individual process in organization
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Individual Process in Organization
Sub Topics
• Perception & Attribution
• Learning
• Motivation
• Personality
• Attitude
Perception
• The process by which an individual selects, organizes & interprets the events happening in the environment
Sensation vs. Perception • Physical senses – vision, hearing, touch ,smell &
taste • Senses receive stimuli both from with in & out
side the body
Perception contd..
• External stimuli – light, sound, mechanical pressure, taste & smell
• Internal stimuli – hunger, thirst & pain
Perception is more complex than sensation
• Although perception depends largely upon the senses for raw data, the cognitive process may filter, modify or completely change these data
Perception contd..
Diff b/w perception & sensation
e.g. a subordinate’s answer to a question is based on what he heard the boss say, not on what the boss actually said
Sub processes of Perception • Stimulus
• Registration
Sub processes of Perception contd..
• Interpretation
• Feedback
• Behavior
• Consequence
Perceptual Selectivity
• Sometimes stimuli may be so subtle that an individual may not even be conscious that he is exposed to some stimulus – subliminal perception
• PS depends upon external attention factors & internal set factors
External Attention Factors
• Intensity – high intensity – noticed
e.g. bright light, strong odor, loud noise
• Size – Larger object is more likely to be noticed than a smaller object
• Contrast – the stimuli that contradict most with the background, receive maximum attention
Which Blue Square is Smaller?
External Attention Factors contd..
• Repetition – more no of times a stimulus is repeated the more it is likely to be noticed
• Motion – people give more attention to moving objects than the stationary objects
• Novelty & Familiarity
New objects in familiar situation
Familiar objects in a new situation
Draws Attention
Internal Set Factors
Set – Cognitive process based on the psychology
Learning & Perception – Learning creates expectancies in individuals & encourages them to perceive things in a particular way
Learning & Perception
HILLY TERRRAIN
AHEAD
Internal Set Factors Contd..
Perceptual set in the work place• E/e – working – same org – interprets the things
in a similar way, may be by the way of common name, phrases, remarks
• Learning leads to substantial individual differences – leads to perceptual differences
Motivation & Perception
Perceptual set influenced by
Primary – hunger, thirst
Secondary – power, affiliation
Internal Set Factors Contd..
Personality & perception • Young mgrs complaint senior mgrs resist
change – rely on paper wk, delayed decisions
• Senior mgrs – young mgrs initiate unnecessary change, fail to maintain record, hasty decisions
Factors Influencing Perception
The Perceiver • An individuals perception is greatly influenced by
his unfulfilled needs & goals
e.g. research is conducted on participants not taken food for 1 hr – 16 hr
• Expectations may distort perception – people tend to view person the way they expect the person to be, irrespective of the actual traits of the person
e.g. Doctor – soft spoken, Police – rude
Factors Influencing Perception contd..
The Target • Perception is affected by the characteristics of
the target• People may gp objects together – physical
proximity• Events may grouped together – occurred during
the same time
e.g. 2-4 e/e quit – org – same time – mgt find a common reason
Factors Influencing Perception contd..
The Situation• The situation or environment in which objects or
events are seen plays an important role in influencing an individual’s perceptions
e.g. dress code, behavior
Factors Influencing Perception
Perceptual Organization Emphasizes on the activities that takes place
in the perceptual process after a stimulus is received
PO is the process by which people gp environmental stimuli into recognizable pattern
Diff forms of perceptual orgFigure Ground – perceived objects are
separated from their general background by the perceiver
Perceptual Organization contd..
Perceptual Grouping – an individual tends to group several stimuli together in to a recognizable pattern on the basis of closure, continuity, proximity, similarity
• Closure – a person sometimes perceive a whole-where it does not exist, sometimes a person may not able to perceive a whole-although one exist
The gaps that remain unfilled from sensory input are bridged by the person’s perceptual process
Perceptual Organization contd..
• Continuity – closure fills the missing stimulus, in continuity person tends to perceive the extension of a stimulus
• Proximity – a gp of stimuli that are physically close to each other are perceived as a set of parts belonging together e.g. e/e of same dept.
• Similarity – The greater the similarity of the stimuli, they are perceived as a common gp
e.g. dress, gender, profession
Perceptual Organization contd.. Perceptual Constancy • Perception of elements like size, shape, color
etc remain constant & does not change from one individual to another
• Learning helps individual – perceive certain patterns of cues in a similar way & leads to perceptual constancy
e.g. identification of fruits, flowers
Perceptual Context • Most advanced form of perceptual
organization
Perceptual Organization contd..
• It provides meaning & value to objects, events, situation & other people in the environment
e.g. mgr & e/e may use same language, but words & actions used may have different meaning
Perceptual defense• Closely related to the P.Context• e/e may establish a defense against some
stimuli – may be clashing with his personal values, culture
Social Perception How we get to know others
Classic research findings on some specific characteristics of perceiver & perceived are,
Knowing oneself – easy to see others accurately One’s own characteristics affect the characteristics
one is likely to see in others People who accept themselves are more likely to be
able to see favorable aspects of other peopleAccuracy in perceiving others - not a single skill
Status of the person perceived
Social Perception contd..
• Org participants must realize that – their perceptions of another person – influenced by their own char & others char
Ex: 1. High self esteem (self perceived competence & self
image of people) mgr + pleasant person = mgr perceives favorably, positively
2. Low self esteem mgr + arrogant person = mgr perceives negative & unfavorable manner
Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others
Halo Effect• Drawing a general impression
about an individual on the basis of a single positive trait
• Horns effect – person downgraded , single negative trait or incident
Stereotyping• Judging someone on the basis of
one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs
Attribution
• How people explain the cause of another’s or their own behavior – cognitive process
2 types • Dispositional – behavior is attributed to the
internal factors that characterize the person, such as personality traits, motivation & ability
• Situational – behavior is attributed to the external factors, equipment, m/c, social influence etc
Attribution contd…
Attribution Theory
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations
Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation
Consistency: responds in the same way over time
Distinctiveness: shows different behaviors in different situations
Consensus: response is the same as others to same situation
Consistency: responds in the same way over time
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused
When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused
Attribution contd…
• Harold Kelly – social psychologist – concerned mainly with cognitive processes - internally or externally caused
Errors and Biases in Attributions
Fundamental Attribution ErrorPeople tend to ignore powerful situational forces
when explaining others behavior & tend to attribute others behavior to personal factors (eg. Intelligence, ability, motivation, attitudes, personality), even when it is clear that the situation caused the person to behave the way he did
Errors and Biases in Attributions (cont’d)
Self-Serving Bias
• The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors
Impression Management
• How people like to present themselves in a socially desirable way & impress others
2 Components • Impression Motivation• Impression Construction
Impression Motivation• The extent to which an individual is motivated
to manage his impression depends upon certain factors like,
• relevance of these impressions
Impression Management contd..
• the value of goals• The discrepancy b/w the image, the individual
would like to create of himself in others mind & the image he believes others already have about him
Impression Construction• Methods adopted by a person to create the
specific impression that he wants
Learning
Definition
• Any relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience – Stephen P. Robbins
• The process by which skills, knowledge, attitudes & behavior are formed & developed as a result of education, training, socialization & exp
The Theoretical Process
1. Behavioristic Theories – Classical & Operant – learning occurs as a consequence of behavior (S-R)
Classical Conditioning • Russian Psychologist – Ivan Pavlov
• A piece of meat to dog (unconditioned stimulus) – starts salivating (unconditioned response)
Behavioristic - Classical Conditioning
• Bell – no salivation – neutral
• Meat + Bell – repeat the process – salivation
• Only Bell (conditioned stimulus) – salivation (conditioned response)
Behavioristic - Operant Conditioning
• B.F. Skinner – Operant chamber (Skinner Box) – (R-S)
• Box has a lever – by pressing – drops a piece of food
• Hungry rat placed in the box – search for food – accidentally press leaver – food drops – learn to press the lever to get food (trial & error)
2. Cognitive Theories• Edward Tolman – Theorist – cognitive learning –
relationship b/w cognitive environmental cues & expectation (S-S)
• Experiment is conducted on white rats – placed in maze – allowed to run – some points food – rats find food – learning took place (cue – expectation)
• Applied to Industrial Training – org procedure, supervisory – rewards, incentives
Social Learning Theory
• Combination of behaviorist & cognitive concepts
1. Modeling Process – Albert Bandura • Through observation – mental picture of an
act – by some one
• Then enacts the acquired image
• If consequences turn out to be positive – repeated or else discontinued
Social Learning Theory
2. Self Efficacy – the self perceptions of how well a person can cope with situations as they arise
• People with high self efficacy – cope with situations as they arise
Personality & Attitudes
Definition
Sum total of ways in which an individual interacts with people & reacts to situations
Refers to a set of unique characteristics that make an individual different from others
How people affect others & how they understand & view themselves, as well as their pattern of inner & outer measurable traits & the person situation interaction
Introduction Role of Heredity & the Brain – Research by
American psychological association – complex
Self Esteem – recent study proves that, person with high self esteem - +ve attitude, life satisfaction, less anxiety
Person-situation interaction - This enhances the understanding of human personality
Personality Traits - The Big Five Model
• Extraversion• Extent to which person is
comfortable with other people
• People with high degree of extraversion – Extroverts
• People with low degree of extraversion – Introverts
Personality Traits Contd…
• Agreeableness
Extent to which a person subjugate his interests for the sake of the group
Personality Traits
• Conscientiousness
• Extent to which a person is responsible & achievement oriented
• Emotional stability
• An individual’s ability to withstand stress
Personality Traits
• Openness to experience
An individual’s range of interests & indicate how innovative or how rigid he is in his beliefs
The self concept: Self Esteem & Self Efficacy
• Self – personality of an individual as viewed by that person himself
• Self Concept – efforts made by an individual to understand his own self
• Self esteem – self perceived competence & self image of people
The self concept: Self Esteem & Self Efficacy
• Self efficacy – person’s perception of his ability to cope with different situations as they arise
• Self esteem – generalized trait
• Self efficacy – situation specific
Personality Determinants
• Heredity – an individual’s personality is determined by the type of genes he inherits from his parents
Personality Determinants
• Environment – culture of the society, norms set by the parents, teachers, & other social groups with which the individual interacts
• Situation – Personality changes with the situation (partially)
Other personality attributes that influence OB
• Locus of Control - An individual’s perception of what controls his or her fate i.e. the degree to which people believe that they can control their fate or any situation
• Internals – they are masters of their fate – high satisfaction & commitment, Low absenteeism
• Externals – fate is controlled by luck – Dissatisfied with their wk, low commitment, absenteeism
Other personality attributes that influence OB contd..
• The concept was named after Niccolò Machiavelli (1469 - 1527), who wrote Il Principe (The Prince)
• Niccolò Machiavelli - Italian diplomat, political philosopher, musician, poet and playwright
• use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain
Other personality attributes that influence OB contd..
• Machiavellianism (Mach) – the degree, to which an individual is practical in his approach, maintains an emotional distance from others, & believes that ends justify the means
Do the Machiavellians make good e/e?• High Mach person – perform well in
situations that involve face-to-face meetings, productive in jobs require use of bargaining skills, rewards for the achievement of goals
Other personality attributes that influence OB Contd…
• Self-Monitoring – ability of an individual to adapt his behavior to the demands of the situation
• Risk Taking – extent to which an individual is prepared to take risk
Other personality attributes that influence OB Contd…
• Type A personality – ambitious & achievement oriented
• Type B personality – not achievement oriented, do not take too much responsibility with in a short span of time
Levinson’s Theory of adult Life stages
4 periods of stability• 1. 22-25 – individual steps in to the adult
stage
• 2. 33-40 – individual is in the process of settling down
• 3. 45-50 – enters the middle adulthood
• 4. 55-60 – old age
Levinson’s Theory of adult Life stages contd…
4 transition period
• 1. Age 30 transitions – b/w 28 & 33
• 2. Mid-life transitions – b/w 40 & 45
• 3. Age 50 transitions – b/w 50 & 55
• 4. Late adult transition – b/w 60 & 65
Hall’s Career Stage Model
• Individual passes through 4 stages during his career
• Exploration – seeks an identity for himself
• Establishment – e/e tries to settle down in his job
Hall’s Career Stage Modelcontd…
• Maintenance – productivity of an e/e reaches peak
• Decline – productivity of a person starts declining
Chris Argyris Immaturity to Maturity theory
• The degree of development of individual’s personality – explained in 7 dimensions i.e. immaturity (Infancy) to maturity (adulthood)
Chris Argyris Immaturity to Maturity theory
The socialization Process
• Through which an individual’s personality is influenced by his interaction with certain persons, groups & society
• Edgar Schein – individual wking in an org – contribute to socialization
The socialization Process contd..
• Socialization techniques differ from org to org
• Helps in reducing role conflict & increasing job satisfaction
Socialization - Characteristics
# Change in the attitude, values & behavior
# Continues for a period of time
# Helps the new e/e to adjust
Matching Personalities with jobs
• John Holland – personality job fit theory
• Relationship b/w personality characteristics & job requirements
• The job satisfaction of an individual & his tendency to quit a job are determined by the extent to which his personality matches with the environment & requirement of the job
Personality job fit theory
OtherPersonality Theories
Type Theories Structure of the body – Sheldon Kretschmer• Ectomorph -- thin, frail body; believed by Sheldon to reveal a
shy, restrained, and introspective temperament
Psychological Characteristics Self-conscious Private Introverted Socially anxious Artistic Intense Emotionally restrained Thoughtful
Type Theories contd..
• Mesomorph -- muscular, strong body; believed to display a bold, assertive, and energetic temperament
Psychological Characteristics
Adventurous
Courageous
Indifferent to what others think or want
Assertive/bold
Competitive
With a desire for power/dominance
Type Theories contd..
• Endomorph – short, large, soft body; believed to display a relaxed, sociable and easygoing temperament
Psychological Characteristics
Sociable
Fun-loving
Love of food
Tolerant
Even-tempered
Good humored, Relaxed
Type Theories contd..
Acc to Carl Jung,
• Introverts - People with low degree of extraversion
• Extroverts - People with high degree of extraversion
Trait Theory
• The big five Model
Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud
• Based on – man is motivated more by unseen forces & controlled by conscious & rational thought
• Clinical techniques were used to develop the theory – case studies of patients
• 3 aspects – id, ego, superego
– interrelated & artificially
separated for the study
Psychoanalytic Theory contd..
Id• Id is the most basic part and is present at birth
• functions with the pleasure principle - tends to be a little animalistic
• can be irrational and illogical
Psychoanalytic Theory contd..
• Psychic energy & seeks immediate satisfaction for needs (basic)
• Matured individual learns to control id
• It remains a driving force throughout life & an important source of thinking & behaving
Psychoanalytic Theory contd..
Ego -Your consciousness of your own identity• Conscious & logical part of the human personality –
associated with reality principle
• Ego keeps the id in check
• Conflicting situations arise, id seeks immediate satisfaction – ego controls
• To resolve conflict ego gets support from
the superego
Psychoanalytic Theory contd..
Superego• Represents social & personal norms – serves as an
ethical constraint on behavior
• Determine what is wrong or right
Levels of consciousness of Id, Ego, Superego
Super ego
Id
Ego Conscious
Unconscious
Social Learning Theory
• Based on the situation – human behavior is determined
• Mainly on behavior patterns & cognitive activities – what individual do in a particular situation
• Competencies• Cognitive strategies • Outcome expectation • Self regulatory systems & plans
The Humanistic Approach
Rogers Self Theory • Phenomenological – study of individual’s subjective
experience, feelings & his views of the world & self
2 concepts,• Self – ideas, perception, values that characterize I or
me (what I am, what I can do)• Self actualization – basic motivating force
representing the inherent tendency – to develop capabilities – to maintain person
The Humanistic Approach contd..
Maslow’s Self Actualization Theory
• Development of full individuality – with all parts of the personality
• Based on Existential Philosophy – man as an individual & each person alone is responsible for his own existence
AttitudesAttitudes
Definition
A tendency to feel & behave in a particular way towards objects, people or events
Characteristics
• Remain unchanged for a long period – unless influenced by external forces
• Evaluative statements – favorable or unfavorable
Components of attitudes
• Cognitive – the opinions, values or beliefs of an individual
• Affective – the feelings of a person towards something
• Behavioral – the intention of a person to behave in a particular way
The ABC Model…
Managerial styleTechnologyNoisePeersReward s/mCareer opportunities
Beliefs & Values
Feelings & Emotions
Intended Behavior
Stimuli
Cognition
Affect
Behavior
Sources of Attitude
Attitudes are acquired by parents, teachers, & peer group members
• Individuals are willing to modify their behavior & shape their attitude – to match with the opinion leader
• Attitude can be changed by providing feedback
Types of Attitude1. Job satisfaction
• the pleasurable or positive emotional state that results when an individual evaluates his job or job experience
Dimensions
• JS is an emotional response to a job
• JS that an individual derives from his job depends on the extent to which outcomes meet his expectations
Dimensions contd…
• JS reflects other attitudes of e/e’s
6 dimensions – P.C. Smith, L.M Kendall, C.L. Hulin
• The work, the pay, promotion, opportunity, supervision, co-worker, working conditions
Types of Attitude contd…
2. Job Involvement
The extent to which person identifies himself psychologically with his job, actively participates in it & considers that his performance in the job contribute to his self worth
Types of Attitude contd…3. Organizational Commitment
An e/e’s satisfaction with a particular organization & its goals
OC is affected by a number of,
• Personal variables – e/e’s age, attitude towards job
• Organizational variables – job design, leadership style of the superior
Organizational commitment contd..
John P. Meyer & Natalie J. Allen – 3 component model
• Affective commitment – concerned with e/e emotional attachment & involvement with the org
• Continuance commitment – influenced by the costs that could accrue to the e/e if he leaves the org
• Normative commitment – refers to the extent to which an e/e feels obliged to continue in the org
Functions of Attitudes
1. The adjustment function• People modify their attitudes to adjust
to their work environment
• When fair treatment is given – positive attitude
• When treatment is not good – negative attitude
Functions of Attitudes contd…
2. Ego-defensive function• Attitudes help e/e to defend their self
image – when mistake identified – protects their ego
3. The value expressive function• Values can be expressed through
attitudese.g. if mgr wants e/e to wk hard – may tell comp has a tradition of hard
wk
Functions of Attitudes contd…
4. The knowledge function
• Attitudes act as a standard of reference which allows people to understand & explain their environment
e.g. union leaders attitude towards mgt – based on past
Attitudes & Consistency
• People may change their attitude – do not contradict their action
• If any discrepancy arises, individuals will try to bridge the discrepancy by developing a rational explanation for the discrepancy
Cognitive Dissonance Theory – Leon Festinger (1950s,)
Incompatibility that an individual may perceive b/w 2 or more of his attitudes or b/w his behavior or attitude – Cognitive Dissonance
Cognitive Dissonance Theory contd…
Emotional Dissonance – conflict b/w the emotions an individual experiences & emotions he needs to express
Cognitive Dissonance Theory contd…
An individual can deal with dissonance either by,
• Sticking to his attitude
• Give up his attitude
• Change the attitude
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