introduction to the human body. unit 1 - objective 1

Introduction to the Human Body

Unit 1 - Objective 1

Recognize Or Differentiate Between Anatomy And

Physiology

• Anatomy • the scientific study of body structure which includes size, shape and components of body parts

Examples of Anatomy

• Size and shape of muscles

• The different bones of the body

• the location of the thoracic cavity within the ventral cavity

• The superior and inferior regions of the body

• The pericardial cavity around the heart

Physiology- the scientific study of functions of body parts

Examples of Physiology

• Regulation of blood pH in the 7.35 to 7.45 range

• maintaining cardiac output at 5000 ml/minute

• Breathing at a rate of 12 breaths per minute

• Flexing, extending or rotating muscles

Unit 1 - Objective 2

Define, Sequence And/Or Recognize Examples Of The Different Levels Of Structural Organization Within The Body Including The: Chemical, Cell, Tissue, Organ, System and Organism

The Chemical Level Of Organization

• Consists of atoms (elements), ions, molecules, compounds, gases and liquids

• This level of organization is used to make cell parts such as the cell membrane, vacuoles, ribosomes, etc.

• The chemical level of the body also includes the various particles that make up solutions, cofactors, building blocks, etc.

the Organ Level Of Organization

• Consists of two or more tissues that work together for a common purpose

• This level of organization produces structures that can pump blood, circulate blood, move a bone of the body, monitor light from objects, transfer sound waves, etc.

• Examples include the heart, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, the eye and the ear.

The Cell Level Of Organization

• Consists of individual cells in the body

• The cell is the smallest, independent unit of the body that displays all the characteristics of life ( growth, reproduction, etc.).

• Examples include the red blood cell (RBC), white blood cell (WBC), epithelial cells, connective tissue cells, nerve and muscle cells.

The Tissue Level Of Organization

• Consists of two or more cells that work together for a common purpose

• Tissues provide coverings, linings, connections, motions, etc.that go beyond the activities of individual cells.

• Examples include the four basic tissues of the body: epithelial, connective, nerve and muscle tissue.

The System Level Of Organization

• Consists of two or more organs that work together for a common purpose

• Body systems allow complex functions to be completed that affect the entire body

• Body systems produce whole body movements, circulate fluids throughout the body, conduct air for gas exchange, produce and transmit impulses for coordination, control and regulation. See Objective 3 for examples.

The Organism Level Of Organization

• Consists of a complete, independent member of a species

• The human is a member of the species Homo sapiens and consists of eleven different body systems.

• The human has unique body structures and behaviors that distinguishes it from all other species.

Unit 1 - Objective 3

Given Various Functions And Organs Of The Body, Identify The Following Body Systems:

Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Endocrine,

Cardiovascular, Urinary, Lymphatic, Respiratory,

Digestive, Reproductive And Nervous

Integumentary System

• Composed of skin (epidermis, dermis, adipose tissue of hypodermis ), nails, hair, receptors, oil glands and sweat glands.

• Functions include: covering the body, protecting deep tissues, detecting stimuli, vitamin D synthesis, body temperature regulation and waste elimination.

Skeletal System

• Composed of all bones in the body, cartilages, joints and ligaments.

• Functions include: protection and support of body organs, skeletal muscle attachment sites, leverage, production of blood cells and mineral storage.

The Muscular System

• Components include: muscles of the body such as the biceps brachii, triceps brachii, quadriceps femoris, gastrocnemius, etc.

• Functions include: movement of bones in the skeleton, posture, balance, locomotion, heat production, etc.

The Nervous System

• Components include: brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs, sensory receptors, etc.

• Functions include: regulation of body activity through fast acting nerve impulses, detecting internal and external stimuli, activating muscles and glands, etc.

The Endocrine System

• Components include: hormone producing glands such as hypothalamus, pituitary, thymus, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, reproductive organs (ovary and testicle), etc.

• Functions include: regulation of body activities (growth, reproduction, metabolism) through the use of hormones transported by the circulatory system.

The Cardiovascular System

• Components include: heart, blood vessels and blood.

• Functions include: transportation of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, waste, hormones, antibodies, etc.

The lymphatic System

• Components include: lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, red marrow, etc.

• Functions include: transportation of fluid (lymph) from the tissue back to the blood, filters lymph, filters blood, houses white blood cells for antibody production and protection.

The Respiratory System

• Composed of: nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, glottis, epiglottis, bronchial tubes, alveoli, lungs, etc.

• Functions include: oxygen supply, carbon dioxide removal and acid-base regulation.

The Digestive System

• Components include: oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, gall bladder, etc.

• Functions include: breakdown and absorption of foods and nutrients, conversion of food waste into feces, vitamin production, water and mineral regulation, etc.

The Urinary System

• Components include: kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra, etc.

• Functions include: elimination of nitrogen waste (urea, uric acid), regulation of electrolytes (ions), water, acid-base balance, etc.

The Reproductive System

• Components include: ovaries, testicles, prostate, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, penis, etc.

• Functions Include: production of sperm cells and ova for production of new offspring, release of reproductive hormones for the control the reproductive cycle.

Unit 1 - Objective 4

Define And/Or Recognize Examples Of Stress And

Homeostasis

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is defined as a state of dynamic constancy which represents a state of well being, health or normality.

• Examples of homeostasis include: a normal blood pH of 7.35 to 7.45, a normal blood glucose range of 70-120 mg/100 ml of blood, or a normal blood pressure range of 100-140 mmHg systolic to 60-90 mmHg diastolic.

Stress

• Stress is defined as some event or condition that disrupts homeostasis.

• Examples of stress include disease, loss of negative feedback control, abnormal conditions such as hyperglycemia (high blood glucose), acidosis (excess hydrogen ions), etc.

Unit 1 - Objective 5

Identify The Components Of Feedback Systems And Using

Examples, Discuss The Operation And Effects Of

Positive And Negative Feedback Systems On Homeostasis

All Feedback Systems Have Three Basic Components

• A receptor which detects change (stimuli) in the body.

• A control Center which determines a set point for a normal range, which analyzes change and which determines a proper response to change.

• An effector which causes the response determined by the control center.

Acid-Base Homeostasis

• Carotid and aortic bodies in the neck and heart monitor hydrogen ion concentration (pH) in the blood. If blood pH drops below 7.35 (acidosis), these receptors send signals to the medulla of the brain.

• The medulla acts a controller to activate respiratory muscles .

• The respiratory muscles act as effectors to increase breathing which raises pH.

Blood Glucose Homeostasis

• If Blood glucose exceeds 120 mg%, the beta cell of the pancreas acts as a sensor and control center to evaluate the high blood glucose. The beta cell then releases insulin which acts an effector to increase blood glucose transfer into body cells. This process reduces blood glucose and corrects high blood glucose (hyperglycemia).

Negative Feedback

• Negative feedback is a reversal process. For example, when the hormone effector insulin is used to lower blood glucose, High blood glucose (hyperglycemia) can be reversed.

Positive Feedback

• Positive feedback occurs when the output of a system causes further increases in output. If each cycle of activity, results in an ever increasing output, then a crisis condition can be reached that could overwhelm a body system. To correct such a situation, the stimulus that causes output increases must be inhibited or removed.

Uses of Feedback Mechanisms

• Negative Feedback is used to maintain normal ranges of activity in order to stay healthy, to maintain a state of well being and to sustain a state of dynamic equilibrium.

• Positive feedback is used to induce a series of more frequent and stronger uterine contractions in order to facilitate the birth of a baby.

Unit 1 - Objective 6

Recognize or Define Anatomical Position

When The Human Body Is In Correct Anatomical Position:

• The individual is standing straight and facing forward (anterior).

• The arms are at the side with the palms open and facing forward.

• The feet are parallel and the toes are pointing in the anterior direction.

Unit 1 - Objective 7

Given Structures Of The Body, Use The Following Terms To Describe Relative Positions Or

Recognize Definitions.

Terms Of Position

• Anterior, Posterior, Dorsal, Ventral, Proximal, Distal, Superficial, Deep, Parietal, Visceral, Superior, Inferior, Medial and Lateral

• Medulla and Cortex

• Anterior is defined as the front of the body or a part that is in front of another part.

• In an upright organism such as the human, the frontal aspect is also considered to be ventral.

• Anterior can be used as follows: The tip of the nose is anterior to the nostrils, the breastbone is anterior to the spine, the lips are anterior to the teeth, your “belly” is ventral (anterior) to your back.

Anterior Direction

Posterior Direction

• Posterior refers to the back of the body or to a structure that is located behind a part of the body.

• In an upright organism such as the human, posterior also refers to the dorsal aspect.

• The term posterior can be used as follows: The spine is posterior to the heart, the eye is posterior to closed eye lids, a fully retracted tongue is posterior to the front teeth.

Dorsal Aspect

• In an upright organism such as the human, the dorsal aspect is the same as the backside of the body and is equivalent to the posterior position.

• The term dorsal can be used as follows: The skin of the back is dorsal to the spine, the posterior roots of spinal nerves are in a dorsal position, the spinal cord is dorsal to the aorta.

Ventral Aspect

• The ventral aspect refers to the front part of the body and is equivalent to the term anterior.

• The term ventral may be used as follows: the pericardial cavity is ventral to the spinal canal, the aorta is ventral to the spinal cord, the sternum is ventral to the heart.

Proximal Position

• Proximal refers to a part of the body that closer to the origin of that body part. The arm attaches to the shoulder region. Therefore, the upper arm is in a proximal position.

• The term proximal may be used as follows: the axillary region (“armpit”) is proximal to the elbow, the wrist is proximal to the fingers, the elbow is proximal to the wrist.

Distal Aspect

• Distal refers to a body part that is farther from the origin of a body part. For example, the leg originates at the hip. Therefore, the lower leg is in a distal position.

• The term distal can be applied as follows: the knee is distal to the hip, the ankle is distal to the knee, the phalanges of the toes are distal to the metatarsals of the arch of the foot.

Superficial Aspect

• Superficial refers to structures that move toward or are located at the body surface.

• The term superficial can be applied as follows: the epidermis is superficial to the dermis, the skin is superficial to the fascia of body muscle, the conjunctiva is superficial to the cornea.

Deep Aspect

• Deep refers to structures located away form the body surface or found in an internal position.

• The term deep can be applied as follows: the dermis is deep compared to the epidermis, the skull bones are deep compared to the scalp, the brain is deep compared to the skull.

Parietal

• Parietal typically refers to membranes that line body cavities. Parietal membranes are more superficial in location.

• The term parietal can be applied as follows: the membrane lining the lung cavity is called the parietal pleura, the abdominal cavity is lined by the parietal peritoneum.

Visceral

• Visceral typically refers to membranes that cover body organs. Visceral membranes are deeper than parietal membranes.

• The term visceral can be applied as follows: the lung is covered by visceral pleura, the liver is covered by visceral peritoneum, the heart is covered by visceral pericardium.

Superior Aspect

• Superior refers to a structure located above another structure. This term can also refer to the cranial region or the “head end” of the body.

• The term superior can be applied as follows: the head is superior to the neck, the nose is superior to the mouth, the chest is superior to the abdomen.

Inferior Aspect

• Inferior refers to a structure located below another structure. Inferior can also refer to the caudal part of the body or the “tail end”

• The term interior can be applied as follows: the chin is inferior to the mouth, the mouth is inferior to the nose, the abdomen is inferior to the chest.

Medial Aspect

• Medial refers to a body part located in or near the midline.

• The term medial can be applied as follows: the heart is medial to the lungs, the navel is located in a medial position, the nose is medial compared to the ears.

Lateral Aspect

• Lateral refers to a location away from the midline of the body; the side of the body or a body part.

• The term lateral can be applied as follows: the outside of the arm is lateral compared to the inside of the arm, the sides of the body trunk are lateral compared to the navel, the outside of the knee is lateral.

Medulla

• Medulla is a dual purpose term. It commonly refers to the inner part of solid body organs such as the kidney and medulla. It can also refer to the most inferior part of the brain stem.

• The term medulla can be applied as follows: the inner “core” of the kidney is called the medulla, the interior part of the adrenal gland is called the medulla.

Cortex

• The term cortex is another dual purpose term. Cortex can refer to the outer layer of a solid body organ such as the kidney and adrenal gland. The outer gray matter layer of the cerebrum is also called the cortex.

• Cortex can be applied as follows: the outer layer of the kidney is the cortex, the outer layer of the adrenal gland is called the cortex, the outer layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex.

Unit 1 - Objective 8

Given figures or descriptions of the human body, identify the following regions, planes, cavities and membranes: frontal, coronal or

sagittal planes, transverse or horizontal plane, dorsal cavity, ventral cavity, cranial cavity,

spinal cavity, abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity, abdominopelvic cavity, thoracic cavity, left

and right pleural cavities, mesentery, visceral and parietal pleura, visceral and parietal

peritoneum, visceral and parietal pericardium,diaphragm.

Planes Of The Body

• Frontal or Coronal Plane

• Sagittal Plane

• Transverse or Horizontal Plane

View the following diagram and make note of the three body

planes.

Planes of the Body

The Frontal or Coronal Plane

The frontal or coronal plane will divide the body into anterior and

posterior sections.

The Sagittal Plane

the sagittal plane is a vertical plane thatdivides the body into right and

left sections.

The Transverse or Horizontal Plane

The transverse plane runs horizontally through the body at a right angle to the long axis . This

plane divides the body into a superior and inferior section.

View the following diagram and make note of the body cavities

Cavities Of The Body

The Dorsal Cavity

• The dorsal cavity is located in the posterior portion or the back of the body. This cavity is best viewed in a sagittal section and includes the cranial cavity and the vertebral or spinal cavity.

• The cranial cavity houses the brain and is located in the superior portion of the dorsal cavity.

• The vertebral cavity houses the spinal cord and is located in the inferior portion of the dorsal cavity

The Ventral Cavity

• The ventral cavity is located in the ventral aspect of the body and is best viewed in a sagittal section. The ventral cavity includes the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

• The thoracic cavity is located in the superior aspect of the ventral cavity and includes the pleural and pericardial cavities. The abdomio- pelvic cavity is located inferior to the thoracic cavity and includes the abdominal and pelvic cavities.

The Pleural Cavities

• These cavities enclose the right and left lungs and are best seen in a frontal view.

• The pleural cavities are found in the thoracic cavity.

• The pleural cavities flank the centrally located pericardial cavity.

• The pleural cavities are lined by parietal pleural membranes (parietal pleura).

The Pericardial Cavity

• This cavity is found in the thoracic cavity and encloses the heart.

• The pericardial cavity is found between the pleural cavities.

• The pericardial cavity is lined by the parietal pericardial membrane (parietal pericardium).

• This cavity is best seen in a frontal view.

The Abdominopelvic Cavity

• This cavity is part of the ventral cavity and includes the abdominal and pelvic cavities.

• The abdominopelvic cavity is lined by the parietal peritoneal membrane (parietal peritoneum).

• The abdominal cavity encloses abdominal organs such as the liver, stomach and intestines.

• The pelvic cavity encloses pelvic organs.

The Membranes Of The Body• The membranes of the body line, cover,

protect and support body organs and body cavities.

• The body membranes include the visceral/parietal pleura, the visceral/parietal pericardium, the visceral/parietal peritoneum and mesentery.

View the following diagram and make note of the body

membranes

Membranes of the Body

diaphragm

Parietal peritoneum

Parietal pleura

Parietal pericardium

The Visceral Pleural Membrane

• This membrane can also be called visceral pleura

• The visceral pleura covers the lung surface

The Parietal Pleural Membrane

• This membrane can also be called the parietal pleura.

• The parietal pleura lines the pleural cavity and surrounds the visceral pleura.

• The fluid interface between the parietal and visceral pleura allows the two membranes to move as one during breathing. If this interface is broken, pneumothorax occurs.

The Visceral Pericardial Membrane

• This membrane can also be called the visceral pericardium which covers the heart.

• The visceral pericardium is the outer layer of the heart and can be described as the epicardium.

The Parietal Pericardial Membrane

• This membrane is also called the parietal pericardium.

• The parietal pericardium lines the pericardial cavity and surrounds the visceral pericardium.

• The parietal and visceral pericardium are separated by extensive amounts of pericardial fluid.

The Visceral Peritoneal Membrane

• This membrane is also called the visceral peritoneum.

• The visceral peritoneum covers the surface of visceral organs (stomach, pancreas, bladder, etc.) located in the abdominopelvic cavity.

The Parietal Peritoneal Membrane

• This membrane is also called parietal peritoneum.

• The parietal peritoneum lines the abdominopelvic cavity.

• The parietal and visceral peritoneum are separated by variable spaces that contain peritoneal fluid.

The Mesentery

• The mesentery is a specialized membrane formed by specific interconnections between the visceral peritoneum of certain visceral organs and the parietal peritoneum.

• The mesentery will help hold organs in a relatively fixed location and provide regional support in the abdominopelvic cavity.

The Diaphragm

• The diaphragm is a muscular partition that separates the superior thoracic cavity from the inferior abdominopelvic cavity.

• The diaphragm contains abundant skeletal muscle fibers and can be used to control voluntary breathing.

Unit 1 - Objective 9

Define or Recognize Body Regions or Structures which Relate to the Following

Terms:

• Abdominal, Brachial, Cephalic, Costal, Cutaneous, Groin, Ophthalmic, Pectoral, Pelvic, Viscera, Popliteal, Axillary, Cervical, Antecubical, Femoral, Gluteal, Lumbar,Oral, Pedal, Plantar, Otic, Cranial, and Celiac.

There are a number of regional terms used to designate specific body areas. Examine the following diagrams in order to locate each item in Objective 9.

Body Regions

Abdominal

Brachial

Cranial portion of Forehead

Costal

GroinPelvic

Pectoral

OphthalmicOtic

Oral

Antecubital

Femoral

Cephalic

Pedal

Celiac

Body Regions

Plantar

Popliteal

Axillary

Cervical

Gluteal

Lumbar

Cutaneous (skin)

Viscera will be found inside the abdominal cavity

The Terms Used in Objective 9 Can Be Defined As Follows:

• Abdominal -------------abdomen

• Brachial -----------------upper arm

• Cephalic -----------------head

• Costal --------------------rib

• Cutaneous ---------------skin

• groin ----------------------inguinal region

• Ophthalmic---------------eye

Objective 9 Definitions Continued:

• Pectoral --------------- chest

• Pelvic ------------------pelvis

• Viscera ----------------soft organ material

• Popliteal ---------------back of knee

• Axillary ----------------armpit

• Cervical ----------------neck

• antecubical -------------front of elbow

Objective 9 Definitions Continued:

• Femoral ----------------thigh

• Gluteal -----------------buttock

• Lumbar -----------------loin (lower back)

• Oral ---------------------mouth

• pedal --------------------foot

• plantar-------------------sole of foot

Objective 9 Definitions Continued:

• Otic --------------------ear

• Cranial -----------------skull

• Celiac ------------------upper abdomen