grammar ii. clauses

GRAMMAR II- COLOQUIO

TEACHER: ANDREA ARELLANO. STUDENT: ADELA PEREZ DEL VISO

TOPIC: SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN GENERAL. +

NOMINAL CLAUSES- ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.

SIMPLE, COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES.

SIMPLE.

COMPOUND: consists of 2 or more clauses at the same grammatical level. Each of them: a main clause.

COMPLEX sentence: CONTAINS a subordinate clause as one of its constituents.

CLASSES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

FINITE, NON FINITE AND VERBLESS CLAUSES

“… when we were drinking wine.” “while drinking w…” “In order to drink

w.”… After some time, …

CLASSES AS REGARDS FUNCTION

NOMINAL CLAUSES: can have a range of functions similar to N.PH.s.-

RELATIVE CLAUSES: postmodify N PH.s ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: a range of

functions similar to ADV Ph.or P.P. as adverbials

COMPARATIVE CLAUSES :with more,less or as and inflection –er function as intensifiers.

FINITE, NON FINITE AND VERBLESS IN DET. Non finite: a) -ing participle clause with

subject: I don´t have a dog barking all day.

B) –ing part. Witho. Subject: Barking all day long, the dog was exhausted.

C) –ed part.cl. With subjetct: I don´t have a dog covered with a dress.

D) –ed part. Cl witho. Sub: Covered with a dress, the dog looked ridiculous.

OTHERS:

To inf. With subject: I told Mary to read the book. To inf. With o. subject: I ordered to march towards the sun. Bare inf. With subject: (causative): I

made them march towards the sun. Bare inf. W.o. subject: It helps support

our style of marching.

VERBLESS CLAUSES:

No cars there, the street was peaceful. (with subject)

Although under subjection, streets seemed peaceful.

FOUR CASES: NOMINAL, RELATIVE, ADVERBIAL AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES NOMINAL CLAUSES: FUNCTIONS: **SUBJECT: That this is a good

environment, is for sure. Working on your own is the best way

of living. **COMPLEMENT OF A VERB: (d.o.): He asked to be taken to the

country.

(NOMINAL CL):

Other N.CLAUSES can function as: **COMPLEMENT OF AN ADJECTIVE: It is sure that her mother is safe. (sure, prepared, surprised). COMPLEMENT OF A PREPOSITION: He promised to leave as soon as he

could. COMPLEMENT OF A NOUN: the fact, the

idea, the report that everything is fine.

RELATIVE CLAUSES.

They postmodify N.PHRASES. They can be restrictive or non

restrictive. REDUCED RELATIVE CLAUSES: have a

non finite verb: Most people wearing bright colours

are happier. Most people, depressed by the

notice, felt quite down the weather.

FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

DISJUNCTS: Style disjuncts: … if you know what I

mean. Content disjuncts: Broadly speaking…

ADJUNCTS: …while singing loud songs. …where we used to gather before.

FUNCTIONS OF COMPARATIVE CLAUSES We use a comparative clause with a

preceding CORRELATIVE. (more, less, as)

With the preceding correlative, they function as intensifiers:

He should drive more rapidly than others.

“MORE THAN OTHERS” modifies the adverb rapidly and functions as intensifier.

**Less harm than it might be expected. “LESS THAN IT M.B.E.”: intensifier of

harm.

NOMINAL CLAUSES / TYPES.

SUBORDINATE DECLARATIVE CL: finite/ non finite.

SUBORDINATE INTERROGATIVE CL.: yes/no // wh //

SUBORDINATE EXCLAMATIVE CL. NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSE.

SUBORDINATE DECLARATIVE CLAUSES FINITE subordinate declarative clauses: They are introduced by “that”- They function as: complement of a verb

(“he told me that”, with the pro clause “so”),

Compl. Of an adjective (sure that it is true)

Compl. Of a noun: idea, belief, concept that it is true.

SUBORDINATE DECLARATIVE CLAUSES NON FINITE: -ING clauses. -ed clauses. -bare inf. Clauses (let me … )

SUBORDINATE INTERROGATIVE CLAUSESTHREE TYPES:

YES/NO CLAUSES: If and weather. I don´t know if you have studied the issue. I asked whether they knew the issue. ALTERNATIVE CLAUSES: whether /or … whether they knew the issue or not. WH CLAUSES: introduced by a wh word

(determiner, pronoun or adverb): He asked Mary what would be the best

thing to do.

SOME DETAILS AS REGARDS INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES:

IF/ WHETHER restrictions: If : more restricted than w.:

Only whether: a) with a to-inf. clause b) as complement of a preposition. (as to whether they were gathered or not) c) only whether followed by “or not”.

IF and WHETHER can be repeated in alternative clauses, if they are in full.

SUBORDINATE EXCLAMATIVE CLAUSES In this use, the clause is introduced by HOW AND WHAT. How and what are intensifiers. He realised in amazement how much

their children loved each other. (THE “loved each other”, and “how

much “ they did it, is an intensifier. )

NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

OTHER NAMES: independent relaive clauses or free relative clauses.

They resemble N. PHR.s. Like N.Ph. They can take plural verbs. They can have personal reference: He speaks to whoever girl he encounters. With plural verbs: What he really wants to see, are girls in

bikini.

OTHER CONCEPTIONS:

Some grammarians: NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSE is a NOUN

PHRASE. (RATHER THAN A CLAUSE). In this conception, it is a NOUN

PHRASE, and the head (what, whatever, whoever) is a “fused relative” and the rest of the clause: a postmodifying relative clause.

He gave me what I needed. (head: what).

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES:

May be finite, non finite (to-inf/ bare inf, -ing, -ed) and verbless.

FINITE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES: Generally they have a subordinator: if /although, in case, when. IF IT RAINS, I´LL GO

Exceptionally, in cases of invertion, subject –operator inversion is used instead of the subordinator. HAD IT RAINED, I WOULD HAVE GONE.

NON FINITE CLAUSES WITHO. A SUBJECT If the non finite or verbless clause does

not have a subject: it is understood that the subject is identical with the subject of the host clause.

If the understood subject is not identical, it is said to be a dangling or unattached clause:

If under rain, the march would be terrible.

… about that illness. If severe, nerve cell death may result.

VIOLATION OF IDENTIAL/SUBJECT RULE: Generally: considered to be an error. EXCEPTIONS: Style disjunct: Broadly speaking, the

items were in good condition. If the understood subj. Is you, we, one: It

is the same thing when turning the lights on.

If the understood subject is the whole host clause: I would like it covered in red, if possible.

ABSOLUTE CLAUSES

Adverbial participle clauses or advebial verbless clauses

Not introduced by a subordinator They have their own subject: Winds having blown all night, the

streed seemed to be a disaster.

MEANINGS OF ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

PLACE CLAUSES TEMPORAL CLAUSES. CONDITIONAL CLAUSES.

(OPEN/HYPOTHETICAL) CIRCUMSTANTIAL CLAUSES. CONCESSIVE CLAUSES. REASON/PURPOSE/ RESULT CLAUSES. MANNER CLAUSES PROPORTION AND SIMILARITY CLAUSES

PLACE AND TEMPORAL CLAUSES

Place clauses: may refer to POSITION: He will sit wherever he wants. MAY REFER TO DIRECTION: He was going TOWARDS N.Y. CITY. Temporal clauses: The host clause may occur

before, at the same time or at a later time than that of the temporal clause:

After drinking some water he felt better. Before walking so long distance, his leg was

not so bad.

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. They exhibit a parallel with subordinate

interrogative clauses: Both : information is missing. For cond.

clauses, the missing info is about the fulfilment of the condition.

The distinction of the three types of interrogative clauses (y/n, alternative or wh) are analogous to those in conditional clauses.

If and whether are used as subordinators. Rhetorical quest. aralleled by rhetorical

conditions. If anybody knows more, I´m dead.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT CONDITION. THERE IS A POSSIBLE TRUTH OF THE

HOST CLAUSE: APODOSIS. AND THE FULFILMENT OF THE

CONDITION IN THE CONDITIONAL CLAUSE (IF CLAUSE): PROTASIS.

Direct conditional clauses: indicate that the truth of the host clause depends on the fulfilment of the if clause (apodosis depends on protasis)

INDIRECT CONDITIONS:

They are “speech acts”.” “… if you know what I mean.” Apodosis do not depend on protasis.

DIRECT CONDITIONS: OPEN AND HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONS: OPEN CONDITIONS: They leave completely

open whether the condition will be fulfilled. The speaker does not indicate if he

believes the condition has been fulfilled. HYPOTHETICAL conditions: The

hypothetical cond. Will be conveyed through verb forms backshifted. They express the idea that the condition has not been fulfilled.

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHETICAL CONDITIONS -- with idea of “present”: I´d be happy if I could pass this exam. -- with idea of “past”: I would have been happy if my mother

had visited me. (the condition has not been fulfilled, or is

not fulfilled). The subjunctive WERE is used sometimes: I would be happy if I WERE you.

SUBJECT/OPERATOR INVERSION IN CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

Cond. Clauses may have subject operator inversion without a subordinator.

Auxiliaries: had, were or should HAD HE WON the prize, he would

be happy now.

CONDITIONAL SUBORDINATORS

If I were you… Unless it is true… Provided that… If only it was true… Should it rain, …

CIRCUMSTANTIAL AND CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

Circumstantial cl: express a general idea of place or time: … whenever he wants//

Concessive: THERE IS A HOST CLAUSE/ AND A CONCESSIVE CLAUSE.

The situation in the host cl. Is unexpected in view of what is said in the concessive clause.

Although it started as a bright sunny day, it rained heavily afterwards.

REASON/ CAUSE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES Reason clauses: express notions as

reason and cause There is a host clause and a reason

clause. Sometimes the reason clause is a

speech act. … since you are a dumb.

PURPOSE CLAUSE

May be FINITE AND NON FINITE. Finite purpose clause: They take a

modal auxiliary: they refer to an event that has yet to take place: “… since one person can go to the front…”

Infinitival (non finite) purpose clause: They are more frequent. / To-infinitive clauses witho. A subordinator/ in order to, so as to.

RESULT CLAUSE

There is a host clause and a result clause.

He studied quickly, so that he was able to be on time.

You never speak aloud, so I do not hear you.

They refer to a situation that is or was in effect.

MANNER CLAUSE

Manner clauses refer to the manner of the action expressed by the verb.

Though treated here for convenience, they are also COMPLEMENTS OF THE VERB.

They do AS THEY ARE INSTRUCTED. You go on, AS IF YOU HAD NOT HEARED

ANYTHING. (as, as if, as though)

PROPORTION AND SIMILARITY CLAUSES Both prop. and similarity cl. Involve

kinds of comparison. The thinner the girl, the better she

looks. The in proportion clauses is not a

definitive article: it comes from OLD ENGLISH of the instrumental case THY of the demonstrative pronoun : “by that the faster, by that the better” and it is similar to “so”.

OTHER DETAILS AS REGARDS PROPORTION AND SIMILARITY CLAUSES

Reduced case: The simpler, the better.

Similarity clauses resemble the second type of proportion clause in form:

JUST AS our fortune reduced, so our possibilities to afford his studies died.

It means that something happens in the same proportion of another process.