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LIMITLESS POTENTIAL | LIMITLESS OPPORTUNITIES | LIMITLESS IMPACTLIMITLESS POTENTIAL | LIMITLESS OPPORTUNITIES | LIMITLESS IMPACTCopyright University of Reading
INGLISH ORTHOGRAFY MAIX SPELINGINTERESTING
Reading and Spelling Workshop Macquarie University
27th September 2017
Rhona Stainthorp1
Institute of Education
• Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders (CCD)
• Reading Clinic
• MUSEC (Macquarie University Special Education Centre)
• MURDR (Macquarie University Reading…….
• FRiLL (Forum for Research in Literacy and Language)
2
OUTLINE• Writing systems: orthographies
• English orthography
• Frameworks to guide teaching
• Simple View of Reading> Word reading processes
• Simple View of Writing> Word spelling processes
• Implications for teaching
• Implications for assessment3
WRITING SYSTEMS
• Writing systems have been created to represent language in visual form – leading to permanent records.
• This is at least as important a technological invention as the wheel.
• The solution to the problem of how to preserve language has not been unitary.
• Different systems are based on different units of representation. 5
MORPHEMIC LEVEL REPRESENTATION• Chinese:
• Characters represent language at the level of the word/concept>Characters do have phonetics
>Many characters are based on both a phonetic and a semantic radical
>Each character is unique
• Advantage of not being sound based:
• Effective communication across languages.
• Disadvantage:
• All characters have to be learned individually both for reading and writing
6
• Morpheme smallest unit of meaning of language that cannot be further subdivided.
• Some morphemes are words.
• These are free morphemes>e.g. <WORD> (can stand on its own) (single morpheme)
A monomorphemic word
• Some morphemes are ‘bound’ – they cannot stand on their own – they have to be “bound” to a free morpheme >e.g. -ING READ + ING; -S BOOK + S;
UN- RIPE; MIS MISSPELL
• Once a monomorphemic word is affixed with (a) bound morpheme(s) it becomes a multi/morphem/ic word.
7
MORPHEMIC LEVEL REPRESENTATION• Chinese:
• Characters represent language at the level of the word/concept>Characters do have a “phonetic”
>Many characters are based on both a phonetic and a semantic radical
>Each character is unique
• Advantage of not being sound based:
• Effective communication across languages.
• Disadvantage:
• All characters have to be learned individually both for reading and writing.
8
• Learning to read characters in China
• Based on number of strokes initially.
• Pinyin (sound spelling) is used to augment Character recognition when children are learning to read, but basically they have to learn the meaning of each character.
• There is no code to learn per se.
• Makes great demands on memory.
• Grade 6 children should know 2,500 characters.
• Grade 7-9 read 3,500 and write 3,000.9
SYLLABIC LEVEL REPRESENTATION• Japanese
• Two systems:
• Kanji Chinese
• Hiragana Katakana syllabic
>Sound based – requires syllabic awareness.
Syllable vowel sound or consonant+vowel sound.
• Advantage of syllabary:
• Smaller set of symbols – 46 “letters”
• Sound is represented but only syllabic awareness needed.
11
• Japanese oral language is of the form
CV CVCV CVCVCV etc.
• Syllable (mora) representation is highly consistent both for reading and spelling.
• No Hiragana or Katakana “letters” are mirror images of each other.
12
PHONEMIC LEVEL REPRESENTATION
• Alphabetic writing systems:
• Roman Greek Cyrillic Arabic Hebrew Thai
• Sound based systems/codes where letters represent phonemes.
13
• Phoneme:
• a perceptually distinct unit of sound in a language that distinguishes one word from another.
• /k/ /æ/ /p/ /t/ /ɒ/ /n/ all different phonemes of English
• When sounded together they can stand for words:
• /kæp/ /kæt/ /kæn/ /tæn/ /tɒp/ /tɒt/ /pɒt/ */pɒn/
• CAP CAT CAN TAN TOP TOT POT *PON
14
REGULAR TRANSPARENT ALPHABETIC SYSTEMS
• Turkish: 29 phonemes 29 letters.
• Very young system: 1928 Ataturk.
• Rational: Each letter represents a different phoneme uniquely and that phoneme is always represented by the same unique letter.
• Turkish is an agglutinative language.
15
• Regular for reading and spelling.
• Anyone who has learned the letter-sound correspondences can identify any written word as long as they can synthesise the word from the phonemes: i.e. blend the phonemes together.
• However, spelling is more demanding than reading.
Babayigit & Stainthorp 2013
16
OPAQUE IRREGULAR DEEP ALPHABETIC SYSTEMS
• English
• Very old writing system based on the Latin alphabet
• This was developed by the Romans in the 7thC BCE with 23 letters corresponding to 23 sounds: 6 vowels sounds and 17 consonants.
• Influenced by a number of different orthographies including Norse German French Dutch Latin Greek etc.
17
MODERN ENGLISH
• 26 letters
• 44 +/- phonemes
• 24 consonant phonemes & 21 consonant letters
• B C D F G H J K L M N P Q P R S T V W X Y Z
• 20 vowel phonemes & 5 vowel letters
• A E I O U plus Y
18
CONSONANT PHONEMES
19
/p/ pat /ʃ/ shop
/b/ bat /ʒ/ treasure
/t/ tat /tʃ/ chip
/d/ dog /dʒ/ jug
/k/ cat /m/ mat
/g/ goat /n/ not
/f/ fat /ŋ/ sing
/v/ vote /l/ log
/θ/ thumb /r/ rat
/ð/ they /j/ yellow
/s/ sat /w/ watch
/z/ zoo /h/ hello
VOWEL PHONEMES
Short monothongvowels
Long monothongvowels
Diphthong vowels
I sit i tree ei play
e wet ɜ girl əʊ go
æ cat ɑ: father ai sigh
ɒ plot ɔ saw aʊ now
ʌ duck u shoe ɔi boy
ʊ put Iə ear
ə banana ɛə air
ʊə pure 20
• Vowel phonemes present the greatest challenge.
• When reading:
• Single vowel letters represent vowel phonemes and they are reasonably consistent.
• But the majority of vowel phonemes are represented by 2 or 3 letter graphemes. > A grapheme is a group of letters that are parsed together to represent one
phoneme.
>Some of these are composed of vowel letters:
- AI EA OA OU EAU VCE >Some are composed of a vowel letter(s) plus a consonant letter(s)
- AL AR ER OW AIR EAR OUR EIGH21
rule
INCONSISTENCY
• One grapheme may stand for a number of different phonemes:
• SEW NEW
• SOUL FOUL SOUP
•BREAD BEAD GREAT-
- REACT
22
CROSS LANGUAGE COMPARISONS
0
25
50
75
100
23(Seymour et al, 2003)
Percentage of word reading accuracy after one year of instruction
BUT
• Children need to be taught to read explicitly.
• It will take them longer to learn in English.
• Providing children with books to read is not teaching them to read – it is providing them with texts to practise what they have been taught – and hopefully giving them a rich diet of print.
• Previously they may not have been taught how to read words.
24
Syllable
Granular size
Course
Fine
Word
TurkishPhoneme EnglishGerman
Chinese
Hiragana
Transparent Opaque
Degree of transparency
Wydell & Butterworth, 1999
THE SIMPLE VIEW OF READING
28
•Reading Comprehension is the product of Word Decoding and Listening Comprehension.
•RC = D x LC
Reading comprehension
0,0,0
1,1,1
Hoover & Gough, 1990
Gough & Tunmer, 1986
Language comprehension
processes
Language comprehension
processes
Visual word recognition processes
Visual word recognition processes
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THE SIMPLE VIEW OF READING
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or
Semantic lexicon
Phonological lexicon
Speech
Abstract letter units
Orthographic lexicon
Grapheme –phoneme correspondence rules
Coltheart – too numerous to mention
SKILLED WORD READING THE DUAL ROUTE
Store of word meanings
Store of word pronunciations
Speech
Letter identification
Store of sight vocabulary
Store and application of phonic rules
SKILLED WORD READING
Regular
DogChipFishHatCoinAmWentClock
Store of word meanings
Store of word pronunciations
Speech
Letter identification
Store of sight vocabulary
Store and application of phonic rules
SKILLED WORD READING
Exception
TwoWasSaidIsSewGo HaveWatch
Nonwords
DegChupNishHanMoinAthWuntCruck
Regular
DogChipFishHatCoinAmWentClock
ENGLISH ORTHOGRAPHY ANDWORD READING
• Regular words can be read by both routes.
• Irregular/exception words can only be accurately read by the direct/ semantic route.
• Unknown words and nonwords can only be read by the phonological/ indirect route.
• GPCs are not just letter-sound correspondences but they include larger orthographic units.
33
• When word reading is skilled there is a reduction in the processing capacity needed for identifying the words– thus freeing up capacity for comprehension.
• Skilled word reading is evidenced by word reading accuracy AND word reading speed.
34
No
vice
rea
der
s Skilled read
ersTHE CHANGING BALANCE OF THE COGNITIVE DEMANDS OF WORD READING & LINGUISTIC COMPREHENSION
(Schematic representation of Katz et al., 2004)
TEACHING• Skilled reading involves using grapheme-phoneme
correspondences - therefore these need to be taught.
• If they are not taught the child has no means of working out a word identity other than by asking or guessing.
• Using GPCs paves the way to building up a stored sight vocabulary.
• This leads to independent word reading.
• The teaching environment needs to provide masses of exposure to print and multiple opportunities to read words multiple times. 36
TEACHING PHONICS
• Teaching phonics means teaching children to map the letters/graphemes onto phonemes and then to blend the resulting phonemes into words.
• This includes:
• teaching children to be explicitly aware of the phonemes – phonemic awareness;
• teaching them to recognise the individual letter shapes.
37
• This has to be done systematically so that all the regular GPCs are taught and learned.
• Children are being taught a skill that enables them to use what they have been taught in order to tackle any word.
• It is not possible to teach this successfully unless the teachers also have explicit phonemic awareness.
38
ADULT PHONEMIC AWARENESS
• The majority of adults do not have explicit phonemic awareness but they are implicitly phonemically aware.
• Teachers need to be supported to reinstate their phonemic awareness in order to teach phonics.
Stainthorp, 2004
39
THEN THERE ARE THECOMMON EXCEPTION WORDS
• These need to be taught as “tricky” words that need to be recognised as whole units.
• Multiple exposure: many repeated readings.
40
INDEPENDENT WORD READING• The combination of systematic phonics teaching
and attention to common exception words gives children the necessary skills to read texts independently.
41
Stainthorp & Hughes, 1999, 2004
READING BEYOND THE WORD
• They need to be exposed to lots of easy, little books to feel confident that they are truly reading.
• Discussions about the text are essential – it isn’t just about the individual words.
42
Language comprehension
processes
Language comprehension
processes
Visual word recognition processes
Visual word recognition processes
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THE SIMPLE VIEW OF READING
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TRANSCRIPTION SKILLS
• Handwriting/Keyboarding and Spelling
• These have to be taught.
• Principles of motor learning have to be included in programmes of teaching.
46
WORD SPELLING
• Spelling is much more difficult than reading.
• The letter sequence has to be generated.
• Word reading is analogous to recognition.
• Word spelling is analogous to recall.
47
PHONICS AND WORD SPELLING
• When reading children have to be able to blend the results of mapping the letter/graphemes onto phonemes and then blend to these into words.
• When spelling they have to be able to segment words into their component phonemes and then to map these onto letter/graphemes.
49
• Segmentation is more difficult than blending.
• It doesn’t just happen – children need to practise playing with segmenting words into component phonemes.
• Then they need to practise generating letter sequences to represent the relevant phonemes.
50
MORPHOLOGY AND SPELLING• English spelling is characterised as being
morphophonemic.
• All the sounds are represented (hence phonics to start with).
• But also meaning is represented through affixation.
• Interrogation of meaning elements and learning to represent “bound” morphemes supports spelling skills.
• And vocabulary expansion.51
PRE PHONICS TEACHING
W_s po_ a tippe ther w_s a egg a f__d and l__t__ cmoe and the egg c__t o__ and a d__g cmoe o__t he went to t__n e__d _d r__n a__a the d___g d__t c___mth__n th__n g__f the b__l to he th__n th__ p__d f__td__l
Once upon a time there was a egg a thunder and lightning came and the egg cracked open and a dragon came out he went to town everybody ran away the dragon didn’t chase them then they gave the ball to him then they played football
POST PHONICS TEACHING
54
My bear is called pinkyShe has gray igns and pink fir and kudlee and wightporc and soft porcI got pinky from AmrecaHer nous is veree hardShe has a pink riboonHer frafroot food is seelsHer frafroot culu[is]yellowWen its snowing she goes out to play in the snow
• Being able to use phonics for spelling gives children the confidence to write texts because they can read back what they have written –and they know that other people can also read their texts.
55
IMPACT OF PHONICS TEACHING ON WORD SPELLING
• Teachers in UK concerned about children’s spelling in Years 3-6.
• The perception is that exception word spelling is being adversely affected by phonics teaching.
56
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Spelling SS Regular words Irregular words Nonwords
Pre phonics Post phonics
TWO TYPES OF WORDS: SPELLING
Stainthorp, 1986; Stainthorp & Powell, 2013
* *
BOYS, GIRLS AND WRITING• Handwriting speed, spelling ability and
quality of texts in 244 Y4 – Y6 children.
Y4 Y5 Y6
Girls 40 44 39
Boys 42 42 37
• Handwriting speed • DASH Detailed Assessment of Speed of Handwriting
Barnett, Henderson, Scheib & Schulz (2007)
• Spelling• Single Word Spelling Test
Sacre and Masterson
• Text writing• Test of Written Language (TOWL)
(subscales 6, 7 & 8)
DASH MEAN STANDARD SCORES
95.0
100.0
105.0
110.0
115.0
Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
Boys Girls
Girls write faster than boys overall
COPY BEST
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
Year 4 B Year 5 B Year 6 B Year 4 F Year 5 F Year 6 F
wpm
Boys Girls
Boys and girls write at equal rates
COPY BEST
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
Year 4 B Year 5 B Year 6 B Year 4 F Year 5 F Year 6 F
wpm
Boys Girls
Girls overall faster
COPY FAST
FREE WRITING (RAW SCORES)
0.00
4.00
8.00
12.00
16.00
20.00
Year 4 Year 5 Year 6
wpm
Boys Girls
Girls faster overall
0
15
30
45
Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Y4 (cd) Y5 (cd) Y6 (cd)
Boys Girls
TOWL - DASH
covariate
Girls > boys Y5 and Y6
TEST OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE (TOWL)(RS)
TOWL TOWL (DASH COVARIATE)
0
15
30
45
Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Y4 (cd) Y5 (cd) Y6 (cd)
Boys Girls
Same effect but reduced
• Regression analysis showed that
• Handwriting speed and spelling accounted for 42% of variance in TOWL scores
• Both handwriting speed and spelling made significant unique contributions to the quality of the texts.
• DASH b = .27
• Spelling b = .38
WHAT IS THE ASSESSMENT FOR?
74
• Monitoring progress
• Objective check that performance is in line with expectations.
• Identifying pupils with difficulties
• All pupils
• Screening
• In depth assessment
Language comprehension
processes
Language comprehension
processes
Visual word recognition processes
Visual word recognition processes
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THE SIMPLE VIEW OF READING
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NATIONAL PHONICS SCREENING ENGLANDPERCENTAGE OF CHILDREN ACHIEVING CRITERION: 32 OUT OF 40
5869
74 77 8185 89 90 91
0
20
40
60
80
100
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Year 1 Year 277
WORD READING PROCESSES
• Regular words
• Exception/irregular words
• Nonwords
• Accuracy and Speed
78
COMPREHENSION
• Meaningful text.
• Questions to probe understanding.
• Literal comprehension
• Inferential comprehension
79
• Group testing for monitoring progress and identifying those children who are at risk for failing to achieve appropriate levels.
• Subsequent individual assessment for those children whose comprehension of texts is problematic.
• Comprehension of text vs comprehension of spoken language.
80
COMPREHENSION
WRITTEN LANGUAGE
• Spelling Punctuation and Grammar: SPAG
• Grammar Punctuation and Spelling!
• Handwriting speed.
• Test of Written Language (TOWL)
83
350
400
450
500
550
600
650
700
5th %ile 10th %ile 25th %ile 50th %ile 75th %ile 90th %ile 95th %ile
Germany Italy USA Canada New Zealand England Australia84
PIRLS 2011 (PROGRESS IN READING LITERACY)
SUMMING UP• We know that the English writing system is
alphabetic – but it is complex.
• Based on this:
• Children need to know about the letters of the alphabet.
• They need to be phonemically aware.
• They need to be taught the alphabetic code:
• GPCs and PGCs
• They need to be taught to blend phonemes into words. 85
• This gives them the skills for deciphering print and getting to the phonemic structure of words, and, through this to meaning.
• They also have a system for segmenting words into component phonemes that they can convert into graphemes and thereby write words down.
86
• Beyond monomorphemic words, the spelling of bound morphemes supports developing a wider vocabulary for reading and writing.
• Orthography, phonology and morphology interact.
87
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