irrigation facilities as well as the rehabilitation of existing facilities. The possibility of digging/rehabilitating wells should be discussed after groundwater potential is carefully assessed. Simultaneously, it is necessary to develop water‐saved irrigation system and cash crops that can save water rather than general food crops. On the other hand, it is essentially important to consider the integration of agriculture and rural development from the view of sustainable livelihoods.
4.3.7 Refugees and IDPs
The living conditions of returnees and IDPs are still in an emergency phase. Some of returnees have been displaced again and become IDPs again because of the prolonged drought. Those IDPs need emergency relief such as food, non‐food items (NFI), and shelters for winterisation. However, the support strategy for the sector should focus on reintegration and resettlement of them to break off the vicious circle of displacement. It is important for them to recreate sustainable livelihoods through comprehensive reintegration support at their homeland, which includes foods for work, cash for work, rehabilitation of basic infrastructure, and generating employment opportunity. The support programme should be carried out in cooperation with UNHCR, WFP, and NGOs.
4.3.8 Others
In addition to the above sectors, the following sectors are important for durable peace and sustainable development for the region:
Industrial Development and Income Generation Strengthening Local Governance Protection of Human Rights and Promotion of Democratic System Mine Action Conservation of Culture and Environment Empowerment of Women
1 JICA will despatch a special delegation on urgent rehabilitation support for agriculture sector. Japan’s
support strategy for agriculture sector will be formulated by the delegation.
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Industrial development and income generation through enhancing small and medium enterprises create employment opportunity and increase civilian incomes. Those projects will contribute to reduce unemployment rate and people’s fear for the future. At the level of government, building efficient institutions is essential for good governance. It is necessary for the government to change their conceptions and to introduce the ideas of human rights, democratic system, and market economy, instead of the conception that had been generated during the communist regime and the civil war. The ideas such as human rights, indeed, must harmonise indigenous culture and tradition. Conservation of culture and environment is also important. Those issues tend to ignore the process of emergency relief and rehabilitation in post‐conflict situation. However, culture and environment are essential for the mind and life of the people. It is necessary for the war‐torn society to create a good cultural and natural environment to generate peaceful minds.
4.4 Proposed Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
The Study Team proposes Urgent Rehabilitation Programme which comprises a long‐list, a short‐list and project/programme summaries. The short list of the Programme is shown in Table 4.1, and the long list and project profiles of each short listed project are attached as Appendix 1.
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Table 4.1 Short List of the Urgent Rehabilitation Programme
Sector Immediate Action (2003) Short‐to‐Mid Term (2003‐2004)
Education A1‐1: School Construction in Un‐covered Area of Kandahar City/ Province
A2‐1: Rehabilitation of Teacher Training College
A2‐2: Rehabilitation of the Workshop of Mechanical School
A2‐3: In‐Service Teacher Training Programme on Strengthening Science and Mathematics and Strengthening of Female Education
A2‐4 Supplementary Education Programme for Out of School Youth and Adult
Health B1‐1: Procurement of Commuter Bus for Female Students in the Nursing School
B2‐1: Strengthening of Medical Services by Modern Equipment
B2‐2: Training for Medical Staff B2‐3: Rehabilitation of Maintenance
Centre for Medical Equipment in Mirwis Hospital
B2‐4: Strengthening of PHC Activities in the Region
Urban and Regional Development (including Roads)
C1‐1: Paving of Roads in Kandahar City
C1‐2: Procurement of Equipment for Road Maintenance
C2‐1: Master Plan Study on Rehabilitation and Development of Kandahar City (2004 – 2015)
C2‐2: Master Plan Study on Public Transport for Kandahar Province including Supply of Public Buses and Construction of Workshop
Water & Sanitation D1‐1: Study on Groundwater Resource Potential in Kandahar Province
D1‐2: Improvement of Drain D1‐3: Strengthening of Solid Waste
Management
D2‐1: Study, Design and Construction of Water Supply Network System in Kandahar City
D2‐2: Replacement of Existing Water Pumps and Motors including new reservoir construction
Industrial and Electricity Development
E2‐1: Promotion of Small and Medium Enterprises (SME) in Kandahar City
E2‐2: Installation of Hydro‐power Generator at the Existing Power Station
E2‐3: Improvement of Existing Transmission Line and Sub‐station
Others F1‐1: Comprehensive Reintegration Programme for Returnees in Kandahar Province
F2‐1: Reintegration Programme for Ex‐combatants in Kandahar City
F2‐2: Strengthening Police System in Kandahar Province
F2‐3: Integrated Programme for Strengthening Capacity and Activities of Kandahar Women’s Association
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4.5 Time‐Frame of the Programme
To implement the project appropriately, to consider the linkage of the projects, a recommended implementation time frame is shown in Figure. 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Time‐Frame of the Programme
Sector 2003 2004 2005
A1‐1
A2‐3
A2‐1
A2‐2
Education
A2‐4
B1‐1
B2‐1
B2‐2
B2‐3
Health
B2‐4
C1‐1
C2‐1
C2‐2
Urban and Regional Development (including Roads)
C1‐2
D1‐1
D2‐1
D2‐2
Water & Sanitation
D1‐2
D1‐3
E2‐1
E2‐2 Industrial and Electricity Development
E2‐3 F1‐1
F2‐1 F2‐2
Others
F2‐3
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4.6 Considerations for Implementation
4.6.1 Culture and Society
The culture and society of Kandahar as well as Afghanistan is to be respected. People in Kandahar are diligent, respect their religion and culture, and offers warm hospitality to foreigners. Some people seem to be conservative, although people’s minds have changed gradually since the collapse of the Taliban regime. However, their culture and tradition are to be respected; thus, the following should be addressed with regard to the implementation of the projects and programmes:
Religious tradition and custom (praying times, Ramadan, religious places, and other Islamic custom);
Decision making system (government and community); and Women’s affairs (separate meeting place for women, despatch more female
experts, security for female experts).
4.6.2 Capacity of Counterpart
The administrative capacity of the local government is extremely weak because of the civil war. The local government does not have sufficient number of staff that can communicate with experts from the donor community. Due consideration should be given to this matter in discussions with both the counterpart agencies and the donor communities.
Simultaneously, attempt should be made to build the capacity of counterparts concerning management and technical skills through the implementation of the projects and programmes. The structure of the government at the central and provincial levels is in the process of evolution as part of the preparation of a new constitution and a civil service reform commission. Generalized capacity building of the ministries and departments at this time is not feasible except for supporting selective and targeted interventions that are necessary to effectively carry out the rehabilitation programmes.
It is recommended that the key departments that are potential counterparts of JICA ‐supported projects, should be provided with support for the establishment of implementation cells staffed with 4‐6 members who would be selected on the basis of qualifications and trained. This would also make it possible to introduce partial computerization and information management within the key departments for the organization and management of crucial information needed to design and monitor rehabilitation activities. The key departments will include planning, education, public health, public works, and finance. Similar support should be provided to Kandahar municipality that is in dire need of fundamental planning and management
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capabilities. An assessment of these institutions will be undertaken to design specific capacity building requirements of the implementation cells.
The proposed implementation cells in Kandahar will greatly facilitate donor coordination at provincial level as well as the central level by interfacing with the similar implementation cells being planned for the central ministries with donor assistance. JICA may have to consider despatching experts on institution building to the counterpart organisations for efficient and effective implementation through institution building.
4.6.3 Considering Crosscutting Issues
It is important for efficiency and sustainability of projects to take integrated approaches and to consider crosscutting issues. The following point of views to avoid negative impacts to the society should assess the entire urgent rehabilitation programme.
Institution building:
Projects/Programmes have to be focused on institutional aspects. It can be said that institutions including functioning counterpart organisations is pre‐condition of the aid.
Human Resource Development (Capacity Building):
Human resource is essential for development. Projects/Programmes have to contribute human resource development through technology transfer.
Environment
Environmental issues tend to be less focused on post‐conflict situation. However, environmental impact by Projects/Programmes should be assessed before their implementation.
Gender
Gender issues have to be considered on Projects/Programmes. Gender issue comprises not only direct impact but also indirect impact or consideration. It is necessary to assess gender aspects on Projects/Programmes carefully.
Peacebuilding
Projects/Programmes have to be considered from the view of peacebuilding to facilitate durable peace and to prevent conflict recurrence. Impacts to peace and conflict issues such as ethnicity, security, human rights abuse and interests among stakeholders should be assessed.
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4.6.4 Security
Security is a key constraint of the implementation. On the other hand, it is necessary for all experts to avoid or reduce risks. In Kandahar, security condition is not stable, although it seems to be better than other regions in Afghanistan. The UN security system has recommended that a 48 hours notice be given them by those wishing to visit places of risk for an assessment of the situation. It is relevant for JICA to cooperate with the UN security system as well as to use other sources such as the local government and NGOs. In addition, care should be given to employing Pakistani staff. Some of the people in Kandahar, even in governmental staff, tend to dislike them.
4.6.5 Logistical Support
There is a limitation concerning the mobilisation to Kandahar and accommodation in Kandahar city. There are two UN flights per week to the Kandahar Airport. There are limited numbers of hostel facilities in the city. Additional mobilisation routes should be considered such as from Quetta by vehicle before the full‐scale implementation of the programme. In addition, it is deemed crucial to secure guesthouses with communication tools to be used by experts from Japan and to hire cooks for them.
CHAPTER 5 Conclusion and Recommendations
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CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Limitation of the URSP
It has to be understood that the current situation in Afghanistan is still unstable and changing. It is impossible to respond to all rehabilitation needs of Kandahar, although there are various kinds of needs. Therefore, both the urgent rehabilitation projects and the proposed rehabilitation programme do not cover all sectors. However, the Study Team considers needs and issues in most sectors and is seeking collaboration or demarcation with other donors, NGOs and the local government for comprehensive, efficient and effective implementation. The sections below are the Study Team’s recommendations to supplement the limitation and to reinforce the effectiveness of Japan’s support.
5.2 A Recommended URSP Strategy
Post‐conflict reconstruction programmes are traditionally characterised by an urgent focus on physical rehabilitation of state’s infrastructure and its economic foundations. But the transition to an active socio‐economy comprises a number of complex issues including social recovery, the provision of basic services, economic opportunities, social security, and mobilisation of human resources, rule of law, access to justice and human rights, and equity.
Physical rehabilitation has development value only to the extent it helps a transition to social and economic recovery. Social and economic recovery essentially entails development of institutions, both formal and informal, and the social capital of a society. Reconstruction in post‐conflict situations, in view of its urgency, may exact a price from sustainable development by neglecting the critical elements of ownership and building of institutional and social capital. The trade‐offs between physical reconstruction and institutions of socio‐economic recovery tend to define some of the critical issues in the development of post‐conflict societies. At present in Afghanistan, the rehabilitation work supported by donors focuses on isolated and fragmented project‐based activities which fail to address the whole picture from a programmatic and developmental perspective. There is an increasing dependence on international expertise that undermines the possibility of local capacity and human resource development.
In past years, most of the external financing has supported the urgent physical rehabilitation of basic infrastructure and services on project‐by‐project basis in various sectors. In a country where about 80 percent of the physical infrastructure has been damaged, choices of rehabilitation investments cannot be made only with reference to
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the physical infrastructure without taking into consideration social, economic and institutional ramifications of investments. The overwhelming reconstruction requirements in all sectors across the nation and the paucity of reliable estimates on the damage and reconstruction needs make choices of rehabilitation projects either a matter of preference on the part of financing parties and government functionaries or a “leap of faith”.
It is of a long‐term challenge for the Afghan government to enunciate a coherent strategy that links reconstruction with socio‐economic recovery, taking in view the broader public interest. However, in the medium term (3‐5 years), international donors can support rehabilitation activities within the context of a medium‐term framework of sustainable development by taking into account institutional issues and supporting capacity building measures in counterpart institutions and targeted community and civil society groups.
The proposed strategy for Urgent Rehabilitation Support Programme in Kandahar is based upon the preliminary needs assessment by the mission regarding institutional aspects for reconstruction and development in different sectors. The assessment has especially focused on institutional constraints to rehabilitation projects and the requirements for capacity building at local level. In view of the assessment, the primary focus of the strategy is to define the counterpart local government institutions and especially the user groups and community associations that should be supported for the capacity building, in order to ensure that the local parties have a direct stake in rehabilitation activities and that there are human and financial resources for the operations and maintenance of rehabilitated facilities.
Creating employment opportunities is a critical dimension of the ongoing reconstruction process needed to maintain peace and stability in Afghanistan. New employment opportunities are critical to reduce the high levels of poverty, to restore a sense of normalcy and peace, and to support social and economic inclusion of vulnerable groups, especially women. In rebuilding Afghanistan, women need access to basic services and new forms of economic and political opportunities to re‐enter public life. International experience shows that women’s inclusion in development process tends to increase transparency, minimize corruption, and increase social responsiveness. Also, countries with smaller gender gap between men and women have lower rates of child malnutrition and mortality. Integration of gender within the process of reconstruction is difficult but necessary to provide opportunities to a large group of vulnerable women including woman‐headed households.
Demand driven, community‐based initiatives should be supported as these initiatives are necessary for strengthening local governance and achieving tangible results in communities across a variety of sectors to be prioritised by the communities themselves. The exact form of institutional arrangements and support for capacity
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building will depend upon assessing the capacity of community institutions‐ including Shuras and Jirgas‐ and seeking policy decisions on institutional framework for local government bodies and their linkages with provincial departments.
The formal infrastructure sector in Afghanistan is largely owned and operated through centralised ministries in Kabul, with some operational functions delegated to the provincial level. Most of the central ministries and provincial departments in charge of infrastructure lack the resources and qualified personnel to perform a role as centralised agencies for infrastructure operation and maintenance. The centralised development and management of infrastructure is a major constraint of the efficiency and economies of scale in the provision of basic services at local level. Consequently, the reach of formal services is very limited.
In the urban water supply and sanitation sectors, there is considerable amount of private participation in service delivery mainly through communities and Non‐Governmental Organizations (NGOs). In rural areas, NGOs and communities are the core providers of infrastructure and services. In the medium and long‐terms, communities and local government institutions are going to be the key players in the maintenance, operations, and utilization of rehabilitated infrastructure and services. The proposed strategy therefore will support community‐based decentralised approaches to improve and expand the delivery of infrastructure and services. This would entail designing and implementing rehabilitation activities in tandem with the capacity development of appropriate formal and informal institutions.
Physical, human, and institutional dimensions of post conflict recovery are interrelated. Therefore, rehabilitation activities must be integrated both in individual sectors and across sectors as well as take into account crosscutting issues. It is important to integrate a number of sectors within the URSP, for instance, school rehabilitation with provision of health and sanitation facilities. It is also important to provide support to make the rehabilitated facilities as fully functional as possible in order to ensure the return on investments and enhance the delivery of basic services.
The URSP strategy is primarily meant to support development of a strong framework for local governance and community mobilisation that will be essential for harnessing the social capital needed to improve living conditions of the majority of Afghans. It argues for a balance between quickly acting on the rehabilitation agenda and ensuring that rehabilitation and reconstruction does not overwhelm the medium and long term development objectives that will help build institutions and systems of governance and allow people a voice in political decision‐making and enhance their capacity for local action.
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The key elements of the URSP strategy include:
(1) Local Ownership of rehabilitation and reconstruction process; (2) Local government capacity building; (3) Supporting formation and capacity development of partnership arrangements
between local government institutions and community groups; (4) Demand‐based, community‐driven rehabilitation activities wherever feasible; (5) Gender and equity needs to be embodied in all activities; (6) Sectoral focus to enhance multiplier effects of projects within a sector; (7) Integrating inter‐sectoral linkages in the design of rehabilitation activities; (8) Rehabilitation and development in all sectors must accompany capacity building
of local government and community organizations; (9) Ensuring financing for operations and maintenance of rehabilitated facilities; and (10) Ensuring maximum utilization of rehabilitated activities.
The URSP strategy entails an integration of physical rehabilitation with institutional capacity building measures in order to enhance the prospects of local ownership, and utilization, operations, and maintenance of rehabilitated infrastructure and services. The overall institutional framework for capacity building at community/local, municipal, and provincial levels, is presented below:
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Table 5.1 URSP Institutional Framework for Local and Provincial Capacity Building
INFRASTRUCTURE AND SERVICE PROVISION ROLES
LOCAL PLANNING PROCESS
IMPLEMENTATION AND MANAGEMENT
BROADER LOCAL GOVERNANCE: INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Communities/ Local Government
• Entry and base of local planning process: Identification of needs and priorities
• Approval of “community menu” proposals Forwarding others to Districts and dialogue with Districts on these proposals
• Involvement in deciding details of all approved proposals
• “Client” role in implementing village and some district menu investments:
(a) Subcontract or agreement with NGOs/ private sector
(b) Direct implementation by village/community agency
• Management and maintenance of village investments, with own labour and funds
• Management of all intra‐village economic activities
• Management of natural resources, dispute resolution, etc
• Providing representation to ad hoc inter‐village and inter‐community interest bodies to manage inter‐village resources, etc
• Representatives to a District Development Committee which coordinates and monitors local planning process
Kandahar Municipality
• Support to local planning process (facilitation, teaching options, costing)
• Appraisal/approval of proposals from which are on “District menu”, within District budget/grant ceiling
• Securing line dept. budgets or staff
• Coordinating plans with provincial departments
• Dialogue with villages and Provinces
• Support for implementation of some types of large investments
• Client role in implementing inter‐district investments
• Management and maintenance of District investments
• Monitoring District investments
• Informal District Development Committee to oversee district administration and ensure full participation of communities in planning and implementation
• Management and regulation of inter‐local natural resources, dispute resolution, etc;
• Representation in ad hoc inter‐district interest bodies
Provincial Departments
• Support to community and district planning process (facilitation, teaching options, costing)
• Securing line dept. budget or staff
• Coordination with other departments and facilitation of central level approvals
• Support for local resource mobilization
• Support to district level institutions
• Management and maintenance of Provincial investments
• Inter‐district consultative body to advise provincial administration
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5.3 Donor Coordination
Prior to the fall of the Taliban, international assistance to Afghanistan averaged about $ 300‐400 million annually for several years and had gone mostly to humanitarian purposes, much of it in the form of food aid and other in‐kind assistance. Since the Bonn Accord and the Tokyo conference, international assistance has increased to approximately $ 900 million during the past year. About 44 percent of this assistance has been devoted to humanitarian purposes and approximately 29 percent to reconstruction and rehabilitation activities. The rest of the assistance has been taken up by donor coordination and support to the recurrent budget. Although it is difficult to make a strict distinction between humanitarian and development assistance, key development sectors like education, health, and infrastructure account for only a small proportion of the total assistance.
Approximately 90 percent of the international assistance has been channelled through NGOs that raises serious problems of aid coordination and building local capacity. International NGOs operate with a fair degree of independence and monitoring by the government. There have been some improvements in NGO coordination in the field through sector strategizing and programming among some international NGOs, particularly in the case of rural water supply. The Agency Coordinating Body for Afghan Refugees (ACBAR) has assumed so far to act as coordination body for NGOs but curtailed its activities due to lack of funding. As a result, delivery of the aid through NGOs remains highly fragmented. There are cases of duplication and “crowding” on the part of NGOs and UN agencies in response to demands of donors. The lack of effective coordination of NGOs negatively impacts upon a balanced distribution of donor assistance in response to the needs of different parts of the country. Security conditions often do not allow aid operations in parts of rural Afghanistan. In addition, NGOs and donors have the tendency to concentrate in few urban areas like Kabul and Kandahar.
Donor coordination at the central level is the responsibility of the Afghan Agency for Coordination of Assistance (AACA), which is directly under the Chairman of the ATA. AACA closely coordinates with the Ministry of Finance and other ministries in Kabul in the allocation of resources to different sectors. Outside Kabul, aid coordination occurs at different levels, such that in Pakistan most agency country offices are located, and the headquarters of donor institutions. This complicates decision‐making and raises the overhead costs. According to AACA, the cost of donor coordination for the past year amounts to about $ 50 million. The exorbitant cost is a reflection of the high labour and capital intensity of aid coordination in Afghanistan.
The system of coordination at the regional and provincial levels in Kandahar city is highly fragmented. The coordination takes place through the UN Regional Coordinator, SWABAC, the Office of the Governor, different provincial departments,
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and the Kandahar municipality. The coordination, however, is quite informal and personalized, especially among the provincial departments and the Kandahar municipality. The choice of rehabilitation activities is much influenced by the personal preferences of government authorities. There is no transparency in the coordination process, and more often than not, one donor is vying for the same projects.
In the URSP‐KDH, JICA should work closely with the Office of the Governor and other concerned departments and insist on clear procedures for communications with respect to design and implementation of its activities. There is also an urgent need to provide assistance to the Offices of the Governor and the mayor for the formulation of streamlined, consistent, and transparent procedures for the selection and approval of projects.
5.4 Efficient Logistical Arrangement
It is necessary to respond properly to quickly changing needs with utmost flexibility. Rehabilitation needs tend to change frequently in post‐conflict situation on a day‐by‐day basis. Flexible response is significant to meet changeable needs. A scheme of “emergency development study” seems to be insufficient to respond flexibly to the changeable needs in Afghanistan. Conventional procedures for approval are too time‐consuming to quickly respond to the immediate needs. JICA might have to consider giving more autonomy including budgetary matters to consultants as an implementation body.
On the other hand, the request‐based assistance takes a long time to implementation from project formulation. It is difficult to respond to the changeable needs of the post‐conflict situation. In addition, it is difficult to say that the government always acts in the best interest of the Afghan people. JICA might have to reconsider the procedures for request‐based assistance.
In terms of geographical area, there are huge rehabilitation and development needs at the rural areas rather than the urban area such as Kandahar city. According to the discussion with the local government, UN agencies and NGOs, and the one‐day stakeholder meeting in December 2002, they argued that JICA should support projects not only at Kandahar city but also the rural areas. Also, they recommended that it is useful for JICA to conduct support projects and programmes through international and local NGOs, which have a number of experience at the rural areas. Thus, the Study Team strongly recommends that JICA should reconsider the restriction of implementation area as within 30km from the city.
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