introducing the ‘kerala paradox’ kerala. the kerala paradox literacy rates

Introducing the ‘Kerala Paradox’

Kerala

The Kerala Paradox

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Gujarat

HaryanaKarnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

40

50

60

70

80

90

Fitt

ed

va

lue

s/lit

_n

ew

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values lit_new

Literacy Rates

The Kerala Paradox

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Gujarat

HaryanaKarnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

40

50

60

70

80

90

Fitt

ed

va

lue

s/lit

_n

ew

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values lit_new

Literacy Rates

The Kerala Paradox

Infant Mortality

Andhra Pradesh

AssamBihar

Gujarat

Haryana

Karnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

20

40

60

80

10

0F

itte

d v

alu

es/

To

tal

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values Total

The Kerala Paradox

Infant Mortality

Andhra Pradesh

AssamBihar

Gujarat

Haryana

Karnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

20

40

60

80

10

0F

itte

d v

alu

es/

To

tal

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values Total

So what’s going on?

Theory 1 – Communist Party Rule in Kerala

Theory 1 – Communist Party Rule

• In 1957, the Communist Party of India (CPI) wins elections in Kerala

• Begins to implement policy platform of land reform and policies of social development – i.e. public provision of education and healthcare

Problems

1 - What About West Bengal?

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Gujarat

HaryanaKarnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

40

50

60

70

80

90

Fitt

ed

va

lue

s/lit

_n

ew

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values lit_new

Literacy Rates

What About West Bengal?

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Gujarat

HaryanaKarnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

40

50

60

70

80

90

Fitt

ed

va

lue

s/lit

_n

ew

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values lit_new

Literacy Rates

What About West Bengal?

Infant Mortality

Andhra Pradesh

AssamBihar

Gujarat

Haryana

Karnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

20

40

60

80

10

0F

itte

d v

alu

es/

To

tal

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values Total

What About West Bengal?

Infant Mortality

Andhra Pradesh

AssamBihar

Gujarat

Haryana

Karnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

20

40

60

80

10

0F

itte

d v

alu

es/

To

tal

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values Total

2 - Why did Kerala have a Head Start?

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1901 1911 1921 1931 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

(Male) Literacy Rate, Kerala vs. UP Average

1957 – CPI comes into power in Kerala

Problem 3 – do public services explain Kerala’s

social development record?• Despite universal provision, many of the health and

education services consumed are private, not public

• Even though up to 74% of rural households have a public primary health centre in the village, 42% of low standard of living households use the private sector as their main source of treatment

• In Kerala, the private medical sector is still the primary source of health care for up to 64% of households in urban areas and 60% of those in rural areas

• according to the 61st round of National Sample Survey (2004–2005), private per capita spending on education by rural households is twice the national average (41Rs for Kerala,  18Rs for India)

So:

So:1. It is more than just public policy that explains the Kerala paradox, but also something about the structure of Kerala’s society

So:1. It is more than just public policy that explains the Kerala paradox, but also something about the structure of Kerala’s society

2. And that ‘something’ was important before 1957, but goes back further in Kerala’s history.

Theory II:

Subnationalism

Subnationalism

• Kerala has a strong sense of Malayali ‘national’ identity, rooted in a common language (Malayalam), culture, and sense of belonging

• Kerala also has a long history of subnationalist mobilisation, ultimately via the Aikya Kerala (United Kerala) movement

Kathakali

Kalaripayattu

Onam: ‘National Festival of Kerala’

‘National’ Art Forms of Kerala

Myth of Common

Origin

Common Culture

Shared Language

Print Media

NationalConscious

-ness

Anderson (1983)

Connor (1978)

Deutsch (1966)

Geertz (1963)

Gellner (1983)

Hobsbawm (1983)

Renan (1882)

Smith (1989)

Stalin (1954)

Weber (1948)

Subnationalism in Indian States0

50

50

50

5

1940 1960 1980 2000

1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat

Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh

Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

sub

na

t_p

op

yearGraphs by State

Subnationalism in Indian States0

50

50

50

5

1940 1960 1980 2000

1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat

Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh

Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

sub

na

t_p

op

yearGraphs by State

Subnationalism

• As a result of a stronger sense of collective identity, the Malayali were prepared to invest more in public goods such as health and education

• Because of this history of collective action and subnational identification, stronger inter-religious and cross-caste community ties were formed, which has ensured greater participation in local democracy and collective monitoring of local schools, hospitals, and other public services

Subnationalist demands made to “promote Malayali welfare”

Minister of Public Health (1970s): “the success of the Family Planning Program lies in viewing it in terms of the national interest”

Chief Minister Achutanandan (2006): “The 50th anniversary of the formation of Kerala is intended for launching various developmental projects in the State … The fifty days of celebrations…would witness unique and the most comprehensive developmental programs in the history of the State”

Subnationalism in Indian States0

50

50

50

5

1940 1960 1980 2000

1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat

Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh

Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

sub

na

t_p

op

yearGraphs by State

Subnationalism in Indian States0

50

50

50

5

1940 1960 1980 2000

1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000 1940 1960 1980 2000

Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Gujarat

Hary ana Karnataka Kerala Madhy a Pradesh

Maharashtra Orissa Punjab Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu Uttar Pradesh West Bengal

sub

na

t_p

op

yearGraphs by State

The Kerala Paradox

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Gujarat

HaryanaKarnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

40

50

60

70

80

90

Fitt

ed

va

lue

s/lit

_n

ew

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values lit_new

Literacy Rates

The Kerala Paradox

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Gujarat

HaryanaKarnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh

Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Rajasthan

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

West Bengal

40

50

60

70

80

90

Fitt

ed

va

lue

s/lit

_n

ew

10 20 30 40 50pcGDP

Fitted values lit_new

Literacy Rates

Yet more

theories

Matrilinealism

Matrilinealism

• Kerala has had a matrilineal society since the 11th century practiced especially among the upper caste Nairs.

• The 1891 Census enumerated that close to 56% of families in Kerala were matrilineal: property was inherited by the whole family, not the oldest male

• Extensive development research shows best predictor of child welfare is maternal income and health, not just in India but also in Africa, Latin America, etc.

• In matrilineal societies, women have greater property rights and control over the household budget

• Therefore children are more likely to receive education and basic healthcare, once the possibility to purchase these exists.

• Kerala per capita spending on education by rural households is twice the national average, and private health spending is also high

Missionary activity

Christianity

• Kerala was a major entrepot for the spice trade since the 15th century, with exchange with the Middle East and Europe

• as a result, one of few states where Hindus do not form a clear majority (56%; 24% Muslim and 20% Christian)

• long history of missionary activity, setting up schools and community centers

What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?

What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?

Religious competition and missionary activity

What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?

Religious competition and missionary activity

Missionary groups helped break down the caste system by providing education to the

lower castes

Competition forced other denominations (e.g. Hindus) to change their practices

What are the Origins of Kerala’s Social Capital?

Kerala is religiously diverse but ethno-linguistically

homogenous

Very small adivasi population (1.1% compared to 7.5% across India)

Alesina et al (2003) show significant negative cross-country relationship between ethnic

diversity and public goods provision…

…but significant positive relationship between religious diversity and provision of

public goods

Same relationship argued by Putnam (2007) for relationship between ethnic / religious

heterogeneity and social capital

What can Kerala tell us about social development?

Social developmen

t

Public opinion in favor of

provision of social

services

Individual preferences in favor of collective welfare

Formulation of social policy

Implementation of social policy

Sta

te

act

ion

Political elites favor

provision of social

services

Subnationalist

identification

Individual preferences in favor of political

participation

Collective action to

monitor social services

Political participation on

the part of individuals

S

ocie

tal

acti

on

Cognition

Behavior

It’s all very complicated

Religious competitio

n

Private service provision

Gender empowerm

ent

Breakdown of caste system

END