george rickey’s life in motion · artistic legacy. innovations features five outdoor rickey...

George Rickey’s Life in Motion

George Rickey’s Life in Motion

I was snatched from South Bend at the age of six in 1913, and it was Notre Dame that brought me back.

—GeorgeRickey,July4,1996

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ThisspreadandthefollowingtwospreadsshowsculpturesinaforestedmeadowattheGeorgeRickeyWorkshop,EastChatham,NewYork,1999

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I tried to keep my mind on movement itself,

pushing gently on to try to find what was possible and discovering,

with each new idea, how near the beginning I still was.

—GeorgeRickey

Acknowledgments

BeginningtheJourney

EarlyExplorationandDiscovery

ExpandingthePossibilitiesofSculpturalMotion

Kineticismandthe1960s

CultivatingtheArtisticProcess

ExperiencingRickey’sSculptures

Illustrations,includingtheGeorgeRickeySculptureArchiveatNotreDame

EndnotesandBibliography

PhotoCreditsandColophon

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Contents

TheSniteMuseumofArttakesgreatpleasureinpublishingitsGeorge Rickey Sculpture Archiveontheoccasionoftwo2009events:theopeningofthe Innovations: George Rickey Kinetic Sculpture exhibitionsinnearbySouthBendandtheconcurrentAbstraction in the Public Sphere: New Approaches symposiumattheUniversityofNotreDame,organizedtocelebrateRickey’sartisticlegacy.

Innovations featuresfiveoutdoorRickeysculpturesinstalledondowntownSouthBendsidewalksandplazas,andindoorandoutdoorexhibitionsattheSouthBendMuseumofArt.TheexhibitionsaretheresultofmodelcollaborationbetweenPhilipRickey,president,GeorgeRickeyFoundation;RoseMeissner,president,CommunityFoundationofSt.JosephCounty;SusanVisser,director,SouthBendMuseumofArt;theSniteMuseumofArt,and1stSourceBank.PhilipRickeygenerouslydevotedhistimeandtheresourcesoftheGeorgeRickeyWorkshoptomaketheseexhibitionsinGeorgeRickey’sbirthplacepossible.Asistypicalofhim,Philipwasenthusiastic,gracious,andinvolvedinmanyaspects,largeandsmall,oftheexhibitionsandsymposium.Similarly,MeissnerandVisserlaboredtirelesslyandingoodhumortomaketheSouthBendexhibitionspossible.Thisprojectisjustthemostrecentexampleoftheirprofounddedicationtotheartsinourcommunity—whichwouldbesorelyimpoverishedwithoutthem.

Similarly,NotreDamefacultymembersErikaDoss,chair,AmericanStudies,andElyseSpeaks,arthistory,cheerfullysharedexpertiseandenergyinorganizingtheRickeysymposium,asdidtheindefatigableHarrietBaldwin,associateprofessionalspecialist,CollegeofArtsandLetters.

TheSouthBendexhibitionscomplementtheSniteMuseum’spermanentexhibitionofitsGeorge Rickey Sculpture Archive,whichincludesoneoutdoorsculptureandnineteenindoorsculpturesthatarepromisedgiftsoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation.TheFoundationwillalsoonedayplaceRickey’sprofessionalandscholarlypapersattheUniversityofNotreDameArchives.Rickeyarchivematerialincludesbusinesscorrespondencewithclients,museumsandgalleries;engineeringdrawingsandspecifications;photographs,videosandfilmsofRickey’ssculptures;aswellasacomputerdatabaseofsculpturescreatedbyRickey.PublishedworksincludeessayswrittenbyGeorgeRickeyonvarioustopics,includingthemanuscriptforhis,Constructivism: Origins and Evolution,andessayswrittenonGeorgeRickeybyotherauthors.

ThiscatalogfeaturesafineessaybyShannonKephart,researchedandwrittenwhenshewasaNotreDamegraduateintern.Kephartwasanidealcuratorialassistant;shewasself-directed,energetic,opentosuggestions,andheressayaddsnewinsightsintoRickey.SarahTremblayGauleymasterfullyeditedtheessays;MuseumphotographeranddigitalarchivistEricNislypreparedmanyoftheimages;andMichaelSwobodaimaginativelydesignedthecatalog,aswellasprovidedhandsomephotographs.TheHumanaFoundationEndowmentforAmericanArtfundedprintingcosts.

Inclosing,Ireflectononeofthegreatestrewardsofmywork:theopportunitytomeetsomeofournation’sfinestartists.IhadthepleasureofworkingwithGeorgeRickeyonseveralprojectsduringthelastdecadeofhislife,whenhewasalwaysagracioushost,andanaturalteacher,attheGeorgeRickeyWorkshop.IwillneverforgetthevisualdelightofapproachingtheWorkshopbyroad.Visitorsweretreatedtorolling,forestedhillspopulatedbyGeorge’skineticsculpturesthatmovedslowlyandsilently,occasionallyflashingreflectedsunlight.WhiletheseworksonceseeninupstateNewYorkarenolongerthere,Rickey’suniqueartisticlegacyishiskineticsculpturesthatremainconstantlyinmotionaroundtheworld,activatedbyindooraircurrentsoroutdoorsbythewhimsofthewind.Intheirgracefultrajectories,thesehypnoticsculpturesrevealtheplayofnaturalforcesandlightuponartworksthatutilizephysicstocontrolthetimeandlimitsoftheirmotion.

Theyare,indeed,poetryinmotion:onceelegiactotemstothepassageoftime;nowalsomarkersofthetimetheirmakerpassedinourmidst.

— CharlesR.Loving

Director and Curator, George Rickey Sculpture Archive

ACknowledgments

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Onacalmdayorinsideagallery,aviewerunfamiliarwiththeworkofGeorgeRickeymayatfirstpassoneofhissculptureswithoutdetectingitskineticpotential.However,attheslightestshiftofwindoraircurrent,witnessingitssubtlemovementisascaptivatingforthenoviceasitremainsfortheveteran.ThismotiondisplaysRickey’srefinedsleightofhandandintricateconstructiontechniques,andholdsthekeytothemagnificenceofhisworks.

Throughouthislife,RickeytraveledextensivelybetweenEuropeandAmerica.Hisitinerantlifestyleexemplifiedacareerthatcontinuouslyinvestigatedanddiscovereddifferentwaystoexhibitmotion.Rickeyventuredfromplacetoplacejustasheworkedtoperfecthisaestheticlanguageofmotion.Theseexploratoryjourneys—bothhisphysicaltravelsandhisartisticinvestigationsofmovement—paralleledthemanyrolesthatRickeywouldplaythroughouthislifetime,asanartist,teacher,father,critic,historian,mentor,andinnovator.

In“TheMorphologyofMovement:AStudyofKineticArt,”anarticlethatRickeywrotein1963forArt Journal,heoutlinesthesources,principles,trends,anddifficultiesofkineticart—thatis,artwithmechanicalpartsthatcanbesetinmotion.Alongsidethisgenealogy,hehintsathisownpursuitsandinspirationswithinthenascentfieldofkineticart.1Thearticleincludesalinedrawingofasailboatdemonstratingseveralclassicshipmovements:pitch,roll,fall,rise,yaw,andsheer(illustration at right).Summarilyoutliningthesails,mast,andhullinaviewofeachmovement,Rickeyreducestheshiptoitsfundamentalparts.Acarefullyplacedhorizonlinemarksthesailboat’spitchandrollinthewindanditsriseandfallonthewaves.Twomovements,“yaw”and“sheer,”areshownfromabove,withadottedoutlinesuggestingthediagonalshiftofthehull.Thisstudyofasailboat’sactionsonwaterproposesnatureasasourceformovementandtracestheartist’squesttoformalizealanguageofmotionbacktohischildhood,whenheoftensetsailonthefamily’scutteralongtheriverClydeandupthewestcoastofScotland.2

Rickey’sdrawingrecallstheexperienceofviewingasailboatfromadistance,watchingitsforcefulmovementslulledtoacalmasthecrashingwavesarehushed.Theartistfreezesthefluid,continualrockingoftheboatintodistinctmomentsandsimplifiesitsdramaticswayintoafewleanwords.Turbulentmovementsbecomesubtleandcontrolled.Designedwithapparatussuchaskeels,rudders,andrigging,sailboatsutilizetheforcesofnatureformovementbutresistbeingovercomebythem.Similarly,Rickeyengineersartworksthatemploythesesameforcesformovementbutareequippedwithcontrolstocountertheirpotentialviolence.Thisconciliation

betweentheunpredictablepowerofnatureandcontroloverthemovementitgeneratesdefinesRickey’ssculptures.Inhis1963article,hediscussesthisrelationshipwithnature,whichbecamethedrivingforceofhisartworks:“Forthekineticartist...natureisomnipresentandisalwaysnudginghiselbow.Forhim,itissourcebook,example,competitor,analogy,tyrant,seducer,andalsoinexorableadversary.” 3

ThetypologyofmotionbasedonthemodelofasailboathelpedRickeybuildanunderstandingofmovementandprovidedasmallreservethatofferedunendingopportunityforre-creationinhiswork.Hedescribesthepossibilitiesthatjustafewmovementsprovideinhisstatement,“Fewthoughthey[basicmovements]be,theyofferthemselves,justasvisiblecolorsdo,foranalmostinfiniterangeofvariation,permutation,andcombination.”4ThedesiretodiscoveranddisplaymovementmappedGeorgeRickey’slife,boththroughhistravelsandinhisartisticpursuits,captivatinghismindandilluminatinghissculptures.

Rickey’sartisticmethodofcapturingmotioninterlacedengineeringwithnature,combininginfluencesthatcanbetracedbacktohisearlyyearsasthesonofanMIT-educatedengineerandthegrandsonofaclockmaker,livinginScotlandincloseproximitytotheconstantwaves,currents,andtidesoftheocean.AllofGeorge’sgrandparentsgrewupinNewEnglandanddescendedfromalineofYankeeswhocamefromEnglandintheseventeenthcentury.HismaternalgrandfatherwasalawyerandthenajudgefortheNewYorkStateSupremeCourt.Hismaternalgrandmothertaughtdrawingatagirls’schoolinSchenectady,NewYork,formanyyears.Hismother,GraceRickey,graduatedfromSmithCollegeandinstilledinGeorgeandhissiblingsapassionforreading,writing,andthearts.WalterRickey,George’sfather,workedasamechanicalengineerforSingerSewingCorporationinSchenectadyand,in1904,wastransferredtoSouthBend,Indiana.5There,GeorgewasbornonJune6,1907,thethirdofsixchildrenandtheonlyson.Whenhewasfiveyearsold,hisfatheracceptedanothertransferwithinthecompanythattookthefamilyfromtheMidwesttoHelensburgh,Scotland,acoastaltownwheremanyindustrialworkersfromGlasgowlivedandwhereGeorgeRickeywouldspendhisformativeyears.OnthewaytoScotland,GeorgespentafewmonthsinAthol,Massachusetts,withhispaternalgrandfather,aclockmakerwholaterlivedwiththefamilyattheirhomeinScotland.Fascinatedbythemechanicalpartsoftheseintricateclocks,youngGeorgewouldspendhourstakingthemapartandtryingtoputthembacktogether.6

Beginning the Journey

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pitch

ship movements

roll fall

rise

yaw sheer

Thisinitialtransatlantictrip,fromIndianatoScotland,presagedajourneythatGeorgeRickeywouldtakemanytimes.BothshortlybeforeandduringcollegehesailedacrosstheAtlantic,andthroughouthiscareerhefrequentlytraveledbetweentheUnitedStatesandEurope,withconsiderablestaysinParisandmanysummersinBerlin.Witheachnewvoyage,thememoryofhisencounterwiththewindontheriverClyderesonated.Heoncedescribedhowcaptivatingaforcethewindcanbetoanartist:“Theartistfindswaitingforhim,assubject,notthetrees,nottheflowers,notthelandscape,butthewavingofbranchesandthetremblingofstems,thepilinguporscuddingofclouds,therisingandsettingandwaxingandwaningofheavenlybodies.” 7Hisowndesiretodisplaymotionand“makethewindvisible”encouragedRickeytodiscoveradifferentformofmovementwitheachtripandtouncoverafreshaspectofnaturewitheachnewplace.Absorbedinthenaturalswayofashipinthewind,butfascinatedbyanengineer’sdesiretounderstandhowthingswork,hecultivatedarelationshipbetweennatureandengineeringthatwouldbecomethesourcematerialforhisart.

Rickey’spreoccupationwithshipsisseeninhisearlyexperimentationwithsculpture.Inthemid-fiftiesheconstructedaseriesofelevenincreasinglycomplexships.Eachsitsonabase,withthesails,mast,andhullisolatedabove,andvariesinheightfromeightinchestofourfeet.8Theseworksrepresenttheartist’sfirstuseofagimbal,adeviceusedaboardshipstoallownavigationtoolsandkitchenequipmenttoremainuprightastheshippitchesandrolls.InRickey’ssculptures,thistechnologyisreversed:astablebaseallowstheshiptorockfreelybackandforth.9Flatplanesofimperfectlyfinishedbrassorstainlesssteelcutintogeometricshapes—sometimeslightlyandcrisplyscored—formsegmentedsails,whosefluttersuggestswind-drivenmovement.Intheseandotherearlysculpturalworks,Rickeyexperimentedwithbrassforitssoftmalleabilityandrichcolor.Thisallowedhimtoachieveexacteffectsinasoftmetalbeforemovingtotheharderandlesspliablematerialofstainlesssteel.

Inthefirstsculptureofthisseries,Ship I(fig.1),from1954,thecentralsailisdividedverticallyintothreesegments.Athinsteelframeoutlineseachoneandcontinuesintothehull,wherethecounterweightandgimbalarelocated.Aforcefulbreezecanactivatethepitchandrolloftheship,andwiththisshiftofthehullthesailsalsoturn.InRickey’slaterships,theweightandgimbalareseparated;thegimbalstillformspartofthehullbutthecounterweightsitsbeloworbesidethehull.Theseworksareamongtheearliestexamplesoftheartist’spracticeofcombiningengineeringtechniqueswithnaturalforcestoachievehissignaturedelicatemovement.

Figure2, Three Vertical Two Horizontal Lines (Pivoting), 1966

Figure1,The Ship,1954

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Followinginhisfatherandgrandfather’sfootsteps,Rickeyhadinitiallyreceivedtraininginmathandsciencetobecomeanengineer.Hewasthereforefamiliarwithmechanicalapparatusandunderstoodtherelationshipbetweenform,movement,andfunction:amachine’sformisbuilttoexecuteaspecificmotion,andthismotionconductsitsfunction.In1964hedescribed,“Mytechniqueisborrowedfromcraftsandindustry.Ithasmoreincommonwithclocksthansculpture.”10Hisdescriptionofshipmovementsin“TheMorphologyofMovement”precedesalistingofmechanicalpartssuchasthewheel,pendulum,andpistonandtheiruseinvariousmachines.However,thearticlegoesontocriticizethepredictable,stagnantmotionoftheseapparatus.ForRickey,therepetitivemovementthatresultsfromtheexecutionofamechanicalfunctiondistinguishespracticalmachinesfromhiskineticartworks.Activatedbynaturalforces,Rickey’sworksremainsubjecttochance—anelementthatisvitaltohisart.Althoughherecognizedtheessentialrelationshipthatallowsaformtoproduceadesiredtypeofmotion,heleftfunctionoutoftheformula.Thushissculpturesremovethefunctionfrom,forexample,hisfather’ssewingneedleorhisgrandfather’sclockpendulumandallowthesesameslenderformstoworktowardothermeans.Experimentingwithweightsandbearings,Rickeycreatedobjectsthatmoveassubtlyasthetickofaclockbutwiththegraceofswayingbranchesandfallingleaves—anorganictypeofmovementthathesoughtfromthebeginningoftheirdesign.

InThree Vertical Two Horizontal Lines (Pivoting) (fig.2),from1966,fivethinlinesmadeofstainlesssteel,slightlythickeratoneendthantheother,resemblesewingneedles.Attachedtothebaseateachneedle’seye,theyrotatearoundacentraljoint.Limitationsplacedontheirmovementensurethat,atanymoment,threebladesremainpointingverticallyandtworoughlyhorizontally.Thethinstructureofthebaseechoesthecirclingpartsandliftstheneedlesintotheair,wheretheyremainfreetodriftandfollowtheslightestbreeze.Inalaterwork,Two Vertical Two Horizontal Lines (fig.3),from1974,Rickeycontinuedtoplaywithlimitedmovementwithintheverticalandhorizontaldirections.Fourbladesarepostedatthecornersofaflat,squareplanethatistiltedtohangasadiamond.Eachofthesependulumspointstowardoppositecornersofthebase,tracingitsformwiththeirpathsofgentlemotionastheaircurrentsshift.Thelinespassoverthecenteratanintricatecrossingthatchangesuniquelywitheveryslightmovement;intervalsofchanceturnthisclock’shands.Inbothworks,linesweaveinandoutofoneanotherandjointssewasecurelinkthatenablesthedelicatemotionofthesculptures’parts—motioninwhichnosequencerepeatsoverthelifeofthesculpture.

Figure3,Two Vertical Two Horizontal Lines,1974

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In1926RickeyleftHelensburghforBalliolCollegeinOxford,England.HedecidedonahistorymajorandattendedclassesatthenearbyRuskinSchoolofDrawingintheAshmoleanMuseumofArtandArchaeology.Hisliberalartseducationlatercomplementedhisartisticcareerwhenhebecameanactiveartcriticandhistorian,composingahistoryofConstructivismandcontributingculturalessaysandartcriticismtonumerouspublications.Rickeywouldalsogoontoteacharthistorycoursesatseveralcolleges,andhisowneducationinfluencedhisteachingstyle,leadinghimtorecognizethecriticalroleofarthistoryinpreparingstudioartanddesigncourses.11

AftergraduatingfromBalliolin1929,RickeyspentayearinParispursuingacareerasanartist,whilesupportinghimselfbyteachingEnglishattheGardinerSchool.Withinthisshorttime,anencounterwithStanleyWilliamHayter,studiesunderAndréLhoteattheAcadémieLhote,andpaintingcourseswithFernandLégerandAmédéeOzenfantattheAcadémieModernelaidafoundationforbothhislaterkineticsculptureandtheimportanceofwritingtohiscareer.First,hisconceptionsofspatialconventioninpaintingwerebrokenopenwhen,uponarriving,hewasintroducedtotheBritishpainterandprintmakerStanleyWilliamHayter.InHayter’sSurrealistartwork,Rickeysaw“arevelation...apaintingdidnothavetobeverticalandhaveatopandabottomandaleftandaright.” 12Thisnewwayofthinkingintroducedthenecessityofgoingoutsidetheflatcanvastoexpresssomesubjects.ForRickey,conveyingmovementwouldrequirefourdimensions,orworkinginkineticsculpture.

AttheAcadémieLhote,RickeymettheprominentFrenchpainterandsculptorAndréLhote,whowasalsoanartcriticinearlytwentieth-centuryParis.Lhotereveredtheso-calledtraditionalsubjectsofnature,landscape,andthenude,buttothemheappliedthenewgeometricaestheticofCubismtoachievecompositionsthatsuggestedmotion.StudyingpaintingunderLhote,Rickeylearnedthis“grammarofcubism”thatwas,atthetime,prevalentinartisticcirclesalloverWesternEurope.13Itprovidedhimwithanavenuetocombinehisinterestsindrawingandthesubtletiesofnaturewithamachineaestheticthatrecalledhisadolescentexposuretoengineering.Further,Lhote’semphasisontheoryencouragedRickey’sinterestinhistory.AftertheAcadémieLhote,RickeybrieflyenrolledinpaintingcoursesattheAcadémieModerne,whereFernandLégerimploredhimtobeginbydrawingfromnatureandnottopracticeonlytheprevailingcontemporaryaesthetic.Thus,inParis,achallengetoartisticboundarieswascomplementedbyexposuretoamethodrichinwritingandhistory.Rickeydevelopedthebeginningsofanaestheticandcriticaltheorythattwentyyearslaterwoulddominatehisartisticcareerandteachingphilosophy.

In1930RickeyleftParisandreturnedtotheUnitedStatestoacceptapositionteachingEnglishandEuropeanhistoryattheGrotonSchool,aboardingschoolwestofBoston,wherehecontinuedtopaint,oftenportraits.HetraveledbrieflytoHeidelberg,Germany,andthentoEngland,wherehemethisfirstwife,SusanLuhrs.In1933RickeylefttheGrotonSchoolandmovedtoNewYorkCity,whereheandLuhrsweremarried.HethenreturnedshortlytoParisandtraveledthroughFranceandSpain.OnthisstayinFrance,heinvestigatedthesoftfragmentationofCézanne’sfloatinglandscapes.Cézanne’slighteningoftheCubists’hardlinesandheavygeometrywouldlaterbereflectedinthesubtlemotionofRickey’skineticsculptures.

In1934theartistreturnedtoNewYorkCity,wherehemaintainedastudioforseveralyearsandworkedbrieflyasacopyeditorforNewsweek.Hecontinuedpainting,completingportraits,stilllifes,andlandscapesinthemannerofCézanne.In1937heacceptedthefirstofseveralartist-in-residencepositionsthatwouldtakehimthroughouttheMidwest.HetraveledfromOlivetCollegeinOlivet,Michigan,totheKalamazooInstituteofArtinKalamazoo,Michigan,andthentoKnoxCollegeinGalesburg,Illinois.Duringthistime,hecompletedseveralmuralpaintingsatthesecollegesandotherlocations,includinghisSusquehannaCountryside,from1938,inthepostofficeinSelinsgrove,Pennsylvania.14RenderedinthestyleofSocialRealism,thesemuralssoughttoportraytheharshrealitiesofworking-classlivingandworkingconditions,aswellastheimpactoffactoryworkandindustryontheurbanenvironment.TheywereinspiredinpartbythefarmsubjectsofGrantWoodandJohnSteuartCurryandthepaintingsoftheMexicanmuralists.SeveraltripstoMexico,wheremuralpaintinghadbecomeaninstigatorofpoliticalchange,fosteredRickey’sinterestinthisartform.15AfteradivorcefromSusanLuhrsin1939,RickeyspentthewinterabsorbedinthewritingsofFrankLloydWrightontheshoresofLakeMichigan.DuringthesefewyearsintheMidwest,hisexperienceinmuralpaintingencouragedhimtoexperimentwithlargecompositions,whilethevernacularcharacterofSocialRealism,thefarmsubjectsofWoodandCurry,andthewritingsofWrightfurtheredhisinterestinnature.

In1941RickeyreceivedhisMasterofArtsdegreeinmodernhistoryfromBalliolCollege.Thatsameyear,heacceptedapositiontosetupanartandarthistorydepartmentatMuhlenbergCollegeinAllentown,Pennsylvania.AtMuhlenberg,aninterestinBauhausteachingmethodspromptedhimtoorganizeanexhibitionontheartofJosefAlbers,whowasthenteachingatBlackMountainCollegeinNorthCarolina.16TheBauhausschool,foundedin1919bythearchitectWalterGropiusinWeimar,Germany,soughtthemergingofartanddesignand,likewise,theconvergenceof“high”artandthefunctionalcraftof“applied”arts.Itsmethodologypromotedanewformofart—industrialdesign—thatwouldusetechnologyasanexpressionofmoderntimes.Delicateuseofmechanisticmaterialsinartembracedthepervasiverealitiesofindustryandmassproduction,andachievedtheBauhausgoalsoftruthtomaterialsandhigh-qualityproducts.ThesetheoriesandtheirresultantattentiontodesignandbuildingtechniquewouldlaterinformRickey’sownsculptures.

eArly explorAtion And disCovery

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JosefAlbersinvestigatedcolorrelationshipsthroughpaintingsthatplaceddifferentcoloredsquaresnexttoandwithinoneanother.Thesearrangementsdemonstratedtherelativityofcolorsandtheabilityofacolor’ssurroundingstoalteritsappearance,buildingcomplexrelationshipsthroughstraightforwardjuxtapositions.ThehardlinesandexactformsthatAlbersusedbespokeastrictdisciplineofconstruction,andhiscolorstrategyintroducedRickeytoamethodthatresonatedwithhisdevelopingtheoryonmovement.Inalaterinterview,Rickeydescribedthecorrespondencehesawbetweencolorandmovement:

Motion,whichweareallsensitiveto,whichweareallcapableofobservingwithout havingtobetaught,isasensationthatappealstothesensesjustascolordoes.Ithasan equivalentofthespectrum,differentkindsoftypesofmotion.Ithinkthatonecan,toa veryconsiderableextent,isolatemotionasavisualcomponentanddesignwiththat.17

Albers’sinfluencecanbeseeninRickey’sworksfromthelate1950s.In1956thesculptorcomp-letedDiptych: The Seasons (fig.4),oneofseveralworksmadeupofanaccumulationofrectangularshapeswhosesurfacesweredelineatedwithflatfieldsofcolor.Thecolorschemesrepresenttheseasons,withyellows,forexample,asspringandbluesaswinter.Thestructurehangsfromtheceilinginaneleganthorizontalpoiseandismeanttobeviewedfromtwovantagepoints—oneshowingspringandsummer,andtheother,fallandwinter.Thiscontrastheightensthedynamicexperienceofviewingthework.

InlatersculpturesAlbers’sinfluencebecamemoreprominent,asRickeyfocusedontheabstractqualityoftheshapesandcolorrelationshipswithinhisthree-dimensionalcompositions,ratherthantyingthemtosubjectmattersuchastheseasons.Abstraction in 4D (fig.5),from1959,consistsofanasymmetricallybalancedaccumulationofrectilinearshapespartiallypaintedwithfieldsofcolor.Smallcutoutswithineachshapebreakupthesurfacearea;foldedinthereverse

direction,theyopentheplaneandpresentfurthergeometricabstraction.Therelationshipsoftheplanesofcolorswithintheshapesarerevealedastheviewerwalksaroundthesculpture.DuringthisperiodcolorremainedanimportantelementinRickey’swork,butinAbstractionheleftmanyplanesunpainted,featuringthesilverofthemetal.Thischoiceforeshadowshislaterworksthatsolelyuseapolished,stainlesssteelfinish.

In1942RickeywasdraftedintotheWorldWarIIarmy,wherehisserviceasateacherandaircraftmechanicrecalledhisearlytraininginengineering.TheseappointmentstookhimtoMiami,Denver,Brooklyn,andfinallytoLaredo,Texas,in1945.InLaredohesetupastudioandbeganconstructingsculptureswiththesupplyofscrapmetalavailableatthebase,whilealsocontinuingtopaintportraits.HewasreleasedfromservicethesameyearandbrieflyattendedgraduatecoursesinthearthistorydepartmentatNewYorkUniversityundertheGIBill.WhileinNewYorkthistime,hemettheFrenchphilosopherJean-PaulSartre,whowasputtingtogetheranissueofhismagazineLes Temps ModernesfocusingontheUnitedStates.Rickeycontributedanessayentitled“TheMobilityofAmericans”thatdiscussedtheculturalmanifestationsofAmericans’fascinationwithmovement,especiallycarsandtravel.18

RickeythenreturnedtoMuhlenbergCollegeasthechairmanofitsartdepartment.In1947hemarriedEdithLeighton(Edie)atChrist’sChurchinNewYorkCity.Thenextyear,heleftMuhlenbergCollegeandtaughtbrieflyattheUniversityofWashingtonatSeattle.In1948hiscontinuedinterestinthepedagogyoftheBauhausledhimtotheInstituteofDesigninChicago,aschoolestablishedin1937byLászlóMoholy-NagyastheNewBauhaustopromoteBauhausprinciplesintheUnitedStates.RickeytookdesigncoursesattheInstituteforoneyear,becomingfamiliarwiththeworkofNaumGabo,aleadingartistofConstructivismwhoheheardlectureattheInstitute.19

Figure4,Diptych: The Seasons,1956 Figure5,Abstraction in 4D,1959

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In1949,afteralongsummerinEurope,RickeybeganaprofessorshipatIndianaUniversityatBloomington,wherehewouldremainforseveralyears.Afterexperimentingwithmetalinthearmy,itwashere,attheageofforty-two,thathebegantodedicatehiseffortstosculpture.Throughoutthisearlyexperimentation,manyofhisworksexploredsubjectsofnature,includingFish, Waves, Trees, Sedge Themes, Seasons, Water Plants, Nuages (Clouds),Tidals, and Landscapes.20Ineachcase,theartistabstractedhissubjectsbyreducingthemtotheircomponentparts.Hefirstinvestigatedmotionbyconstructinghangingmobiles,andthencreatedintricatestandingstructuresthatconnectedcoloredshapeswithwiresandpivotsthatallowedthemtomove.Rickey’searlierengagementwiththegeometriclanguageoftheCubists,whoseflatcompositionsofbrokenshapeswerefilledwithimpliedmovement,developednaturallyintoastudyofthree-dimensionalmotioninhissculpturalworks.

ItwasintheworkofAlexanderCalder,theinventorofthemobile,thatRickeyfoundamoredelicateapproachtodisplayingsubtlemovement.Calder’sbrandofmotion,whichrecalledtherockingactionofthesea,wasbefittingtoRickey’snaturesubjectsoftheearly1950s,especiallyinseriessuchasFish and Waves.Rickeybegancreatingmobilesfirstinglassandtheninmetal,whichheoftenpainted.Hemasteredcatenarysystemstoachieveformbybalancingweightsonhangingwires.Thismethodrequiredapreciseequilibriumofelementswithinthesculpturetoachieveandmaintaintheshapeofthesubject.Oftenintheseworks,heradiatedwirelinesfromacorewireandcappedthelineswithflatplanesofcolorthatalludedtothefullshape.Alongwirewouldoutlineandcompletetheform.Severalofthesemobilesconsistedofapairoffishthatwerecounterbalancedstructurallyandformally,asinFish (fig.6),from1951.Inthispair,alengthofwireoutlinestheshapeofonefish,whiletheotherconsistsofanaccumulationofflatplaneshangingfromamainwire.

SomeofRickey’smobileshangfromtheceiling;othersaregroundedbythree-legged,indeter-minateforms.Inmanyofthem,thinintertwinedwiresbranchoutfromacentralspine,terminatinginassortedshapesthatserveascounterweights.TheseconstructionsclearlyevidencetheinfluenceofCalder.InFour Last Leaves (fig.7),completedin1952,aslightlycurvedinneraxisformsathinlinethatisinterruptedatvariousintervalsbythetwistofajointwhereotherwiresattach.Minuteflatcirclesattachedtofouroftheelongatedlegsserveasdelicatelyengineeredbalancepoints,lightlyanchoringthestructureandallowingtheslightestaircurrenttosendtheworkcrawlingthroughtheair.

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Figure6, Fish, 1951

Figure7, Four Last Leaves, 1952

In1951Rickeycompletedhismostdramaticsculpturetodate,Silver Plume I (fig.8),aworkthathewouldalterin1961(fig.9).Thispieceisoftencitedasaturningpointinhiscareer,becauseofitsscaleandmasteryofbalance.21Tenfeetabovethesculpture’stripodsupport,onetwelve-foot-longarmreachesouthorizontally.Inthefirstversion,aseriesofshorterandshorterwireshangfromthisarm.Attachedtotheendofeachwireisasmalltriangularplane.Inthelatermodification,ahorizontalsteelbarhangsfromthemainarm;underneaththisfirstbar,twomorehorizontalbarsaresuspendedbyshortwiresindescendingsteps.Inbothversions,theasymmetricalbalanceindicatesRickey’sstructuralmasteryofweightseveninlarge-scaleworks.Thisexperimentationindicatedthathewasmovinginhisownsculpturaldirection,purposelydepartingfromearlierinfluences.Inregardtomotion,hehadbeguntowonder“whetherAlexanderCalderhadsaiditall;whenIfoundhehadnot,IhadtochoosefromthemanydoorsIthenfoundopen.”22AlthoughSilver Plume IIwasmadeofstainlesssteel,Rickeydidnotuseweldingtodevelopitsframework.Hewouldsoon,however,adoptthistechnique,whichbecameessentialtoinvestigatingtheseopendoorsinotherstainlesssteelworks.23

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Figure9, Silver Plume II (altered), 1961Figure8, Silver Plume I, 1951

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MaxwellDavidson,inhismonographofRickey’searlyworks,describestheyear1954as“apivotalyearforGeorgeRickey.Forthefirsttimeheisconfidentlyforgingaheadwithsculpturesanddevicesthatcarryhisuniqueimprimatur.”24Itwasin1954thatDavidSmithcametoIndianaUniversitytoteachforayearasavisitingartist,attherequestofRickey.25DuringtheirtimetogetheratBloomington,SmithbecamethekeystonethatbroughttogethermanyearlierinfluencesandhelpedRickeydevelophisownsignaturestyle.ThetwoartistshadfirstmetatapartyinWoodstock,NewYork,in1937,butitwasinthe1950s—whenSmithlivedinBoltonLanding,NewYork,andRickeyspentasummerteachingatacampinLakePlacid—thattheirfriendshipdeveloped.AtBloomington,SmithgaveRickeyaweldinglessonthataddedanewvarianttohisfabricationtechniques.26HealsoencouragedRickeytobecomemoregenerousinscaleandtoexperimentwithdifferentmaterials,andhereinforcedtheConstructivistprinciplesofsculpturetowhichRickeyhadalreadybeenexposed.27

BothSmith’sandRickey’sworkingtechniquesfollowedthoseoftheRussianConstructivists,whosefocusoncontinualformbuiltupinspacebecamehighlyimportanttotwentieth-centurysculpture.EarlyConstructivists,workingwithintherevolutionaryclimateofCommunistRussiaintheseconddecadeofthetwentiethcentury,brokeawayfromthethen-traditionalmethodsofcastingorcarvingawaymaterialtomakesculpturesandinsteadinvestigatedspacebybuildingupseparateelements.Theseelementsdidnothavetobephysicallyconnected;visualrelationshipscouldbecreatedbetweentwocomponentsofasculpturebyutilizingthenegativespacebetweenthemtoimplyvolume.SomeConstructivistsculpturesincorporatedkinetics,usingmovement—bothliteralandsymbolic—asacallforpoliticalchange.

ForSmith,theinfluenceoftheConstructivistscanbeseeninhisconstructiontechniquesandinhisuseofnegativespacetocompleteforms.SmithfirstcreatedSurrealist-likesculpturesthatusedwireto“draw”inspace.Hethenbeganweldinglargecubesandothergeometricshapesintotowersofstainlesssteel,grindingtheirsurfacestoachieveanindividualfinishthatreflecteditssurroundings.TheanthropomorphicqualityofSmith’slarge,abstractsteelformscoupledwiththeiruniquelypolishedsurfacestorevealtheimportancethatSmithplacedontheindividualartist’sgesture.

RickeyhadfirstbeenexposedtoConstructivismthroughalongtimefriendshipwithNaumGaboandanacquaintancewithAntoinePevsner,twobrotherswhowerepioneersofthestyle.28BothworkedasConstructivistsatthebeginningofthemovement,andGaboincorporatedkineticsinto

46 47

expAnding the possiBil it ies of sCulpturAl motion

Figure10, Planes and Circles, 1957

Figure11, Triads, 1958

48 49

hissculpture.TogetherthebrotherswrotetheRealistic Manifesto,whichoutlinedtheiraims.Inthisseminaltext,theyaffirmedtheconstructionprinciplesofthemovement:“Spaceandtimearetheonlyformsonwhichlifeisbuiltandhenceartmustbeconstructed.”29Further,theyclaimedthattheirartwasanessentialembodimentofmoderntimes:“Weaffirmintheseartsanewelementthekineticrhythmsasthebasicformsofourperceptionofrealtime.” 30In1967RickeywouldpublishahistoryofConstructivism,Constructivism: Origins and Evolutions,which,likemuchofhisotherwriting,providedanastutehistoricalanalysiswhileofferinginsightintohisartisticinspirations. 31Asthe1950sprogressed,hismannerofbuildingupforminhissculptures,aswellashisintegrationofreflectivelightandmovement,showedanaffinitywiththeengineeringprinciplesandaestheticconcernsoftheConstructivists.

MovingawayfromhisearlierCalderesquemobiles,Planes and Circles(fig.10),from1957,demonstratestheadditivemannerinwhichConstructivistsculpturesbuiltform.Wirecirclescappedwithflat,rectangular,polychromestainlesssteelplanessitonseveralparallelwiresthatfittightlytogetherandcompletethetopedgeofasquareframe.Thecirclesaresecuredtothesquarebyapendulumthatswingsonapairofbearings.Theplanes,attachedtangentiallytothewirecircles,leavethecirclesunbalancedandprompttheirpivotingmotion.Asthecirclesrotate,theplanesemphasizetheirmovement.Rickeyconstructedforminthespacewithintheoutlineofthecoresquareandthewirecirclesand,further,throughthecoloredrectangularplanesthatcreateacircularvolumeastheytraceapathofmotion.32

Triads(fig.11),completedin1958,isawall-mountedsculpturethatrockstoandfrointhewind.Itsform,punctuatedbythreesetsofcircularframeslocatedintheupper,middle,andlowerregions,recallsaspiralcrankingmotion.Agimbalsituatedinthemiddleneartheperpendicularwallmountallowsthesculpturetoswingwiththeaircurrent,whilethesoliddisksattopandthehollowcirclesatbottomalsorotatewhentheverticalbalanceisdisrupted.Theimpliedvolumeofthesecirclingparts,andtherepetitionoftheirroundshapeatthetop,center,andbottomofthesculpture,suggestacylinder—ashapethatisoutlinedbythewiresstretchingbetweentheendsofthesculpture.Rickey’seconomicaluseofstainlesssteelishighlightedbythethinnessofthemetalcirclesanddelicacyofthewires.

Rickeyspentmuchofthe1950sdevelopinghissculpturalform,experimentingwithnewmechanicaldevices,andcultivatingtheintersectionofmovementwithform.Hewasstillusingcolor,butthiselementquicklysubsidedashefocusedmoreheavilyonconstructingshapesanddifferenttypesofmovement.Duringthisdecade,healsodevelopedhisacademicandwritingcareerbycomposingmanypublicationsthatexaminedmovementwithincontemporaryculture

50

andart,specificallysculpture.Histextsdiscussedabroadrangeofart-relatedtopics,includingtheroleofartandhowitfunctioned,howitshouldbepresentedinapublicarena,andarteducation.Rickey’sfirstsoloexhibitionofsculpturewasattheJohnHerronArtInstituteinIndianapolis,in1953.33Thatsameyear,GeorgeandEdie’sfirstson,Stuart,wasborn.

SincecompletingSilver Plume IIin1952,hehadbeenexpandingthescaleofhisworks,exploringthepossibilitiesopenedupbytheweldingskillshelearnedfromSmith.Asearlyas1953,thesizeandweightlimitationsofthepivotthatRickeyhadutilizedforseveralseries,includingBridges, Acrobats, Carrousels,andVines,becamemarkedlyapparent.Hebegantoreplacethisdevicewitharotor,whichconsistedofabeamwithgentlyroundedendsthatfitintotwosockets,allowingtherotortoturnsmoothlyandstably.34Thisconstructionfacilitatedthemovementofpiecesconnectedtotherotor,suchasrotatingflatpanels.Rickeyfirstusedonlyverticallyalignedrotors,asinhisseriesLittle Machines of Unconceived Use,andthenexpandedthepotentialofthisdevicebytiltingrotorsinmanydirections,asinhisU.N.works.In1954healsobeganworkingmorewithpendulums,whichvariedthetotalweightanddistanceoneithersideofafulcrumtoinducemovement.Thependulumbecameanessentialelementinmanylaterworks,particularlythoseshapedlikelinesorblades.Rickeysoondevelopedpendulumsthatrestedontwopairsofbearingsperpendiculartooneanotherandthatcouldmoveinaconicalpath,whichheclassifiedasavariationofthegimbal.35

By1955hehadbeguntocombinedifferentmovementtechnologiesintoonesculpture.Forexample,inhisseriesSeesaw and Carousels,createdfrom1955to1956,heusedbothgimbalsanddeviceshecalled“spacechurns.”Duringtheseyearshealsomovedawayfromthelinearwireformofhisearlysculpturalwork,focusingongeometricformsweldedfromstainlesssteel.

In1955thefamilymovedtoNewOrleans,whereRickeybecamechairmanoftheartdepartmentandaprofessorofartatTulaneUniversity.HespentmostofhissecondyearatTulaneonaprearrangedsabbaticalinRome.36Thisisthesameyearthathebegancallinghisworks“kineticsculptures”ratherthan“mobiles.” 37InRomehemademoreinnovationstohismovementdevices,andbeganseveralotherseriesofworksthatusedmultiplemechanismsinasinglesculpture,suchasRotors, Water Plants,andFlowers.Theseworksutilizedagimbaltobalancealongverticalpiecethathousedmanysmall,flutteringrotorsontheupperend.Belowthepivotpoint,theseelementswereweightedbyapieceofrockorquartz.Thissamecombinationoftechnologiesispresentinalaterwork,Column of Nine Rotors with Two Triangles (fig.12),from1973,whichusesagimbaltobalanceaverticalcolumnbracketedbytwotriangles.Ninespinningrotorscompletetheformofthecolumn.

Figure12, Column of Nine Rotors with Two Triangles, 1973

In1959PhilipRickey,GeorgeandEdie’ssecondson,wasborninNewOrleans,andthefamilyspenttheirfirstsummeratHandHollowinEastChatham,NewYork,theplacewheretheywouldsettleintoahousethenextyear.In1960RickeyspentpartofthesummerteachingattheUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbara.Later,from1985to2001,hewouldmaintainastudioinSantaBarbara.

Attheendofthe1950s,RickeycreatedAcrobats (fig.13).Inthissmalltabletopsculpture,athinstainlesssteelbaseextendsupandsplitsintwo.Oneitherside,multiplesmallplanes,brightlyenameledonbothsurfaces,turnonpivots.ThisisoneofRickey’slastworkstoutilizethedeviceofapivot,whichallowedonlyafewoptionsformovementandgreatlyrestrictedsize.Bytheendofthedecade,hehadformulatedmorestableassembliesallowingfordelicateworksthatshifteddynamicallyandfluidly,oftenwithsimultaneousmotionthroughmultipleplanes.TheyearsspentpracticingthelightnessofCalder’smobilesandexperimentingwiththeconstructivemethodandmetal-workingskillsofSmithhadculminatedinthecreationofhisownoeuvreofmechanismsandformstodescribemotion—pendulums,gimbals,rotors,lines,blades,andplanes—thatwouldbeeagerlyreceivedbybothAmericanandEuropeanaudiencesinthenextdecade.

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Figure13, Acrobats (detail), 1960

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kinetiCism And the 1960 s

TheAmericanartsceneofthe1960swelcomedGeorgeRickey,who,likemanyotherartistsatthetime,alsoplayedtheroleofarthistorianandcritic.HewasinterestedinthecleanlycutlinesandindustrialmaterialsthatcharacterizedworksmadeintheprevailingMinimalistaesthetic.TheMinimalisttrend,alongwithartists’growingexplorationofkinetics,alignedartwiththemachinetechnologythatwasquicklyevolvinginsociety.Manyartistswereexperimentingwithmotionasametaphorforsocialchangeoracommentaryontheproliferationofmachinesandindustrialproduction.38Rickey,however,utilizedindustrialmaterialstoachieveafluid,poeticmotionthatfollowednature,avoidingpoliticalandsocialcommentary.

Americainthesixtiesprovidedawealthofmaterialforanartistinterestedinmovement.Theincreasinglyubiquitousautomobile,thehighwayboom,andtravelintospaceembodiedacultureobsessedwithmovementandadesiretobreakfreefromnorms.TherecentinventionofthePortapak,asmall,relativelycheap,andportablevideocamera,allowedmanytoevenproducetheirownmovingvideos.Thisculturelookedradicallytothefuture,butstillremainedfirmlytiedtoitsrootsthrougharespectfornatureandthephysicalsplendoroftheland.Boththecultureofthe1960sandAmerica’srootsinnaturewerepresentinRickey’swork,whichutilizedgeometricformsandthemachineaestheticofcontemporarycommercial-fabricationtechniques,whilerecognizingnatureasasourceofmotion.

ThewidespreaddesiretoportraymotioncanbeseeninRickey’sUntitled (“Belloli” Space Churn) (fig.14),from1964,asculpturethatresemblesaplanetwithconcentricrings.Rickeyhadcompletedhisfirstrecorded“spacechurn”in1953,buthisinterestintheformresurfacedinthesixties,whenitwouldevolvefromsmallmodelsintolarge-scaleoutdoorworksincreasinglycomplexintheirmovement.39Hisexpansionofthisthemecoincidedwiththefirstmannedspacetravel:in1961theSovietcosmonautYuriGagarintraveledintospaceandfulfilledwhatseemed,atthetime,animpossibleyetultimatemovement.Rickey’s1964pieceiscutfromsheetmetalandisanearlymodeltotesttheformandmotionofthespacechurn—asculptureincorporatingmultiplerings,eachwithitsaxissetoffcentersothattheywouldcircleatdifferentspeedsandinvaryingpatterns.Thebalanceandweightofeachringaffectstheothers,keepingthespinningmotioncaptivatinganddynamic.Rickey’searliestspacechurnswereoperatedwithahandcrank,butheaddedflatvanestotheouteredgesoflatersculpturestopromptthemtomovewiththewind.40

KineticarthadachievedevenmorerecognitioninEuropethanintheUnitedStates,inpartbecauseoftheConstructivists’heavyinfluenceonEuropeanartintheearlypartofthetwentiethcentury,aswellasthevaluethattheGermanBauhaustraditionplacedontheuseofindustrialconstructiontechniques.AlthoughmanyAmericanartistswereworkingwithkinetics,Europeremainedtheplacewheretheseartistsfoundinspiration.Inthespringof1961,thefirstmajorexhibitionofkineticsculpture,“Bewogen-Beweging,”washeldattheStedelijkMuseuminAmsterdamandtheModernaMuseetinStockholm.RickeycontributedaworktothisshowandvisitedtheexhibitiontowriteareviewforthejournalArts.Here,heformedhisconclusionsabouttheheavyinfluenceofConstructivismonkineticart,andfirstformulatedtheideaforthebookonConstructivismhewouldpublishin1967.41Bythistime,hewasenjoyingmuchrecognitioninEurope,participatinginexhibitionsinBerlinandreceivingseveralpubliccommissions.In1964hisinternationalreputationwascementedwhenhisTwo Lines Temporal I,aworkmadeoftwo35-footsteelbladesthatswinginthewind,hoveredovertheoutdoorcrowdsattheexhibition“DocumentaIII”inKassel,Germany.42

WhereasRickeyhadspentthefirstpartofthe1950sconstructingdevicestodisplaymotion,hespenttheyearsbetween1957and1962experimentingwithalargerscale,tryingnewmaterials,andlearninghowtomosteffectivelyusethemechanicaltechniqueshehaddeveloped.43WhileonsabbaticalinRome(wherehecombinedagimbalwithrotorsinhisseries Rotors, Water Plants,andFlowers),RickeyalsobeganhisOmmagio a Berniniworks.Thisseries,initiatedin1957andcompletedin1960,signaledhisnexttransition,ashiftthatnarrowedhisselectionofformstoblade-likelinesandmovedawayfromtheuseofcolor.

Figure14, Untitled (“Belloli” Space Churn), 1964

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56

In1960RickeyreceivedaGuggenheimfellowshipandtookanothersabbaticalfromTulane.Withthisgrant,hewasabletosculptfull-timeinEastChatham,wherethefamilysettledpermanentlythenextyear.In1961hisGuggenheimfellowshipwasrenewed,andheresignedfromTulane.Theopportunitytocommitalargeportionofhistimetooneplaceandonestudiocoincidedwiththesimplificationofformsinhissculptures.IntheidylliclandscapeofEastChatham,movementsurroundedhimandnatureenvelopedhisworks,complementingandenhancingthem.Thisexpansivesettingalsoallowedhimspacetoworkonverylargeprojects.In1961hebeganteachingfoundationdesigncoursestoarchitecturestudentsatRensselaerPolytechnicInstitute(RPI)inTroy,NewYork.There,hemetandbegantoworkwithRolandHummel,anengineeringprofessorattheSchoolofArchitecture,inacollaborationthatcontinuedfortherestofRickey’slife.44

Itwasalsoin1961thatRickeydiscoveredthereverseknife-edgebearing,whichallowedhimtousebladesthatmovedindependentlyofoneanother. Sedge Themeswashisfirstseriesexploringtheformalpossibilitiesofthistechnology.Inanotherworkthatusesthisbearingdevice,Bubble Chamber I (fig.15),from1962,alternatingbladesarefixedtoawallaspendulums,weightedsothattheyrestatacuteangles.Theplayfullinespointinginalldifferentdirectionshintattheactivityofabubblechamber—adeviceusedinphysicstoheatliquidtothepointofboilingandvaporizing,creatingtrailsofmicroscopicbubblesthatareusedtomeasuretheenergyofchargedparticles.45In1962Rickeybeganworkingwithmonumentalblades,formshewouldcontinuetouseinTwo Lines Oblique (fig.16),atoweringoutdoorsculpturefrom1967.Here,twofifteen-footlinessituatedatopatallY-shapedbaseswingdelicatelybackandforthandsometimes,inaplayfulwind,circlecompletelyaround.AlthoughworkssuchasthisweremuchlargerthanRickey’searliersculptures,theyremainedasintricatelyconstructedashissmallerworks.

By1965thebladehadbecomehissignaturelanguage.InTwenty-four Lines (fig.17),from1968,numerousbladesconvergeintotheshapeofasinglelargeblade,emphasizinghissimplifiedselectionofforms.Thisstreamliningreducedthenumberofvariableswithinhisworks,andRickeyfocusedondevelopingasimplersetofformsinmorecomplexways.Healsobecameevenmoredirectlyconcernedwithmovementandhowitmightbevariouslydisplayed.In1966helefthisteachingpostatRPItoagaincommithiseffortstosculpturefull-time.

Figure16, Two Lines Oblique, 1967

Figure15, Bubble Chamber I, 1962 Figure17, Twenty-four Lines (detail), 1968

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Figure18,Four Rectangles Oblique,1972

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Thebladewasasimple,slender,poeticshapethatrecalledtheneedles,masts,andclockpendulumsfromRickey’spastandresembledthebladesofgrassandswayingtreebranchesthatsurroundedhiminEastChatham.Itallowedhimtoinvestigatewhichkindsoftechnologyachievedthesubtlestmovements,andhowweightsandformsmightcreateaspecifictypeofmotion.Inaninterview,herelatedhowthislean,straightforwardformlethimfocusonunderstandinghowconstructionandmovementworked:“Icouldtryandreducetheelementstotheirsimplestpossibleessence.Anditisthatwhichhasledmetousinglinearforms,totrytoeliminateeverythingthatisnotcontributingtothemovement.”46Aseachbladewasaddedtoasculpture,itsuggestedideasforothershapesandmovements.Shiftingandcrossingoneanother,thebladeswoveastoryofRickey’sprogressionthroughthediscoveryofmotion.

Thisfocusonbladesprovidedthesculptorwithanunderstandingofmotionthatgraduallyledhimtoinvolveotherforms.Hebeganworkingagainwithplanes,whichusedthesamependulumtechnologyasblades,andthenin1966hebegantostacktheplanes.47Oneexampleofthis,Four Rectangles Oblique (fig.18),from1972,examinesthemovementofrectangularplanes.Fourrectanglesformasquare,witheachsegmentpresentingdifferentmotionsthatcombineintoafluidwave.

Duringthe1960s,Rickey’stitleshadbeguntoexpressthegrowingausterityofhisuseofform,describingthegeometricshapesandmotionsofthesculpturesratherthanreferencingsubjectssuchasaspectsofnature,ashisearliertitleshad.Asthemotioninhisworksbecamemorerefinedandexact,thischangeinhowhetitledthemreflectedashiftinsubjectmatterfromnaturetomovement.Hiswasanaestheticofconsistentformsunifiedintoalanguageofmotion;but,crucially,eachwork’smovementremainedunpredictableundertheforcesofnature.

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CultivAting the ArtistiC proCess

In1968RickeyreceivedastipendfromtheDeutscherAkademischerAustauschDienst(DAAD),theGermanAcademicExchangeService,andsetupastudioinBerlinthathewouldmaintainfromthenuntil1995.AfterhavingspentthefirsttwodecadesofhislifeinEurope,inasensehereturnedin1968.In1970hebegansplittinghistimebetweenEastChathamandWestBerlin.

InthewoodedDahlemdistrictofBerlin,hislivingandstudiospacesweremuchsmallerthaninEastChatham.There,andinthemanyothertransitoryworkingspacesheoccupiedthroughouthisitinerantlife,drawingsandmaquettesbecameparticularlyimportanttohisworkingprocessandtestingofideas.Rickeyuseddrawingstoworkoutmanyformalconcernsandthenprogressed“tosomerathercrudemodel...toseehowIcangetthetrafficorganized,becausetherearecertainthingsyoucannotdraw,eveninperspective”;mainly,drawingscannotreveal“whatwillhappenwhenthemovementhasstarted.”49LucindaBarnesdocumentstheimportanceofdrawingtoRickey’sconstructionprocess,notingthatsketcheswereaninitialmeansofrenderinghisideas,thattheyrevealindividualaspectsofhisthoughtprocess,andthattheyallowedaspontaneitythatwasnotpossibleinsculpturalmodels,whichremainedsubjecttotheforcesofgravity.50Thedrawingsarealludedtointhesculpturesthemselvesasthemovingpartscutthroughtheair,tracingthelinesofthepreparatorysketchesusedintheirconstruction.InRickey’swords,“Bladesindiversecon-figurationsfollowed,akindofkineticdrawinginspace,firstplanar,thendefiningvolume—spacecutupbylines,piercedbylines,limitedbylines.” 51

Duringthistime,havingalreadydecidedtofocusonafewforms,Rickeycontinuedtoexpandthepossibilitiesofmotioninhissculptures.Lookingbackin1980,hediscussedthisdevelopment:

ImakethingsnowthatIwouldneverhavethoughtofaspossible.IfIhavebeenworking onthedevelopmentofalanguage,whichinsomewaysIhave,atthesametimeI’ve becomemoreandmoreawareofwhatitispossibletosaywiththatlanguage.Forexample, foryearsIacceptedwhatIwouldcalllinearmovementormovementalongastraightline. ThenIcametorealizethatonecandesignanobjectinwhichthemovementisalonga curve.It’slikeaphraseofmusicthattakesanunexpectedturn.52

Upuntilthispoint,thepathstracedbyhissculptures’partshadbeenlinear,planer,orgyratory.Ashebeganusinghislinesandrectanglestooutlineaconicalpath,andthenfurtherdevelopedtheirmovementtoallowthemtocircleoutsideofthatpath—inwhathecalled“excentric”movement—thevisualoptionsofhissculptureincreaseddramatically.53

Figure19,Two Rectangles, Open Excentric,1977 Figure20,Two Open Rectangles Excentric,1977

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65

Maquettesprovidedanimportanttoolfortestingthisexcentricmotion.In1977RickeycreatedTwo Rectangles, Open Excentric (fig.19),whichwouldserveasamodelforanotherworkfrom1977,Two Open Rectangles Excentric (fig.20),itselfastudy.Inbothmodels,twolongrectanglescirclearoundacentralarmature.Inthefirst,thetop-heavyrectanglescreateaseeminglydramaticbalance.However,theweightsarevisible,evidencingRickey’srigorousworkingprocessoftestingweightsandbearingsthroughdrawingsandmaquettes,aprocessthatensuredhissculptures’ultimatelygracefulmovement.

Intheseexplorationsofmotion,Rickeyregularlynegotiatedtheseemingdichotomybetweennatureandthemachine.Forexample,thelargestainlesssteelsculptureforwhichTwo Open Rectangles Excentricwasastudywasdesignedtositinthelandscapeorinasculpturecourtyardwiththeskyonthehorizon,sothatthemovementofthesculpturewithinnatureandthemovementofnatureasabackdropwouldconflateintoonelyricalscene.Whilethereflectionofsunlightandthesurroundingsonthemetalfurtherintegratessuchsculpturesintotheenvironment,thesharpflickerofsilverwitheachshiftcallsattentiontotheirmechanisticrootsinstainlesssteel.

Throughhisreverenceofnatureasthesourceofmovement,Rickeyarguedthefailingsofthemachineanditsusebysomeotherkineticartists.In1979hecompleted Two Conical Segments, Gyratory Gyratory II (fig.21),anoutdoorsculpturethatstandstallwithtwoarmsextendinghorizontallyfromthetopofapost.Itssteeljointsholdrotatingconicalsegments.Inanotheroutdoorwork,Two Open Triangles Up Gyratory (fig.22),from1982,twotrianglescreateaframewiththecenterleftempty.Thetrianglescirclearoundthesculpture’scentralpoint,thetopoftheposttowhichtheyareattached.Drivenbyaircurrents,bothsculpturespresentasimplicityofstructureinwhichamotorwouldinstantlybeextraneous.Rickeydescribedhowmovementactivatedbythehandistooclumsy,andbythemachine,toopredictable:“thehand,especiallytheuntrainedhand,istooheavy,”and“repetition[causedbyamachine]sooncanbecomeboredom.”54Themovementsofhishighlyplannedstructuresareultimatelydependentonrandomchance:asharpwindcantransformasubtlemotionreplicatingthewavingofbranchesorbladesofgrassintowildformscirclingunpredictablyintheair.Theseidiosyncraticactionsresisttheboring,repetitivemechanicalmotionexpectedfromRickey’sindustrialmaterials.

Thiscontradictionalsoextendsintohistreatmentofthosematerials.Thesharpnessofsteelcraftedintolongmetalformsintheseworksintroducesideasofmechanicalproduction,butthemachineisdisavowedbyevidenceoftheartist’shandandworkingprocess.NanRosenthaldescribeshowRickey“grindsthesurfaceinshort,randomstrokes,withamotorizedrotarycarborundumdisk,sothattheybecomeresponsivetolight.” 55Whenhestoppedusingcolor

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Figure21, Two Conical Segments, Gyratory Gyratory II, 1979

Figure22, Two Open Triangles Up Gyratory, 1982 Figure23, Study for Faceted Column, 1991

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topolychromehissteelsurfaces,hepolishedmostoftheworkstoashiny,fluidfinishthatevincedhistouch.Hefeltthatthistransformationofthesteel’sfinishbroughthisworkstolife,notingthat“when[stainlesssteel]comesfromthefactory...thesurfaceisjustadullgray,lifelesssurface...Iwanttobreakthroughthatuniformgrayandhaveitbecomemorelivelyinrelationtolight.” 56Study for Faceted Column(fig.23),from1991,exemplifiesthispolishandhowitcontributestotheharmonyoftheworkbypresentingacontinuoussurfacealongthesegmentedforms.Thisstudywasforamuchlargersculpturethatcombinedmanyofthesefacetedpiecesintoalargeverticalcolumnintheatriumofatallofficebuilding,theTrigonBuilding,inBerlin.Inthatsetting,thepolishedfinishreflectsthework’ssurroundings,justasitsverticalorientationemulatesthem.

SeveralmoreworksillustratehowRickey’sintricateworkingprocessbalancestheoppositionbetweenthenatural,delicate,lyricalmovementofhisformsandthemachineaestheticoftheirmaterialsandexactingconstruction.Inthelate1960sandearly1970s,hecreatedaseries

ofspirals,smalltabletopsculpturesmadeofstainlesssteelwirethatheoftengilded.InTwo Lines with Spirals (fig.24,seeimagesonpages14and15),datedabout1973,eachofthetwocomponentswascraftedfromasinglepieceofindustrialwiretwistedintoagracefulspiralthatweighsdownoneendoftheline.57InTwo Cubes (fig.25),from1988,thecubesrestupontwoarmsthatextendfromacentralbase,formingaY.Thesix-inchcubicformsappearheavybutrotatelightlyanddiscretely.Anothersculptureconstructedin1988, XIII (fig.26),consistsofanX-shapedbaseonwhichsitthreeIshapes,eachhelduponasupport.Inthisinstance,Rickey’scalculateduseofsteelformsproducedarefinedandsymbolicstructurethatacknowledgedafriend’sthirteenthanniversary.Thesharp-edgedformsofmechanisticwireandsteelthatcomposetheseworksinitiallyevokehard,rough,rigidpower,butineachcasethesculptortransformsthemintoexquisiteartisticstatements.Infact,partofhisoriginalityisrootedinthisabilitytoimbueheavyindustrialmaterialswithagracethatliesoutsidetheirtypicalmanufacturingcontext.

Figure25, Two Cubes, 1988 Figure26, XIII, 1988

experienCing riCkey’s sCulptures

Throughouthiscareer,GeorgeRickeyremaineddedicatedtoteachingandpromotingtheartsthroughhiswrittenartcriticism,hispublicsculptures,andhisconstantemphasisontheimpor-tanceofhistoryandteaching.In1980,inacontinuationofthiscommitment,heestablishedtheHandHollowFoundation,whereartistscouldspendtheirsummersworkingandparticipatinginlivelydiscussions.Inthe1990shemadeyetanotheraestheticshiftinhisownart,returningtothecreationofsmall,coloredobjects.InOne Rotor One Counterweight(fig.27),from1993,arotorhangsoveratriangularbase,andsmallpaintedrectangularplanescircletoproduceakaleidoscopeofbrightcolors.Earlyinhiscareer,dissatisfactionwiththeabilitytoshowmotionthroughpaintinghadledhimtoworkinsculpture.Now,lateinlife,herevisitedtheintegrationofcolorandmotionthroughthesesmall,coloredobjectsthathecalled“paintings.” 58

Rickey’slifelongpursuitofanaestheticlanguageofmotionhadbeenanexplorationthroughspaceandtime,leadinghimtodiscoverandrediscoverbothplacesanddesignchallenges,butitwasalways“simplythepursuitofwhatispossible.” 59Althoughhisjourneyhadtakenhimtomanyplaces,hisstudioremainedthespacewherehetranslatedhistravelsintodelicatekineticworks.In2001hereturnedtotheMidwest,wherehisjourneyhadbegun,movingtoSt.Paul,Minnesota,andmaintainingasmallstudiothere.RickeydiedinSt.PaulonJuly17,2002,attheageofninety-five.

Thelifeofhissculpturescontinues,however.Theirmotionoscillatesbetweenarrested,slow,andfast,withdifferentpartsmovingatvariedratesinanongoingseriesofunrepeatableinstances.Overtime,aviewermightstandinfrontofasculpture,walkaroundit,oroccupyaspacebeneathit,eachtimeexperiencingadifferentimpressionofmovement.Etoile VIII (fig.28),amaquettefrom1983foralargerversion,ismadeofmanyfluttering,circling,andindividuallyrotatingpartsthatofferanendlessarrayofpotentialmovements.Ina1984discussionofhowheapproachedmotioninthissculpture,Rickeyexplained:“Myintentionisthattheseperiods[ofoscillation]beslightlydifferentfromoneanother,andthattheybelongenoughsothattheobservercannoteasilyanticipatereversalofdirection.”60

70 71

Figure27, One Rotor One Counterweight, 1993

Figure28, Etoile VIII, 1983

72 73

Thisemphasisontheunknownmakesdirectlyexperiencinghisworksessentialtoappreciatingthem.Theirmovementdenieseffectivereproductioninasingleimage:“Sinceaphotographrecordsonlyoneinstantandoneinstanceamongvariationsandneverthefactorofchance,itprovidesafalserecordofkineticsculpture,whichcanhaveno‘correct’postureatrest.”61Consequently,Rickey’ssculpturesareoftenrepresentedbyseveralpicturesthatcaptureparticularmomentsinasequenceresemblingashortfilm,displayinghisworkinstop-motion.Eventhesesequences,however,onlyhintatthecompletemovementthattheviewerobserveswhenstandinginfrontofthesamework,orwhenwalkingaroundittotakeinthemanyviewpointsitoffers.

OnlythroughdirectengagementwithRickey’ssculpturescantheviewerappreciatethemanylayersofformthattheycontain:theformofthesteelsculptureitself,thepathtracedbyitselements,thenegativespaceofthesurroundingairandenvironment,and,mostparticulartohiskineticworks,theendlesspotentialofamotionimpelledbytheunpredictablepowersofnature.Thesubtle,naturalmovement,reflectivesurfaces,andanthropomorphicproportionsallhelptocapturetheimaginationoftheviewer.Further,therelationshipofthedifferentpartstooneanotherandthepathsofmotiontheyoutlinecreateaConstructivist-inspired“virtualvolume.”62

Figure29, Unstable Quadrilateral, 1990 Figure30, Open Triangles One Up and One Down (slender), 1983

74

Forinstance,inUnstable Quadrilateral (fig.29),from1990,twobladesplacedatadiagonalfromthecentralbasecreatetheillusionofafilledplaneastheymovebackandforth.InOpen Triangles One Up and One Down (slender)(fig.30),from1983,athree-dimensionalformiscarvedinspacebythetrianglesastheycircleup,down,andaround.Thenegativespaceoftheenvironmentframesthesculpturesbutalsoprovidesthesourceoftheirmovement.Whenthissourcedisappears—if,forinstance,thewindstopsblowing—themotiontemporarilyhalts,butitspotentialisever-present.Theviewerislefttoimaginehowtheactivityandtheformsitcreatesmightcontinue.Rickeycommentedonthisessentialcomponentofhisworks:“Irealizedthattheformdidn’tneedtobeaclosedmassbutcouldbeaseriesofpointsorlinesaroundwhichthemindmakesanenvelope.”63

InConstructivistart,movementwasoftensymbolicofacallforideologicalorpoliticalchange.Rickey,however,usedmovementonamorepersonallevel,toinspirereflection.Thesubtlemovementthatheultimatelywantedtostirwasinhisviewers,coaxingthemtobeawareoftheirexistenceintimeandnature.Thefluid,poetic,lyricmotionofhissculpturesencouragesviewerstoappreciateart,nature,andformwithinthecourseoftheirdailylives,asthesurroundingworldmovesquickly,dramatically,andmechanically.AsValerieFletcherwrites:

Rickey’sworkscangentlyheightenviewers’awarenessoftimeactuallypassingand,ina marvelouslyindirectway,persuadethemtorecognizethebeautyofpureabstraction.His sculpturestemptpassersbytostopandlook....Bythetimewehavewatchedthemotions throughseveralchangingcycles,thesculpturehashaditsintendedeffect:wehaveslowed down,stopped,becomegraduallydetachedfromthedemandsofourbusylives.64

TravelingtoseeRickey’ssculpturescompletestheircourse,stirschangeintheviewer,andsuppliesoneofmanypossibleendingstotheremarkablejourneythatRickeymadeinhislifeandinhisart.Hewroteofhisuniquequesttouncovermotion,“Ididnotwantmerelytosetastaticartinmotion,nordidIwanttodescribethedynamicworldaroundmewithaseriesofmovingimages.Iwantedthewholerangeofmovementsthemselvesatmydisposal,nottodescribewhatIobservedintheworldaroundme,buttobethemselvesperforminginaworldoftheirown.”65Today,viewerswhoentertheworldthatGeorgeRickeycreatedcontinuetobeenthralledandinspiredbyit,ashisdynamicsculpturesendlesslyperformtheiridiosyncraticmovements.

Fig.1–GeorgeRickey,Ship I,1954,paintedmildsteelandbrass,18.75x20inches,privatecollectionZollikon,Switzerland,photobyGeoffreyClement

Fig.2–GeorgeRickey,Three Vertical Two Horizontal Lines (Pivoting),1966,stainlesssteel,56x36x6inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.3–GeorgeRickey,Two Vertical Two Horizontal Lines,1974,stainlesssteel,28.5x28.5inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.4–GeorgeRickey,Diptych: The Seasons,1956,paintedsteel,24x60x21inches,SniteMuseumofArt,giftofMr.ThomasT.Solley

Fig.5–GeorgeRickey,Abstraction in 4D,1959,stainlesssteelandpolychrome,11x43x15inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.6–GeorgeRickey,Fish,1951,steelandpolychromeglass, 22x32inches,collectionoftheIndianaUniversityArtMuseum

Fig.7–GeorgeRickey,Four Last Leaves,1952,steelandbronze,41x48inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.8–GeorgeRickey,Silver Plume I,1951,stainlesssteel,18incheshigh,collectionofDr.andMrs.ClintonHollister

Fig.9–GeorgeRickey,Silver Plume II (altered),1961,stainlesssteel,10feethigh,collectionofMr.andMrs.LarryGilbert,London

76 77

illustrAtions, inCluding the george riCkey sCulpture ArChive At notre dAme

Fig.10–GeorgeRickey,Planes and Circles,1957,steel,bronzewire,andpolychrome,8.5x6x6inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.11–GeorgeRickey,Triads,1958,stainlesssteelandbrass,53x41inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.12–GeorgeRickey,Column of Nine Rotors with Two Triangles,1973,stainlesssteel,27x5x5inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.13–GeorgeRickey,Acrobats,1960,steelandenamel,21.5x15x1.5inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.14–GeorgeRickey,Untitled (“Belloli” Space Churn),1964,bronze,12.5x12.5x10.5inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.15–GeorgeRickey,Bubble Chamber I,1962,stainlesssteel,41x49x9inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.16–GeorgeRickey,Two Lines Oblique,1967,stainlesssteel, 25feethigh,SniteMuseumofArt

78 79

Fig.17–GeorgeRickey,Twenty-four Lines,1968,stainlesssteel,8x6feet,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.18–GeorgeRickey,Four Rectangles Oblique,1972,stainlesssteel,44x43.5x11.25inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.19–GeorgeRickey,Two Rectangles, Open Excentric,1977,stainlesssteelandleadcounterweight,26x8inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.20–GeorgeRickey,Two Open Rectangles Excentric,1977,stainlesssteel, 36x9.5x1.5inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.21–GeorgeRickey,Two Conical Segments, Gyratory Gyratory II,1979,stainlesssteel,123x124inches,SniteMuseumofArt,acquiredwiththefundsprovidedbyMr.andMrs.AlNathe

Fig.22–GeorgeRickey,Two Open Triangles Up Gyratory,1982,stainlesssteel,9feet8inchesx4feet9inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

80 81

Fig.23–GeorgeRickey,Study for Faceted Column,1991,stainlesssteel,36x16x10inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.24–GeorgeRickey,Two Lines with Spirals,circa1973,stainlesssteelwire,gilded,13x2inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.25–GeorgeRickey,Two Cubes,1988,stainlesssteel,21x24inches,SniteMuseumofArt,bequestofGeorgeRickey

Fig.26–GeorgeRickey,XIII,1988,stainlesssteel, 17x36x30inches,SniteMuseumofArt,bequestofGeorgeRickey

Fig.27–GeorgeRickey,One Rotor One Counterweight,1993,stainlesssteelwithpolychrome(rotor),8.5x6x6inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.28–GeorgeRickey,Etoile VIII,1983,stainlesssteel,4x9x9inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

Fig.29–GeorgeRickey,Unstable Quadrilateral,1990,stainlesssteel,23x24inches,SniteMuseumofArt,giftoftheGeorgeRickeyWorkshop

Fig.30–GeorgeRickey,Open Triangles One Up and One Down (slender),1983,stainlesssteel,56x12x5inches,SniteMuseumofArt,promisedgiftoftheGeorgeRickeyFoundation

82 83

1GeorgeRickey,“TheMorphologyofMovement:AStudyofKineticArt,”Art Journal22(Summer1963):220–31.

2NanRosenthal,George Rickey(NewYork:HarryN.Abrams,1977),25.

3Rickey,“TheMorphologyofMovement,”228.

4Ibid.,225.

5Rosenthal,George Rickey,20;LenaVigna,“IndianaBorn:TheEarlyLivesoftheArtists,”inHollidayT.Day,DoreAshton,andLenaVigna,Crossroads of American Sculpture: David Smith, George Rickey, John Chamberlain, Robert Indiana, William T. Wiley, Bruce Nauman (Indianapolis:IndianapolisMuseumofArt,2000),46.

6Rosenthal,George Rickey,20–21;Vigna,“IndianaBorn,”47.

7Rickey,“TheMorphologyofMovement,”228.

8Rosenthal,George Rickey,42.

9MaxwellDavidsonIII,George Rickey: The Early Works(Atglen,PA:SchifferBooks,2004),23.DavidsoncitestheShipseriesasthefirsttousethegimbalanddescribeshowagimbalconsistsofapivotthatallowsanobjecttorotateonasingleaxis.Whenanothergimbalisplacedwithinandperpendiculartothefirst,anorthogonalsupportallowstheinnerobjecttoremainuprightasitssupportpitchesandrolls.

10GeorgeRickey,“ObservationsandReflections,1964,”reprintedinGeorge Rickey: Kinetic Sculpture on Clydeside (Glasgow:ScottishArtsCouncilandGlasgowDistrictCourt,1982),quotedinVigna,“IndianaBorn,”46.

11TomiiReiko,“BetweenTwoContinents:GeorgeRickey,KineticArtandConstructivism,1949–1968”(Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofTexasatAustin,1988),2.Infootnote4oftheintroduction,Reikoremarksthatinthe1950sRickeytaughtRenaissanceart,modernart,andothercoursesatMuhlenbergCollege,IndianaUniversityatBloomington,andNewcombCollege.

12Rickey,quotedinJohnGruen,The Artist Observed: 28 Interviews with Contemporary Artists (Chicago:ACappellaBooks,1991),250.

13The Moving World of George Rickey,DVD,directedbyKevinMacDonald(London:FigmentFilms,1998).

14Rosenthal,George Rickey,27.

15RickeytraveledtoMexicoin1939and1941.ValerieFletcher,“GeorgeRickey:PoetryinMotion,”inValerieFletcher,LucindaH.Gedeon,GeorgeRickey,andPhilipRickey,George Rickey: Kinetic Sculpture; A Retrospective(VeroBeach,FL:VeroBeachMuseumofArt,2007),15–16.

16Rosenthal,George Rickey,27.AlberscametotheBauhausschoolasastudentin1920.In1923hewasappointedaninstructor,apositionhehelduntil1933,whenhecametotheUnitedStatestoteachatBlackMountainCollege.

17Rickey,quotedinJeanneSiegal,Artwords: Discourse on the 60s and 70s (AnnArbor,MI:UMIResearchPress,1985),141.

18GeorgeRickey,“TheMobilityofAmericans,”translatedbyCatherineLeGuetas“LaCivilisationduMovement,”Les Temps Modernes,August–September1946,24–29.

19WhenMoholy-Nagyfoundedtheschool,itwascalledtheInstituteofDesign;itwasrenamedtheInstituteofDesigninChicagoin1944.BythetimeRickeyattended,theschoolhadtakenonanengineeringandarchitecturalfocus,butartwasstillimportanttothecurriculumduringthelate1940sand1950sunderMoholy-Nagy’ssuccessor,SergeChermayeff;seeHollidayT.Day,“CrossroadsofAmericanSculpture,”inDay,Ashton,andVigna,Crossroads of American Sculpture,74n17.Rickeybecamedisenchantedwiththeschool’sfailuretocontinuetheprinciplestaughtinitsstrongdesignfoundationcoursesintothemoreadvancedcourseworkandspecializeddesignvocations;seeGeorgeRickey,interviewbyJosephTrovatoattheartist’shome,EastChatham,NewYork,July17,1965,transcript,SmithsonianArchivesofAmericanArt.

20Davidson,The Early Works,3.ThesesubjecttitlesaretakenfromthechapterheadingsofMaxwellDavidson’smonograph,inwhichhegivesadetailedaccountofRickey’searlysculpture.

21RosenthalnotesthatthiswasRickey’slargestworktodate,wasbuilttowithstandvariedweatherconditions,andallowedformorefreedominitsmovement;Rosenthal,George Rickey,32.DayalsocommentsthatthiswasRickey’slargestsculptureandthatitbrokeawayfromhissmallworksthatsatonpedestals;Day,“CrossroadsofAmericanSculpture,”65.

22Rickey,quotedinGruen,The Artist Observed,246.

23SeeDay,“CrossroadsofAmericanSculpture,”71:“Newmetal-workingtechniques,suchaswelding,werealsonecessarytomakinglargerpiecesinsteel.AlthoughSilver Plume II(rotatedonatripodthatrotatedaroundabase)hadbeenmadewithoutweldingbecauseitpivotedonapoint,weldinghadtoreplacethesoldersRickeyhadbeenusingtoconstructhissmallworks.”

24Davidson,The Early Works,50.

25DaydescribesthatRickey,thenteachingatIU,urgedHenryHope,thearthistorianwholedtheartdepartment,toinviteSmithtoteachatIUforthe1954–55academicyear.RickeyhimselfleftIUinJanuary1955;Day,“CrossroadsofAmericanSculpture,”64.RosenthalalsonotesRickey’sfriendshipwithSmithinRosenthal,George Rickey,34.

26Rosenthalelaboratesthat“atthattimeRickeywasstilljoiningmetalpartswithsilverandleadsolderexclusively,andheaskedDavidSmithtoshowhimhowtoweldwithoxyacetylene....InfutureyearswhenRickeyneededtogoontoheliarc-andspot-welding,heboughttheequipmentandtaughtthetechniquestohimself.”Rosenthal,George Rickey,34.

endnotes

84 85

27Smith’sworkswerelargerthanmostsculptureofthetime.Hewasalsoliberalwithmaterials,spendinglargesumsofmoneyonthem.Rickeyfollowedthisadvicewhenhecouldaffordto.Day,“CrossroadsofAmericanSculpture,”65;Rosenthal,George Rickey,34.

28In1963RickeyvisitedNaumGaboandJosefAlbersinConnecticut.Fletcher,Gedeon,Rickey,andRickey,George Rickey: Kinetic Sculpture,110.

29NaumGaboandAntoinePevsner,“TheRealisticManifesto,”inArt in Theory 1900–2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas,ed.CharlesHarrisonandPaulWood(Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing,2003),299.

30GaboandPevsner,“TheRealisticManifesto,”230,quotedinDay,“CrossroadsofAmericanSculpture,”75n20.

31GeorgeRickey,Constructivism: Origins and Evolutions (1967;repr.,NewYork:GeorgeBraziller,1995).

32DavidsondiscussesthestructureofthisworkinThe Early Works,81.

33Rosenthal,George Rickey,51.

34Ibid.,38.

35Ibid.,42.

36Ibid.,51.

37Day,“CrossroadsofAmericanSculpture,”70.

38Rickeyelaboratesonthepresenceofmovementinartofthetimein“TheMorphologyofMovement,”220–31.

39Davidson,The Early Works,127;Rosenthal,GeorgeRickey,48–50.

40Davidson,The Early Works,20;Rosenthal,GeorgeRickey,43–46.

41Rosenthal,George Rickey,60.

42ReikodocumentstheimportanceofRickey’sintercontinentaltraveltohiswork,andparticularlytohisdevelopmentasaConstructivistsculptor,in“BetweenTwoContinents.”

43Ibid.,17.

44Fletcher,Gedeon,Rickey,andRickey,George Rickey: Kinetic Sculpture,109.

45Davidson,The Early Works,239.

46Rickey,quotedinSiegal,Artwords,142.

47RosenthaldescribeshowRickey’splanes“arecompoundpendulumsweightedunderneathwithleadorasteelbarattheshortend—thatis,theendnearesttothebearings—tocompensatefortherestoftheplane.”Rosenthal,George Rickey,68.

48Ibid.,46.

49Rickey,quotedinGruen,The Artist Observed,257,andSiegal,Artwords,145.

50Barnes,inherstudyofdrawingsforsculpture,separatesthemintofourcategories:theelementarysketch,thevariationormodificationofanestablishedform,theworkingortechnicaldrawing,andthedrawingofunrealizedsculpture.LucindaA.Barnes,George Rickey: Drawings for Sculpture (Williamstown,MA:WilliamsCollegeMuseumofArt,1977),8.

51GeorgeRickey,“Veksoelund,”inSkulptor Veksoelund (Veksoe,Denmark,1984).

52Rickey,quotedinGruen,The Artist Observed,258.

53Rosenthal,George Rickey,75.

54Rickey,quotedinSiegal,Artwords,143.

55Rosenthal, George Rickey,74.

56Rickey,quotedinSiegal,Artwords,145.

57Davidson,The Early Works,261.

58The Moving World,directedbyKevinMacDonald.

59Gruen,The Artist Observed,257,“Reflectingonthephilosophyandaestheticsofhiswork,GeorgeRickeymaintainsthatitissimplythepursuitofwhatispossible.”

60Rickey,“Etoile,”atalkgiventotheConnecticutCommissionontheArts,December1984,quotedinDavidson,The Early Works,159.

61Rickey,“TheMorphologyofMovement,”227,citedinReiko,“BetweenTwoContinents,”5n11.

62Rosenthal,George Rickey,47.

63Rickey,quotedinibid.,48–49.

64Fletcher,inFletcher,Gedeon,Rickey,andRickey,George Rickey: Kinetic Sculpture,26.

65Rickey,quotedinGruen,The Artist Observed,258.

86 87

BiBliogrAphy

Foreaseofuse,thebibliographyisorganizedintoseveralcategories.Thefirstsection,writingsbyGeorgeRickey,isarrangedchronologicallytofollowthedevelopmentoftheartist’swritingcareer.Ineachoftheremainingsections,thesourcesarelistedinalphabeticalorderbyauthor’slastname.

puBliCAtions By george riCkey

“TheMobilityofAmericans.”TranslatedbyCatherineLeGuetas“LaCivilisationduMovement.”Les Temps Modernes,August–September1946,24–29.

“TheArtsProgramoftheAssociationofAmericanColleges.”College Art Journal7(Spring1948):190–94.

“TheIntramuralArtist.”College Art Journal9(Summer1950):389–94.

“TheTrainingoftheArtistinCollegesandArtSchools:ASymposium.”IntroductiontoCollege Art Journal13(Autumn1953):25–27.

“KineticSculpture.”InArt and Artist.149–79.BerkeleyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1956.

“CalderinLondon.”Arts Magazine36(September1962):22–28.

“TheMorphologyofMovement:AStudyofKineticArt.”Art Journal22(Summer1963):220–31.

“TheNewTendency(NouvelleTendence—RechercheContinuelle).”Art Journal23(Summer1964):272–79.

“ObservationsandReflections,1964.”ReprintedinGeorge Rickey: Kinetic Sculpture on Clydeside.Glasgow:ScottishArtsCouncilandGlasgowDistrictCourt,1982.

“KinesisContinued.”Art in America3(December1965–January1966):45–55.Constructivism: Origins and Evolutions.1967.Reprint,NewYork:GeorgeBraziller,1995.

“TheBehaviorContract:AToolforTeachers.”Education94(September–October1973):82–84.

George Rickey: Kinetische Objekte und Technik.Bielefeld,Germany:KunsthalleBielefeld,1976.

“NaumGabo:1890–1977.”Artforum16(November1977):22–27.

“IchbineinBerliner.”The ARTgallery21(June–July1978):70–72.

Rickey,George,andDonaldJudd.“TwoContemporaryArtistsComment.”Art Journal41(Autumn1981):248–50.

“Veksoelund.”InSkulptor Veksolund.Veksoe,Denmark:1984.

“ATechnologyofKineticArt.”Scientific American268(February1993):74–79.

Books, monogrAphs, And solo exhiBit ion CAtAlogs

ArtCenterofSouthBend.George Rickey in South Bend: September 8–October 20, 1985.SouthBend,IN:TheCenter,1985.

Barnes,LucindaA.George Rickey: Drawings for Sculpture.Williamstown,MA:WilliamsCollegeMuseumofArt,1977.

Davidson,Maxwell,III.George Rickey: The Early Works.Atglen,PA:SchifferBooks,2004.

Fletcher,Valerie,LucindaH.Gedeon,GeorgeRickey,andPhilipRickey.George Rickey: Kinetic Sculpture; A Retrospective.VeroBeach,FL:VeroBeachMuseumofArt,2007.

Merkert,Jörn,andUrsulaPrinz,eds.George Rickey in Berlin, 1967–1992.Berlin:ArsNicolaiGmbH,1992.

Reiko,Tomii.“BetweenTwoContinents:GeorgeRickey,KineticArtandConstructivism,1949–1968.”Ph.D.diss.,UniversityofTexasatAustin,1988.

Rosenthal,Nan.George Rickey.NewYork:HarryN.Abrams,1977.

UCLAArtCouncil.George Rickey: Retrospective Exhibition, 1951–71.LosAngeles:UCLAArtCouncil,1971.

88 89

ArtiCles

Goodman,Jonathan.“ThePublicArtofGeorgeRickey.”Arts Magazine62(May1988):96–99.

Gruen,John.“TheSculptureofGeorgeRickey:SilentMovement,PerforminginaWorldofItsOwn.”ArtNews79(April1980):94–98.

Hanzal,Carla:“WithinthePoetryofMotion:GeorgeRickey.”Sculpture18(October1999):44–47.Rosenthal,Nan.“GoingwiththeWind:Rickey’s‘Lines’and‘Planes.’”Art in America63(November–December1975):89–91,93.

Secunda,Arthur.“TwoMotionSculptors:TinguelyandRickey.”Artforum1(June1962):16–18.

interviews And f ilms

The Moving World of George Rickey.DVD.DirectedbyKevinMacDonald.London:FigmentFilms,1998.

Rickey,George.InterviewbyJosephTravatoattheartist’shome,EastChatham,NewYork,July17,1965.Transcript.SmithsonianArchivesofAmericanArt.

generAl sourCes on sCulpture

Burnham,Jack.Beyond Modern Sculpture: The Effects of Science and Technology on the Sculpture of This Century.NewYork:GeorgeBraziller,1968.

Burnham,Jack.“SystemEsthetics.”Artforum7(September1968):30–35.

Cohen,MarkDaniel.“Constructivism:ThePenetrationofNature’sStructures.”Sculpture19(January–February2000):32–37.

Day,HollidayT.,DoreAshton,andLenaVigna.Crossroads of American Sculpture: David Smith, George Rickey, John Chamberlain, Robert Indiana, William T. Wiley, Bruce Nauman.Indianapolis:IndianapolisMuseumofArt,2000.

Gabo,Naum,andAntoinePevsner.“TheRealisticManifesto.”InArt in Theory 1900–2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas.EditedbyCharlesHarrisonandPaulWood.Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishing,2003.

Gruen,John.The Artist Observed: 28 Interviews with Contemporary Artists.Chicago:ACappellaBooks,1991.

Kagan,Dick.“SculptureAgainsttheSky.”Art & Antiques28(March2005):92–95.Krauss,Rosalind.Passages in Modern Sculpture.NewYork:VikingPress,1977.

NassauCountyMuseumofFineArt.Sculpture: The Tradition in Steel, 9 October 1983–22 January 1984, Nassau County Museum of Fine Art.RoslynHarbor,NY:TheMuseum,1983.

Rotzler,Willy.Constructive Concepts: A History of Constructive Art from Cubism to the Present.NewYork:Rizzoli,1989.

Selz,PeterHoward.Directions in Kinetic Sculpture.Berkeley:UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,UniversityArtGallery,1966.

Siegal,Jeanne.Artwords: Discourse on the 60s and 70s.AnnArbor,MI:UMIResearchPress,1985.

Story,Ala.Constructivist Tendencies; From the Collections of Mr. and Mrs. George Rickey.SantaBarbara:UniversityofCalifornia,SantaBarbara,ArtGallery,1970.

riCkey’s influenCes

Calder,Alexander.Calder: An Autobiography with Pictures.NewYork:PantheonBooks,1966.

Giménez,Carmen,andAlexanderS.C.Rower,eds.Calder: Gravity and Grace.NewYork:PhaidonPress,2004.

Hammer,Martin.Constructing Modernity: The Art and Career of Naum Gabo.NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2000.

Krauss,Rosalind.Terminal Iron Works: The Sculpture of David Smith.Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1971.

Marter,Joan.“TheLegacyofAlexanderCalder.”Sculpture17(July–August1998):30–35.

Moulin,Hélene,andFrançoisFossier.Andre Lhote, 1885–1962: Exposition, Musee de Valence, Valence, du 15 juin au 28 septembre 2003.Paris:Réuniondesmuséesnationaux,2003.

Nash,StevenA.David Smith: Drawing and Sculpting.Dallas,TX:NasherSculptureCenter,2005.

90 91

photo Credits

Colophon

GeoffreyClements,CourtesyoftheGeorgeRickeyWorkshop,—page32

ChuckLoving—pages18–19,20–21,22,and23

SteveMoriarty—pages6–7,and64

EricNisly—coverimageandpages4–5,8–9,10–11,12–13,14–15,16–17,33,34,

38,39,42,47,49,51,52,55,57,58,59,63,67,68,69,71,72,and73

MichaelSwoboda—titlepageimageandpages25,26,and66

OtherimagescourtesyoftheGeorgeRickeyWorkshop—pages44and45

PrintedbyRinkPrinting,SouthBend,Indiana,July2009

BoundatA&HBindery,Broadview,Illinois

Cover:130lbUtopiaPremiumSilkCover

Body:115lbUtopiaPremiumSilkText

Flysheet:70lbRoyalMetallicsSteelText,Excalibur

Typefaces:ScalaandGotham

DesignandproductionbyMichaelSwoboda,MA’08

PublishedbytheSniteMuseumofArt,UniversityofNotreDame

Copyright2009