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Introduction toPolitical TheorySecond Edition
John HoffmanUniversity of Leicester
Paul GrahamGlasgow University
llliiii
PEARSON
Longman
Harlow, England • London • New York • Boston • San Francisco • Toronto • Sydney • Singapore • Hong KongTokyo • Seoul • Taipei • New Delhi • Cape Town • Madrid • Mexico City • Amsterdam • Munich • Paris • Milan
Brief Contents
Introduction XXVII
Part 1 Classical Ideas
Chapter 1Chapter 2Chapter 3Chapter 4Chapter 5Chapter 6Chapter 7
What is Power?
The StateFreedomEqualityJusticeDemocracyCitizenshipPunishment
1
11365880
101120144
: Part 2 Classical Ideologies
What is Ideology?
Chapter 8 Liberalism
Chapter 9 ConservatismChapter 10 SocialismChapter 11 AnarchismChapter 12 NationalismChapter 13 Fascism
167
174195216242264285
Part 3 Contemporary Ideologies
What is a New Social Movement?
Chapter 14 Feminism
309
315
vi Brief Contents
Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 340Chapter 16 Ecologism 362Chapter 17 Fundamentalism 385
Part 4 Contemporary Ideas
What do we Mean by a New Idea? 405
Chapter 18 Human Rights 408
Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience 429Chapter 20 Political Violence 451Chapter 21 Global Justice 473
Conclusion 493
Glossary 495
Index . 503
Contents
Publisher's Acknowledgements xxiAuthors' Acknowledgements xxiiiAbout the Authors xxv
Introduction
What is Political Theory? xxviiTheory and Action xxviiiTheory as Abstraction xxviiiThe Distinction between Facts and Values xxixThe Contestability Thesis xxxThe Structure of the Book xxxiiThe Companion Website xxxivBeyond the Book xxxivQuestions xxxvReferences xxxv
Part 1 Classical Ideas
What is Power? 1
The Link with Other Concepts 2Power and Authority: an Indissoluble Link? 3Does a Broad View of Politics Help? 4Negative and Positive Power 5Negative and Positive Power as a Relationship 6Three-dimensional Power and the Problem of Power and Authority 7Accounting for the 'Indissoluble Link' 8References 9
Chapter 1 The State 11
Introduction 11Chapter Map 11Test Case: Margaret Thatcher and the State 12
viii Contents
How Modern is the Concept of the State?Defining the State
The Force ArgumentThe Centrality of WillThe State as a Mixture of Will and Force
Force and the Modernity ArgumentThe Argument Against the Concept of the State
The Behaviouralist ArgumentThe Argument of David EastonDavid Easton's Concept of the Political SystemThe Linguistic and Radical Argument
Problems with the Argument Against the StateThe Argument of David EastonThe Question of ExistenceForce and StatelessnessThe Distinction between Force and Constraint, State and Government
State and SovereigntySovereignty as a Modern ConceptSovereignty as a Broad Concept
Problems with the Theories of State SovereigntyDifficulties with the Modernist ConceptionThe Broad View of State Sovereignty
Rescuing the Idea of SovereigntyMoving to a Stateless WorldGlobalisation and the State
The Case for Global GovernmentSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
Chapter 2 Freedom
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Smoking in the Last Chance Saloon?Berlin's Two ConceptsUnfreedom versus InabilityMill on Freedom
Freedom of Thought and ExpressionFreedom of Action
Criticisms and DevelopmentsHarm to OthersConsentHarm to Self - PaternalismExpression and HarmOffensivenessHarmless Wrongdoing
Contents ix
The Smoking Ban ReconsideredHarm to OthersConsentHarm to SelfOffensiveness
SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
53535454555555565657
Chapter 3 Equality
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Does Inequality Make you III?Principles of EqualityMoral Equality
Moral Autonomy and Moral EqualityNietzsche contra Moral Equality
Legal EqualityEqual Liberties
Do Freedom and Equality Conflict?Material Equality
Equal AccessEquality of OpportunityEquality of OutcomeAffirmative ActionEquality of Welfare versus Equality of Resources
SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
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Chapter 4 Justice
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Just Deserts? What do People Deserve?Theories of Just DistributionRawls: an Egalitarian Liberal Theory of Justice
The Original PositionMotivation in the Original PositionWhat would be Chosen in the Original Position?The Democratic Conception: the Two Principles of JusticeWould we really Choose the Difference Principle?
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x Contents
Nozick: a Libertarian Theory of JusticeNozick's Starting Point: Private Property RightsJust Acquisition - Locke and NozickJust TransferTypes of TheoryRectification
Left LibertarianismCohen: a Marxist Perspective on Distributive Justice
Cohen contra NozickCohen contra Rawls
SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
89898991929293949596999999100100
Chapter 5 Democracy
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Zimbabwean Elections June 2000Democracy and ConfusionDemocracy and LiberalismThe Problem of ExclusionThe Tyranny of the Majority' ThesisThe Problem of ParticipationSolutions to the Problem of Low ParticipationRepresentational and Direct DemocracyDemocracy and the StateThe Ancient Greek Polity and the Problem
with LiberalismDemocracy and the Relational ArgumentSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
101101101102103104105106107108110112
114115117118118119119
Chapter 6 Citizenship
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: 'Being British': Pride, Passports and PrincesCitizenship and LiberalismCitizenship and ClassCitizenship, Marshall and Social RightsCitizenship and the New RightCitizenship and the Case for a Basic Income
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Contents xi
Citizenship and WomenGlobal CitizenshipCitizenship within the European UnionDoes the State Undermine Citizenship?The Problem of ClassCitizenship as a Relational ConceptSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
128131133135136139141141141143143
Chapter 7 Punishment
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: The Ultimate Punishment?What is Punishment?Retributivism
Retributivism - the Crude VersionRetributivism - the Sophisticated Versions
ConsequentialismRetributivism versus Consequentialism: the
Argument so FarCompromise Theories (Indirect Utilitarianism)Beyond Retributivism and Consequentialism? Censure
and RestorationCapital Punishment
Retributivism and the Death PenaltyConsequentialism and the Death PenaltyRespecting Persons versus Using ThemArguments against Capital Punishment
ConclusionQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
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Part 2 Classical Ideologies
What is Ideology?
Origins and Development of the TermIsms as IdeologiesMannheim's Paradox: Are we Stuck?Facts, Values and the StateReferences
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167169171172173
xii Contents
Chapter 8 Liberalism
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Prostitution Laws in SwedenThe Meaning of LiberalismLiberalism as Toleration
The Reformation and Wars of ReligionToleration
ContractarianismHobbes and Liberalism
Rights-based LiberalismLockeLocke and LiberalismKantKant and Liberalism
UtilitarianismUtilitarianism and Liberalism
Conclusion: Prostitution LawsSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
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Chapter 9 Conservatism
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: The Monarchy - an Anachronism?Conservatism: an Elusive Ideology?
Basic Elements of ConservatismDavid HumeEdmund BurkeMichael OakeshottLeo Strauss and American Neo-conservatismConclusion: the MonarchySummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
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Chapter 10 Socialism
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Tanks in the Streets of PragueThe Problem of Variety
216216216217219
Contents xiii
Defining Socialism 220The Problem of Utopia 220Science and the 'Utopian Socialists' 221Introducing Marxism 223The Authoritarian Consequences of 'Scientific Socialism' 224
The Inevitability Argument 225What Happens when Revolutions are 'Bourgeois'
in Character? 225What Happens when Revolutions are 'Pre-mature'? 226Rosa Luxemburg, the Bolshevik Revolution and Stalinism 227The Concept of Class War and the Problem of Morality 227
The Dilemma of Democratic Socialism 228Eduard Bernstein and the German Socialists 229Bernstein, Revisionism and the British Tradition 230
Bernstein's Argument 230The British Labour Party and the Fabians 231The Labour Party, Constitutionalism and the Trade Unions 232Blair's Socialism 232International Social Democrats 233
Socialism and the USA 233British Labour and the 'Third Way' 234Can Marxism be Rescued? 234
The Notion of Revolution 234The Inevitability Problem and the Liberal Tradition 235The Question of Class and Agency 235Socialism and Inevitability 237
The Problem of Utopianism 237Summary 239Questions 240References 240Further Reading 241Weblinks 241
Chapter 11 Anarchism 242
Introduction " 242Chapter Map 242Test Case: Death in Genoa 243The Relationship with Socialism 245Philosophical Anarchists 245
Free-market Anarchists 247Anti-Capitalist Anarchists: Proudhon, Bakunin and Kropotkin 249Republican Spain and the Anarchist Experience 251The Problem of Violence 254Anarchism and the New Social Movements 255The Problem of Organisation and Relationships 257The Problem of Hierarchy 258The Question of Self-determination and Constraint 258
Anarchism and the Distinction between State and Government 260
xiv Contents
SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
261262262262263
Chapter 12 Nationalism 264
Introduction 264Chapter Map 264Test Case: Only a Game? 265Nations and Nationalism 266
Citizenship - 'Civic' and 'Ethnic' Nationalisms 268Citizenship and Civic Nationalism 270
Liberalism and Nationalism: Mill and Herder 272John Stuart Mill 274Johann Gottfried von Herder 275
Socialism and Nationalism: Marx and Engels 275Liberalism and Nationalism: Individualism versus Communitarianism 277
Conclusion: Football and Banal Nationalism 281Summary 282Questions 282References 282Further Reading 283Weblinks 284
Chapter 13 Fascism
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: 'Never Again'Defining Fascism
Fascism and CommunismFascism and ReligionFascism and LiberalismFascism and Conservatism
Fascism in ItalyNationalism and WarCorporativism, Violence and the StateIntellectual Roots
Fascism in GermanyA Brief HistoryAnti-CapitalismStatism, Women and Colonialism
Fascism and CapitalismFascism, Liberalism and the Enlightenment
The State of Nature, Equality and the IndividualNationalismRationality
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Contents xv
Fascism, Stalinism and the State 302Stalinism 302
Fascism Today 304The Unrepentant Apologists 304The Holocaust Deniers 304The Critical Fascists 305Eurofascism 305Nationalist Salvation 305
Summary 307Questions 307References 308Further Reading 308Weblinks 308
Part 3 Contemporary Ideologies
What is a New Social Movement? 309
Social and Economic Change 310Critique of Classical Ideologies 313References 314
Chapter 14 Feminism 315
Introduction 315Chapter Map 315Test Case: Women's Work? 316Liberal Feminism 318
Mary Wollstonecraft 318John Stuart Mill 319Liberal Feminism in Britain and the USA 319
Problems with Liberal Feminism 321Radical Feminist Critique 321Socialist Feminist Critique 321Other Critiques 322
Socialist Feminism 322Engels' Contribution 323Bebel and Later Socialists 323Women in the Communist Party States 324The Domestic Labour Debate 324
Problems with Socialist Feminism 325Liberal Feminist Critique 325Radical Feminist Critique 325Black Feminist and Philosophical Feminist Critique 326
Radical Feminism 326
xvi Contents
Problems with Radical Feminism 328Liberal Feminist Critique 328Socialist Feminist Critique 328Black Feminist and Philosophical Feminist Critique 329
Black Feminism 331Problems with Black Feminism 332
Liberal, Socialist and Radical Feminist Critiques 332The Critique of Philosophical Feminisms 332
Philosophical Feminisms 333Feminist Empiricism 333Standpoint Feminism 333Postmodern Feminism 334
Problems with the Philosophical Feminisms 335Liberal Feminist Critique 335Socialist, Radical and Black Feminist Critiques 335
Summary 337Questions 337References 338Further Reading 338Weblinks 339
Chapter 15 Multiculturalism 340
Introduction 340Chapter Map 340Test Case: Religious Dress Ban: Equality or Oppression? 341What is Multiculturalism? 342Culture, Race, Ethnicity and Religion 342
Culture 342Race and Ethnicity 343Religion 344Multiculturalism and Islamic Radicalisation 345
Multiculturalism and the Politics of Identity 347Theories of Multiculturalism 348
Multiculturalism as Hybridity (Jeremy Waldron) 348The Right to Cultural Membership (Will Kymlicka) 349Constitutional Diversity (James Tully) 350An Overlapping Consensus (John Rawls) 351
Multiculturalism and Feminism 354The Feminist Case against Multiculturalism (Susan Okin) 355Responses to Okin 356
Conclusion: Head Scarves and Women's Rights 358Summary 359Questions 359References 360Further Reading 360Weblinks 361
Contents xvii
Chapter 16 Ecologism
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Nuclear Power? Yes Please!Ecologism or Environmentalism?Environmental Crisis
Green PoliticsEnvironmentalism and Other IdeologiesAldo Leopold and the 'Land Ethic'Arne Naess and 'Deep Ecology'Garrett Hardin and the Ethics of the LifeboatCritique of Ecologism
Do Ecologists have a Plausible Account of why we shouldValue 'Nature'?
Can Ecologists Respect the CreatedWorld - that is, Culture?
Are Ecologists Hostile to Individualism (or IndividualHuman Rights)?
Are Ecologists Hostile to Reason and Rationality?Is Ecologism Compatible with Human Equality?Is Ecologism Compatible with Value Pluralism?
SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
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Chapter 17 Fundamentalism
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: The Diversity of FundamentalismsLabel or Concept?Fundamentalism and ReligionFundamentals and FundamentalismModernity and TraditionFundamentalism, Democracy and ViolenceWhat is Islamic Fundamentalism?American Fundamentalism and the Religious RightJewish Fundamentalism and the Israeli StateThe 'Clash of Civilisations': a Fundamentalist Thesis?SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
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xviii Contents
Part 4 Contemporary Ideas
What do we Mean by a New Idea? 405
Chapter 18 Human Rights
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Free to Believe?Human Rights after Nuremberg
Human Rights ConventionsUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)European Convention on Human Rights (1950)
Why the UDHR and the ECHR are SignificantRights - Some Conceptual IssuesRelativism versus Universalism
Intuition and Consensus (Donnelly)Contractualism (Rawls)Rational Entailment (Habermas)Natural Rights (Finnis)Cruelty and Solidarity (Shklar and Rorty)Conclusion: Article 18SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
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Chapter 19 Civil Disobedience
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Protest and Survive?Civil Disobedience and Law-breaking
Law-breakingCivil Disobedience and Political Obligation
Civil Disobedience and DemocracyDemocracy and ObedienceFair CompromiseProblems with Democracy
Rawls: Civil Disobedience and Conscientious RefusalThe ContextThe Obligation to Obey the LawThe Nature and Role of Civil DisobedienceConscientious Refusal
Criticisms of Rawls
429
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Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights MovementHistorical Background to the Civil Rights MovementThe Civil Rights MovementBus BoycottsFreedom RidesSit-insElectoral Registration CampaignsMartin Luther King, 'Letter from Birmingham City Jail' (1963)
SummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
Contents xix
442442443444445445446446449449450450450
Chapter 20 Political Violence 451
Introduction 451Chapter Map 451Test Case: 9/11 and its legacy 452Liberalism and the Question of Violence 453The State and Political Violence 453An Assessment of Salmi 454Distinguishing Between Political Violence and Terrorism 455The Just War 457Political Violence, Ambiguity and the Liberal State 457Marx on the Problem of Political Violence 459The Leninist and Maoist Position on Political Violence 460A General Theory of Political Violence? 462The Roots of Political Violence 463The Problem of Violence and the State 464The Force/Violence Distinction and the Analysis of Political Violence 466The Significance of September 11 th 467Summary 469Questions 470References 470Further Reading 471Weblinks 472
Chapter 21 Global Justice
IntroductionChapter MapTest Case: Famine - whose Responsibility?Famine
Singer on FamineSen on FamineEthical and Political Implications
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xx Contents
CosmopolitanismParticularismPolitical ConceptionJustice between GenerationsSummaryQuestionsReferencesFurther ReadingWeblinks
478480484488490491491491492
Conclusion
Academic Political Theory and Politics
493
493
Glossary 495
Index 503
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