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Contents
S.No. Particulars Page
No.
1 Air Pollution Impact on Flowers 1.1 Introduction
1.2 Selection and Description of Test Species
1.2.1.1 Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swtz. (Swartz)
1.2.1.2 Cassia fistula Linn.
1.2.1.3 Cassia siamea Lamk. Syn.
1.2.1.4 Delonix regia Hook (Bojer ex Hook)
1.2.1.5 Peltophorum inerme Roxb.
1.2.2 Flowering Time
1.2.2.1 Air Pollutants
1.2.2.2 Sources of Air Pollution
1.2.2.3 Sources of Air Pollutants
1.2.2.4 Effects of Air Pollution
1.2.2.6 Need of Air Quality Monitoring
1.2.3 Soil Pollution
1.2.3.1 Types of Soil Pollution
1.2.3.2 Causes of Soil Pollution
1.2.3.3 Pollution Due to Urbanisation
1.2.3.4 Effects of Soil Pollution
1.2.3.5 Long Term Effects of Soil Pollution
1.2.3.6 Control of soil pollution
1.2.4 Noise Pollution
1.2.4.1 Sources of noise
1.2.4.2 Measures of noise
1.2.4.3 Effects of noise pollution
1.2.4.4 Causes and Effects of Noise Pollution
1.3 Results
1.3.1 Flowering Time
1.3.2 Floral Morphology
1.3.3 Flower Colour
1.3.4 Floral Biomass
1.3.5 Pollen Germination
1.3.6 Pollen Size
1.3.7 Pollen Tube Length
1.3.8 Pollen Viability
1.4 Discussion
1.4.1 Time of Flowering
1.4.2 Morphology of Flowers
1.4.3 Flower Colour
1.4.4 Floral Biomass
1.4.5 Pollen Characters
01-24
i
2 Air Pollution Impact on Fruits
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Experimental
2.2.1 Colour of Pods
2.2.2 Size of Pods
2.2.3 Weight of Pods
2.2.4 Seed Count
2.2.5 Seed Viability
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Colour of Pods
2.3.2 Size of Pods
2.3.3 Weight of Pods
2.3.4 Seed Count
2.3.5 Seed Viability
2.4 Discussion
25-36
3 Air Pollution Impact on Seed Quality and Germination
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Experimental
3.2.1 Seed Colour
3.2.2 Seed Weight
3.2.3 Seed Density
3.2.4 Seed Soundness
3.2.5 Seed Germination
3.3 Results
3.3.1 Seed Colour
3.3.2 Seed Weight
3.3.3 Seed Density
3.3.4 Seed Soundness
3.3.5 Seed Germination
3.4 Discussion
37-47
Acknowledgement 48
References 49-57
ii
Air Pollution Impact on Reproductive Behaviour of Few
Tropical Trees
Dr. Kishore Pawar, Dr. O.P.Joshi and Dr. Hema Swami
Department of Environment
Holkar Science College, Indore – 452 017- India
Air Pollution Impact on Flowers
1.1 Introduction
To survive and do well, flowering plants have to reproduce themselves
successfully. It is beneficial to the species if reproduction is carried out by
sexual means, because this introduces greater variability in to the resulting
offspring‟s, which in turns allow more opportunity for the species to evolve
with its environment. The most colourful and spectacular aspects of plant
growth are associated with development of flowers and fruits. Flower formation
signifies a transition from vegetative to the reproductive phase of development.
The shoot meristem is induced to develop sepals, petals, stamens and carpels
instead of leaves. This transition can only occur at a particular time in the life of
plants, which within certain limits, is determined genetically. Infect
reproductive growth is certainly a complex process and physiologists have
recognized a number of partial processes, which have been intensively studied.
Ordinarily in thinking of reproductive growth, flower formation and fruit
development come to mind. These events are obvious to the naked eye.
However, each of these processes is the culmination of a number of other
events, many of which are microscopic or submicroscopic. The reproductive
growth is complex and encompasses a variety of anatomical, morphological,
physiological and bio-chemical processes.
After the plant attains the ripe to flower condition further progress towards
flower initiation depends on the environment, both temperature and light are
involved. Infect reproductive growth is certainly a complex processes, which
have been intensively studied.
1
In this process two stages must be distinguished from each other, the induction
of flowering and the differentiation of flowers and inflorescence. Everyone is
familiar with flowers. Botanically flower is a modified shoot consisting of
protective leaves, i.e. sepals and decorative coloured petals. These represent the
parts of the flowers that is most familiar and indeed, generally thought of „the
flower‟. Sepals and petals protect essential parts of the flowers, the male and
female organs. The female part of the flower usually forms the central portion
and it consists of one or more carpels, each of which contains one or more egg
or ovules, mounted by a style and stigma. The stigma is the receptive surface on
which pollen grains can land and grow, while the style is simply its stalk.
The male parts are usually found in a ring around the central female parts, and
they consist of pollen bearing stamens. Flowers may be produced singly or in-
group known as inflorescence. The purpose of these aggregations normally
seems to be an aid in attracting potential pollinators. During postembryonic
development in higher plants, the shoot apex undergoes three discernible phases
- juvenile vegetative, adult and reproductive. The transition from the juvenile to
adult phase is usually gradual and involves subtle changes in shoot morphology
and physiology (Poethig 1990). The intermediate developmental patterns are
common during the transition from vegetative to reproductive stages.
Infect, differentiation of the reproductive organ is preceded by formation of
sepals and petals. That has a combination of vegetative and non-vegetative
characters (Shrivastava and Iqbal 1994).
For flowering the size of the shoot is more important than its age. In several
species, shoot undergoes flowering on reaching a certain stage of development
(Robinson and Warening 1969). The regulatory mechanism ensures that the
plant does not flower until it has attained the requisite size. This holds true even
in plants requiring a specific day length or chilling.
1.2. Selection and Description of Test Species
The five tree species selected for the present study belongs to family- Fabaceae.
These trees are of good ornamental value. They are planted on roadside, in
gardens and even in home gardens. They give a good colour effect; attract birds,
bees and butterflies, which pollinate them. They are important component of
2
urban ecosystem and presently facing threat due to harmful and toxic effect of
urban air pollutants. A brief taxonomic description of these plants is presented
below:
1.2.1.1 Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swtz. (Swartz)
A glabrous shrub or a small tree unarmed or with a few weak prickles,
cultivated in gardens, generally throughout India (Plate 1.1). It is commonly
known as Shankhasur, Gultora, Chhoti-gulmohar and Krishna chura.
Leaves- 15-30 cm. Long, alternate, pinnae 6-8, leaflets, 8-12 in pairs, sessile
and oblong.
Flowers- Scarlet yellow or red in elongate auxiliary and terminal racemes.
Total five petals sub-equal, transversely oblong.
Stamens- 10, free, filament long, petaloid.
Pods- Oblong and flat, glabrescent, narrower and thinner than those of any of
the genus.
Seeds- 8-10 obviate – oblong and glabrous.
Flowering- Nearly throughout the year.
Plate 1.1: Caesalpinia pulcherrima in flowering at Low Pollution Area
1.2.1.2 Cassia fistula Linn.
A very handsome tree 20-30 feet high, trunk straight, bark smooth and pale gray
when young, rough and dark-brown, when old, branches spreading, slender
(Plate 1.2). This is a well-recognized avenue tree, occasionally found in
deciduous forest also, commonly known as Amaltas.
3
Leaves- 9-16 inches long main rachis pubescent, stipules minute, linear oblong,
obtuse, pubescent.
Leaflets- 4-8 pairs, ovate or ovate-oblong, acute, bright green, glabrous and
silvery-pubescent beneath when young, the midrib densely pubescent at the
underside, base cuneate.
Plate 1.2: Cassia fistula with developing pods showing flowers in inset.
Flowers- In racemes 12-20 inches long, pedicels 1½ - 2 ¼ inches long, slender,
pubescent and glabrous.
Sepals- 5, pubescent, oblong.
Petals- 5, sub-equal obovate, shortly clawed, veined.
Stamens- 10, the 3 longest stamens are much curved and bear large, oblong
curved anthers, the 4 median stamens are straight and 3 remaining are very short
and erect staminode, dehiscing longitudinally by pores.
Pods- 2-3 feet long, 1-3/4 inches in diameter, pendulous, cylindrical, nearly
straight, smooth, shining, brown-black, not torulose, indehiscent with numerous
(40-100) horizontal seeds immersed in a dark coloured sweetish pulp, and
completely separated by transverse partition.
Flowering- April-June.
Fruiting- Persisting throughout the year.
4
1.2.1.3 Cassia siamea Lamk. Syn.
Evergreen tree of moderate size having nearly smooth, gray bark marked with
slight longitudinally fissures (Plate 1.3). The Cassia siamea is a native of South
India and Burma. It is now grown throughout the India planted on roadside and
in gardens for its shade and showy flowers. Its dark green, glossy leaves are
divided into two rows of narrow, pointed leaflet arranged in opposite pairs on
the slender midrib.
Plate 1.3: Cassia siamea with flowers and fruits at Low Pollution Area.
Leaves- Peripinnate about 12 inches long, leaflets 12 to 20, elliptical-oblong,
mucronate, glabrous.
Flowers- Yellow grow in large, open clusters at the ends of the branches about
1 ¼ inches, each of the flower having five almost equal petals and perfect seven
stamens nearly unequal that produce pollen, the remaining three stamens being
wanting, or small and sterile.
Pods- The flat pods are purplish or brown, when ripe and contain a number of
seeds. When young, they are soft, ribbon-like, minutely velvety, 6 to 9 inches
long.
Flowering– Throughout the year, maximum flush is observed in October.
Fruiting- April and throughout the year.
1.2.1.4 Delonix regia Hook (Bojer ex Hook)
Delonix is a quick growing evergreen tree with slightly rough, grayish, brown
bark, and a rather slender trunk, which usually soon divides into a number of
5
spreading, limb, bearing delicate feathery foliage 7-12 meter tall (Plate 1.4). It is
planted in gardens, roadsides and at public places, as an ornamental shade tree.
Plate 1.4: Delonix regia growing in Low Pollution Area with flowers in inset.
Leaves - 15- 40 cm long, alternate, bipinnate compound, pinnae 8-20 pairs,
leaflet 15-20 pairs.
Flowers- 3 to 4 inches across petal, obviate, clawed, in terminal, simple or
branched racemes, flowers red or orange in colour, the upper petal striped with
yellow or white.
Stamens- 10, exerted, red.
Pods- 30-40 x 3 - 4.5 cm broadly linear, flat woody beaked, dark brown in
colour.
Seeds– Numerous, oblong, glabrous, smooth, white or creamy, mottled.
Flowering- April-July.
Fruiting - December.
1.2.1.5 Peltophorum inerme Roxb.
Peltophorum is evergreen tree, 8-20 meter tall, handsome, dark foliaged
younger parts rusty brown or grayish tomentose, panicles of showy yellow
flowers (Plate 1.5). It is usually planted in gardens and along the roadsides as an
ornamental shade tree.
Leaves –12-30 cm long, alternate, pinnae, 6-13 pairs.
6
Leaflets - 6-17 pairs, oblong, glabrous.
Flowers- Bright yellow, in terminal racemose panicles.
Stamens- 10, free, hairy at base golden-yellow.
Pods- Lanceolate, 5-10 x 1.6 –2.2 cm, oblong, flat, hard, narrowed at both ends,
indehiscent, woody, margin winged, rusty red in colour.
Seeds– Usually 3-5, brown, obovate, oblong, compressed, smooth, flat and
glabrous.
Flowering- April-June.
Fruiting– December- January.
1.2.2 Flowering Time
The data of intiating flowering for Caesalpinia pulcherrima, Cassia fistula,
Cassia siamea, Delonix regia and Peltophorum inerme was noted for two
consecutive years 2002 and 2003.
1.2.3 Floral Morphology
To study the floral morphology flowers were collected in between 9 to 11 AM
from the height of 3 to 5 meters from the ground level. Hundred flowers were
Plate 1.5: Blooming Peltophorum inerme growing in Low Pollution Area
7
collected from each plant species (25 flowers each from four different trees)
from sampling sites in polythene bag sealed with adhesive tape and were
brought to the laboratory. Measurement of length and breadth of sepals, petals,
stamens and carpel were taken with a standard scale.
1.2.4 Flower Colour
The anthocyanin content of flowers, growing in different areas was determined
following Drumm and Mohr (1978). For floral estimation 200 mg of petals were
dipped into 5 cm3
of methanolic HCl (1%) v/v and kept overnight at 5 to 10 C
(Stafford 1966).
After centrifugation, the absorbance of supernatant was measured at 525 nm, in
spectrophotometer. The anthocyanin content was expressed as absorbance per
100 mg fresh weight. Each mean value represent an average of three
independent replicates.
1.2.5 Floral Biomass
Floral biomass was determined by collecting 100 flowers from each site from
the height of 3 to 5 meters. Sampling was done in the morning hours between 9
to 10 am. Flowers were brought to the laboratory in polythene bags sealed with
adhesive tape. After taking their fresh weight flowers placed in an oven at 80 C
for 24 hours and later on the dry weight was recorded.
1.2.6 Pollen Germination
Freshly opened flowers were collected during 9 to 10 AM in polythene bags
from Industrial Pollution Area (IPA), Vehicular Pollution Area (VPA) and Low
Pollution Area (LPA) for pollen germination studies. Sucrose and boric acid
solutions of different grades were prepared following Brewbakar and Kwack
(1963). Pollen grains were placed in most suitable concentrations, i.e. (8%
sucrose and 200 g of boric acid) on cavity slides, which were kept in petridish
containing moist filter paper inside to maintain the appropriate relative
humidity. The slides were observed under microscope at every one-hour
interval to record the results. Pollen grains were considered germinated only,
8
when pollen tubes attained a size doubled of the grains. Ten random
microscopic fields (10 x 10 X) in each of the slides were examined to determine
the pollen germination. Pollen tube length and pollen diameter was measured
using an Ocular Micrometer.
1.2.7 Pollen Viability
Pollen viability was determined by using 1 % TTC [2, 3, 5–Triphenyl-
tetrazolium chloride] following Norton (1966). Pollen grains were incubated in
1 % TTC for 60 minutes at room temperature. The pollen grains were placed in
a drop of this solution on a glass slides, with cover slip and these slides were
kept in petriplates lined with moist filter paper and stored in a dark place. The
numbers of pollen grains, which became reddish in colour, were recorded as
viable.
1.3 Results
1.3.1 Flowering Time
A delay in flowering time from 7 to 20 days was observed in all plants species
in both IPA and VPA as compared to LPA. Maximum delayed flowering was
noted in Cassia fistula. However, Caesalpina pulcherrima was found to be
relatively unaffected (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1: Delay in flowering period of tree species growing in different polluted
areas of Indore city in comparison to Low Pollution Area
Name of plant
species
Industrial Pollution Area
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
Vehicular Pollution Area
TPL 506.81 g/ m3
Delay in
Flowering
Delay in
Flowering
Delay in
Flowering
Delay in
Flowering
2003 2004 2003 2004
C. fistula 12-15 days 14-16 days 11-14 days 15-20 days
C. siamea 15-20 days 16-18 days 10-12 days 8-10 days
C. pulcherrima 7-10 days 5 -7 days 8-11 days 11-14 days
D. regia 10-12 days 15-18 days 12-18 days 10-12 days
P. inerme 8-10 days 9-11 days 15-18 days 18-21 days
*TPL -Total Pollution Load (SO2 + NOx + SPM)
1.3.2 Floral Morphology
Flowers collected from polluted sites showed reduction in length and breadth of
sepals and petals. Length of stamens and carpel was also noted reduced (Table
9
1.2 to 1.6 and Fig. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3). Maximum reduction was found in
Peltophorum inerme, i.e. 26.71 and 59.0 %, 27.48 and 53.30 % in IPA and VPA
respectively in length of sepals and petals. Whereas Caesalpinia pulcherrima
showed minimum reduction, i.e. 3.27 % in sepals and 7.84, 13.27 % both in IPA
and VPA.
Table 1.2: Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Cassia fistula
Parameters
LPA
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
% Reduction
Length of
sepals**
1.22
1.23
1.26
1.14
1.11
1.10
1.18
1.14
1.16
Average *** 1.23±0.16 1.11±0.16 9.75 % 1.16±0.16 5.69 %
Breadth of
sepals**
0.48
0.49
0.47
0.27
0.30
0.32
0.32
0.36
0.38
Average*** 0.48±0.08 0.29±0.20 39.58 % 0.35±0.21 27.0 %
Length of
petals**
2.83
2.86
2.84
1.18
1.14
2.20
1.87
1.74
1.69
Average*** 2.84±0.14 2.17±1.16 23.59 % 1.76±0.20 28.87 %
Breadth of
petals**
1.08
1.49
1.08
0.52
0.60
0.94
0.92
0.69
0.84
Average*** 1.21±0.60 0.68±0.57 43.25 % 0.81±0.41 32.25 %
**Length
of stamens
2.15
1.87
2.08
1.11
1.12
1.12
1.98
0.99
1.24
Average*** 2.03±0.46 0.90±0.53 44.82 % 1.40±0.74 30.87 %
Length of
Carpel**
1.97
1.70
1.71
0.96
0.92
0.87
1.43
1.29
1.20
Average*** 1.79±0.35 0.91±0.55 49.16 % 1.30±0.02 27.37 %
*TPL – Total Pollution Load, ** - Average of 100 flowers; *** - Average of 300 flowers LPA - Low Pollution Area, IPA- Industrial Pollution Area; VPA- Vehicular Pollution Area
Table 1.3 : Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Cassia siamea
Parameters
LPA
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
%
Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
%
Reduction
Length of
sepals**
1.30
1.31
1.33
1.10
0.99
0.96
1.12
1.11
1.18
Average *** 1.31±0.14 1.01±0.20 22.90 % 1.13±0.57 13.74 %
Breadth of
sepals**
0.68
0.67
0.69
0.45
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.47
0.49
Average*** 0.68±0.11 0.46±0.11 32.35 % 0.48±0.11 29.41 %
Length of
petals**
2.43
2.40
2.41
0.97
0.98
1.12
0.99
1.21
1.10
Average*** 2.41±0.14 1.02±2.79 57.67 % 1.10±0.38 54.35 %
10
Parameters
LPA
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
%
Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
%
Reduction
Breadth of
petals**
1.20
1.21
1.19
0.60
0.58
0.59
0.69
0.61
0.59
Average*** 1.20±0.11 0.59±011 50.83 % 0.63±0.08 47.5 %
**Length of
stamens
1.48
1.49
1.48
0.99
0.98
0.97
0.87
0.90
0.90
Average*** 1.48±0.08 0.98±0.11 33.78 % 0.90±0.08 39.18 %
Length of
Carpel**
1.50
1.50
1.49
1.47
1.48
1.46
1.48
1.49
1.48
Average*** 1.50±0.08 1.47±0.11 2.0 % 1.48±0.08 1.33 %
Table 1.4: Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Caesalpinia pulcherrima
Parameters
LPA
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
%
Reduction
Length of
sepals**
1.22
1.26
1.20
1.18
1.17
1.20
1.19
1.18
1.17
Average *** 1.22±0.20 1.18±0.16 3.27 % 1.18±0.11 3.27 %
Breadth of
sepals**
0.58
0.49
0.48
0.48
0.40
0.46
0.38
0.47
0.48
Average*** 0.51±0.20 0.47±0.18 7.84 % 0.44±0.29 13.27 %
Length of
petals**
2.84
2.85
2.82
2.81
2.80
2.82
1.90
1.99
2.00
Average*** 2.83±0.16 2.81±0.11 0.70 % 1.96±0.29 30.74 %
Breadth of
petals**
0.64
0.59
0.62
0.59
0.58
0.60
0.48
0.61
0.49
Average*** 0.61±0.21 0.59±0.11 3.27 % 0.52±0.25 14.75 %
**Length
of stamens
4.6
4.4
4.3
3.9
4.1
3.8
4.00
4.2
3.9
Average*** 4.4±0.16 3.9±0.37 11.36 % 4.0±0.37 8.33 %
Length of
Carpel**
4.2
4.1
3.9
4.0
3.7
3.5
4.1
3.9
3.7
Average*** 4.0±0.57 3.7±0.46 7.5 % 3.9±0.51 2.5 %
Table 1.5 : Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Delonix regia
Parameters
LPA
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
%
Reduction
Length of
sepals**
2.30
2.33
2.45
2.00
1.99
1.98
2.13
2.00
2.18
Average *** 2.36±0.34 1.99±0.11 15.67 % 2.10±0.37 11.01 %
Breadth of
sepals**
0.88
0.80
0.69
0.70
0.71
0.69
0.72
0.71
0.72
Average*** 0.79±0.85 0.70±0.11 11.39 % 0.71±0.11 10.12 %
11
Parameters
LPA
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
%
Reduction
Length of
petals**
5.27
5.30
5.54
4.12
4.11
4.28
4.25
4.33
4.69
Average*** 5.37±0.47 4.17±0.66 22.34 % 4.42±0.59 17.69 %
Breadth of
petals**
3.72
3.68
3.67
3.10
3.18
3.04
3.41
3.20
3.11
Average*** 3.69±0.20 3.10±0.30 15.98 % 3.57±0.21 3.25 %
**Length
of stamens
3.80
3.70
3.90
2.52
3.60
2.80
3.20
2.99
3.40
Average*** 3.80±0.36 2.97±0.77 21.84 % 3.19±0.40 18.42 %
Length of
Carpel**
4.30
3.90
4.80
4.70
2.87
3.80
4.40
3.80
4.40
Average*** 4.30±0.25 3.79±1.00 11.86 % 4.20±0.36 2.32 %
Table 1.6 : Length and breadth (cm) of different floral parts of Peltophorum inerme
Parameters
LPA
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
% Reduction
Length of
sepals**
1.31
1.32
1.30
0.99
0.96
0.94
0.98
0.91
0.98
Average *** 1.31±0.11 0.96±0.46 26.71 % 0.95±0.25 27.48 %
Breadth of
sepals**
0.70
0.69
0.67
0.37
0.30
0.32
0.30
0.36
0.25
Average*** 0.68±0.14 0.33±0.20 51.47 % 0.30±0.27 55.88 %
Length of
petals**
2.42
2.41
2.43
1.11
0.99
0.96
1.12
1.11
1.18
Average*** 2.42±0.11 0.99±0.34 59.0 % 1.13±0.23 53.30 %
Breadth of
petals**
1.21
1.19
1.42
0.38
0.45
0.46
0.42
0.47
0.50
Average*** 1.27±0.40 0.43±0.21 66.14 % 0.46±0.24 63.77 %
**Length of
stamens
1.40
1.49
1.50
0.86
0.87
0.88
0.89
0.87
0.96
Average*** 1.46±0.18 0.87±0.11 43.15 % 0.90±0.25 38.35 %
Length of
Carpel**
1.70
1.50
1.50
0.84
0.86
0.99
0.85
0.79
0.95
Average*** 1.56±0.23 0.89±0.34 42.94 % 0.86±0.37 44.87 %
The response of petals to air pollution was also similar to the sepals. The
perusal of tables clearly indicates that there was more reduction in length of
sepals and petals as compared to their width. The size of stamens and carpel
was also affected by pollution stress. Out of five test species maximum
reduction in length of stamens was noted in Cassia fistula, i.e. 44.82 and
30.87% in IPA and VPA respectively followed by Cassia siamea (Table 1.2 and
12
1.3), whereas minimum reduction in stamen size was found in Caesalpinia
pulcherrima, i.e. 11.36 and 8.33 % in IPA and VPA.
Regarding carpel, maximum reduction was found in Cassia fistula, where the
values were 49.16 and 27.37 % in IPA and VPA respectively. However the
minimum reduction in carpel length was observed in Cassia siamea (Table 1.3).
Overall it can be concluded that reduction in size of stamens and carpel was
more significant than sepals and petals. Flowers growing in IPA found to be
more affected than that of roadside plants (Fig. 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3).
length of sepals breadth of sepals
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig 1.1: % reduction in length and breadth of sepals over LPA
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
IPA VPA
% R
ed
ucti
on
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Fig 1.2 : % reduction in length and breadth of petals over LPA.
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
IPA VPA
%
R
ed
ucti
on
IPALength of stamens Length of carpel0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Fig 1.3 : % reduction in length of stamens and carpel over LPA
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
% R
ed
uc
tio
n
IPA VPA Length of Petals Breadth of Petals Length of Petals Breadth of Petals
IPA VPA
Length of Stamens Length of Carpels Length of Stamens Length of Carpels
13
1.3.3 Flower Colour
The anthocyanins are known to impart colour to the flowers along with
carotenoids. In present study, it is visualized that air pollutants affected the
colour of flowers adversely. In general, an overall reducing trend was observed
in the floral colour in all the five test species in both the polluted sites as
compared to the reference area (Table 1.7 to 1.11). The data clearly indicates
that the flowers developing in vehicular pollution areas were affected more
adversely than the Industrially Polluted Area.
It is inferred that there was an overall increment in pigment content in all five
species with their increasing exposure time. However, when compared with the
pigment content of reference area a reduction was noted. The maximum
reduction in anthocyanin content in third day flower stage was observed in P.
inerme in VPA, which was 27.45% followed by C. fistula (18.46%); while it
was minimum in C. siamea, i.e. only 3.15%.
When compared to differently polluted area the floral pigment to be more
sensitive to vehicular pollution than industrial. This is true for all the five
species. Thus it appears that air around road side is more toxic to flower than
other areas in spite of low pollution load as compared to industrial area.
Table 1.7 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Cassia fistula
Time
exposure
LPA
TPL*308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
VPA
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
0 day 0.93 0.94 0.87
0.94 0.96 0.88
0.96 0.95 0.87
Average 0.95 0.16 0.00 0.95 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.87 0.08 0.00 8.42
1 day 0.96 0.98 0.94
0.95 0.98 0.96
0.97 0.97 0.95
Average 0.96 0.11 0.01 0.98 0.08 0.03 2.08 0.95 0.11 0.08 1.04
2nd
day 1.24 1.04 1.06
1.22 1.06 1.06
1.23 1.05 1.09
Average 1.23 0.11 0.27 1.05 0.11 0.10 14.63 1.07 0.08 0.20 13.00
3rd
day 1.31 1.20 1.05
1.29 1.21 1.08
1.30 1.20 1.07
Average 1.30 0.11 0.35 1.20 0.08 0.25 7.69 1.06 0.16 0.19 18.46
4th
day 1.29 1.09 0.99
1.26 1.11 1.10
1.27 1.10 0.98
Average 1.27 0.14 0.28 1.10 0.11 0.15 13.38 1.05 0.34 0.13 21.25
*TPL -Total Pollution Load, LPA - Low Pollution Area, IPA- Industrial Pollution Area; VPA- Vehicular Pollution Area
14
Table 1.8 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Cassia siamea
Time
exposure
LPA
TPL*308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
VPA
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
0 day 0.89 0.74 0.68
0.88 0.75 0.68
0.89 0.74 0.67
Average 0.89 0.08 0.00 0.74 0.08 0.00 16.85 0.67 0.08 0.00 23.59
1 day 0.89 0.94 0.89
0.91 0.93 0.70
0.90 0.95 0.70
Average 0.90 0.11 0.01 0.94 0.11 0.20 4.4 0.70 0.08 0.02 22.22
2nd
day 0.89 0.94 0.71
0.90 0.96 0.72
0.90 0.95 0.72
Average 0.90 0.08 0.01 0.95 0.11 0.21 5.55 0.72 0.08 0.04 20.00
3rd
day 0.94 0.96 0.98
0.96 0.95 0.98
0.95 0.97 0.97
Average 0.95 0.11 0.06 0.96 0.11 0.22 1.05 0.98 0.08 0.03 3.15
4th
day 1.06 1.04 1.07
1.06 1.06 1.09
1.09 1.03 1.08
Average 1.07 0.12 0.12 1.05 0.14 0.3 1.86 1.08 0.11 0.4 0.93
Table 1.9 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Caesalpinia pulcherrima
Time
exposure
LPA
TPL*308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
VPA
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
0 day 0.98 0.89 0.88
0.98 0.91 0.89
0.97 0.90 0.89
Average 0.98 0.08 0.00 0.90 0.11 0.00 8.16 0.89 0.08 0.00 9.18
1 day 1.01 0.91 0.98
1.03 0.91 0.97
1.02 0.90 0.98
Average 1.02 0.11 0.04 0.91 0.08 1.00 1.07 0.98 0.08 0.09 3.92
2nd
day 1.03 1.03 0.98
1.04 1.02 0.99
1.04 1.01 0.99
Average 1.04 0.08 0.06 1.02 0.11 12.0 1.92 0.99 0.08 0.10 4.80
3rd
day 1.06 1.09 0.99
1.06 1.11 0.98
1.07 1.10 0.99
Average 1.07 0.11 0.09 1.10 0.11 20.0 2.80 0.99 0.08 0.10 7.47
4th
day 1.28 1.20 1.20
1.27 1.19 1.21
1.22 1.19 1.20
Average 1.25 0.23 0.27 1.19 0.08 29.0 4.8 1.20 0.08 0.31 4.0
Table 1.10 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Delonix regia
Time
exposure
LPA
TPL*308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
VPA
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
0 day 1.01 0.89 0.89
0.02 0.90 0.88
0.03 0.90 0.89
Average 0.02 0.11 0.00 0.90 0.08 0.00 10.78 0.89 0.08 0.00 12.74
1 day 1.03 0.89 0.90
1.05 0.91 0.89
1.04 0.91 0.89
Average 1.04 0.08 0.02 0.91 0.08 0.20 12.5 0.90 0.08 0.01 13.46
2nd
day 1.20 1.19 0.90
1.22 1.20 1.06
1.21 1.21 1.07
Average 1.21 0.08 0.17 1.20 0.11 0.17 0.82 1.08 0.08 0.18 11.5
3rd
day 1.20 1.20 1.01
1.21 1.21 1.02
1.20 1.20 1.02
Average 1.20 0.08 0.16 1.20 0.08 0.16 00 1.02 0.08 0.13 15.0
15
Time
exposure
LPA
TPL*308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
VPA
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
4th
day 1.09 1.00 1.00
1.10 1.01 1.01
1.11 1.00 1.00
Average 1.10 0.08 0.08 1.00 0.08 0.08 9.0 1.00 0.08 0.11 9.0
Table 1.11 : Anthocyanin content (/mg fresh weight) of Peltophorum inerme
Time
exposure
LPA
TPL*308.02 g/ m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
VPA
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
Increase
(in mg)
Increase over
0 day
%
Reduction
0 day 0.78 0.74 0.67
0.78 0.73 0.68
0.79 0.73 0.68
Average 0.78 0.08 0.00 0.73 0.08 0.00 6.4 0.68 0.08 0.00 12.8
1 day 0.79 0.79 0.69
0.80 0.78 0.70
0.80 0.78 0.70
Average 0.80 0.08 0.02 0.78 0.08 0.05 2.5 0.70 0.08 0.02 12.5
2nd
day 0.98 0.98 0.79
0.99 0.97 0.80
0.99 0.98 0.80
Average 0.99 0.21 0.21 0.980.08 0.25 1.0 0.80 0.08 0.10 19.19
3rd
day 1.01 0.98 0.73
1.02 0.99 0.74
1.03 0.99 0.75
Average 1.02 0.14 0.24 0.99 0.08 0.26 2.94 0.74 0.11 0.06 27.45
4th
day 0.99 0.98 0.74
0.98 0.97 0.76
0.99 0.97 0.75
Average 0.99 0.11 0.21 0.97 0.08 0.24 2.02 0.75 0.11 0.07 24.24
1.3.4 Floral Biomass
Fresh and dry weights of flowers of different plant species are presented in
Table 1.12 and % reduction is presented in Fig. 1.4. It is evident that maximum
reduction in flower weight has taken place in vehicular area and minimum at
industrial area. Out of five test species, it is observed that flowers of Delonix
Fresh weight IPA
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Fig 1.4 : % Reduction in fresh and dry weight of flower over LPA.
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
% R
ED
UC
TIO
N
IPA VPA
Fresh Weight Dry Weight Fresh Weight Dry Weight
16
regia appeared to be more sensitive to air pollution, as regards the biomass, as
there was 35.95 % and 43.77 % reduction in dry weight was noted respectively
in both IPA and VPA. Minimum reduction was noted in Peltophorum inerme
19.40% and 27.53% in both IPA and VPA in dry weight as compared to
unaffected area, i.e. LPA. These results once again proved the toxicity of the air
pollutants (Fig. 1.4).
Table 1.12 : Fresh and Dry weight (g) of 100 flowers
Name of plant
species
Low Pollution Area
TPL*308.02 g/m3
Industrial Pollution Area
TPL* 539.15 g/m3
Vehicular Pollution Area
TPL* 506.81 g/m3
Fresh wt. Dry
wt.
Fresh wt. %
Red.
Dry wt. %
Red.
Fresh wt. %
Red.
Dry wt. %
Red.
C. fistula 60.00
65.50
68.00
6.75
7.36
7.65
58.60
54.00
56.30
12.71
5.30
4.88
5.09
29.78
56.98
54.05
55.51
13.93
4.60
4.36
4.48
38.20
Average 64.50±3.26 7.25 ±0.37 56.30±1.75 5.09±0.52 55.51±1.39 4.48±1.37
C. siamea 32.00
35.50
37.50
5.30
5.87
6.21
31.07
28.00
30.00
15.17
4.13
3.72
3.98
31.84
33.34
28.50
30.00
12.53
3.74
3.19
3.36
40.72
Average 35.00±2.00 5.79±0.81 29.69±1.49 3.94±0.54 30.61±1.90 3.43±0.61
C. pulcherrima 25.00 28.50
31.00
3.19 3.63
3.95
24.61 28.00
26.30
6.59
2.62 2.98
2.79
22.09
24.82 22.00
20.00
20.91
2.50 2.21
2.01
37.56
Average 28.16±2.05 3.59±1.00 26.30±1.50 2.79±.43 22.27±3.79 2.24±0.20
D. regia 200.0
215.0
211.0
43.72
46.99
46.12
198.01
195.05
196.53
5.18
29.43
28.99
29.21
35.95
197.82
175.00
180.00
11.68
27.53
24.35
25.05
43.77
Average 208.66±2.90 45.61±1.35 196.53±1.40 29.21±0.54 184.27±3.51 25.64±1.67
P. inerme 35.00
40.50
42.50
11.64
13.46
14.13
33.46
30.00
31.73
19.32
11.11
9.96
10.53
19.40
33.92
28.00
31.00
21.24
10.42
8.60
9.52
27.20
Average 39.33±2.40 13.07±1.35 31.73±1.51 10.53±0.87 30.97±1.99 9.51±1.10
1.3.5 Pollen Germination
Air pollution has also been found to affect pollen germination adversely in all
test species (Table 1.13 and Fig. 1.5). The maximum reduction in percent
germination of pollen grains was noted in Cassia siamea i.e. 31.51 in VPA, and
minimum in Cistula fistula 19.15 % in IPA. Whereas maximum reduction was
noted in C. pulcherrima 17.08% and minimum in Cassia siamea 0.97%. Thus
different species respond differently two types of pollution.
Table 1.13 : Pollen germination of studied plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of plant
species
LPA
TPL* 308.02
g/m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/m3
% Reduction
C. fistula 74.33 2.03 60.09 1.93 19.15 % 63.00 4.66 15.24 %
C. siamea 67.91 2.33 46.51 2.3 31.51 % 67.25 1.99 0.97 %
C. pulcherrima 65.83 1.23 51.58 1.95 21.64 % 54.58 2.1 17.08 %
D. regia 84.04 7.08 63.68 4.33 24.22 % 73.11 7.08 13.00 %
P. inerme 84.98 1.34 62.72 3.46 26.19 % 73.28 5.38 13.76 %
17
1.3.6 Pollen Size
The size of pollen grains was found to be affected by pollution stress. (Table
1.14 and Fig.1.6). Higher percentage reduction was noted in IPA than in
roadside plants. Maximum reduction in pollen size was observed in Delonix
regia, i.e. 48.83 and 42.48 % respectively in IPA and VPA sites. While
minimum reduction was noted in Peltophorum inerme 15.54 and 13.26 %
respectively at IPA and VPA sites. It is evident from data presented in Table
1.6. that in IPA, air was more harmful for the pollens growth and development
than VPA. A size wise reduction was also noted. The greater the size of the
pollen, more was the reduction irrespective of the pollution area. Smaller size
pollens were least affected like P. inerme.
Table 1.14 : Pollen diameter () in plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of plant
species
LPA
TPL* 308.02
g/m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/m3
% Reduction
C. fistula 53.1± 1.24 43.5 ± 1.25 18.07 % 45.2 ± 1.23 14.87 %
C. siamea 57 ± 1.30 38.1 ± 1.39 33.15 % 38.8 ± 1.28 31.92 %
C. pulcherrima 54 ± 1.20 37.1 ± 1.38 31.29 % 38.7 ± 1.27 28.33 %
D. regia 64.5 ± 1.27 33.0 ± 1.27 48.83 % 37.1 ± 1.38 42.48 %
P. inerme 52.1 ± 1.24 44 ± 1.25 15.54 % 45.0 ± 1.22 13.62 %
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig. 1.6 : % reduction in Pollen size over control.
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
IPA
%
Re
du
cti
on
IPA VPA
18
1.3.7 Pollen Tube Length
Pollen tube length was found to be much lower in IPA as compared to VPA. A
general reducing trend in pollen tube length in both polluted sites was recorded.
(Table 1.15 and Fig. 1.7). The maximum reduction in pollen tube length was
noted in Cassia siamea, i.e. 52.98, 46.51 % in IPA and VPA respectively.
Whereas minimum reduction in IPA in Caesalpinia pulcherrima 19.17% and
Delonix regia 16.16% in VPA respectively as compared to unaffected area.
D. regia was least affected by pollution stress.
Table 1.15 : Pollen tube length () of studied plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of Plant
species
LPA
TPL* 308.02
g/m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/m3
% Reduction
C. fistula 176.1 ± 21.22 137.1 ± 19.08 22.20 % 138.5 ± 19.03 21.35 %
C. siamea 218.0 ± 7.06 102.5 ± 8.23 52.98 % 116.6 ± 19.61 46.51 %
C. pulcherrima 182.5 ± 30.41 147.5 ± 29.18 19.17 % 138.5 ± 15.80 31.67 %
D. regia 177.5 ± 30.76 143.3 ± 12.11 19.26 % 148.0 ± 19.86 16.61 %
P. inerme 182.6 ± 33.58 126.5 ± 22.76 30.72 % 138.5 ± 22.5 24.15 %
C.fistula C.siamea C.pulcherrima D.regia P.inerme
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig 1.7 : % reduction in pollen tube length over LPA.
IPA
VPA
%
Re
du
cti
on
1.3.8 Pollen Viability
Pollen viability is a very important character to assess reproductive behaviour of
plants. In present study it was noted to be reduced in both the polluted sites
(Table 1.16 and Fig. 1.8). There was more reduction in pollen viability in VPA
as compared to IPA. The maximum reduction in pollen viability was found in
Peltophorum inerme 38.27 % and Caesalpinia pulcherrima, i.e. 38.29% in IPA
and VPA and minimum reduction was recorded in Cassia siamea, i.e. 20.73 %
19
and 17.07 % in both IPA and VPA. Thus it appears that to urban air pollutants
the least affected pollens grains were of Cassia siamea.
Table 1.16 : Percent viable pollens of studied plants growing in different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of
plant species
Low Pollution Area
TPL*308.02 g/ m3
Industrial Pollution Area
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
Vehicular Pollution Area
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3 Total no.
of pollens
Viable
pollens
Non-
viable
pollens
Total no.
of pollens
Viable
pollens
Non-viable
pollens
% Red. in
viable
pollens
Total no.
of pollens
Viable
pollens
Non-viable
pollens
% Red. in
viable
pollens
C. fistula 96 83 13 79 63 16 24.09 69 61 08 26.50
C. siamea 90 82 08 74 65 09 20.73 79 68 11 17.07
C. pulcherrima 98 94 04 76 67 09 28.72 64 58 06 38.29
D. regia 84 73 11 70 55 15 31.50 70 57 13 21.91
P. inerme 88 81 07 60 50 10 38.27 71 61 10 24.69
IPA0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig 1.8 : % reduction in pollen viabilty over LPA.
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
% R
ed
ucti
on
1.4 Discussion
1.4.1 Time of Flowering
Air pollutants are influencing the plants in various ways. Apart from vegetative
parts, reproductive parts are also showing significant variations under pollution
stress. One of the most prominent features is delayed flowering in plants
growing in polluted habitats. Pawar (1983) and Dubey (1985) have reported this
in Mangferia indica, Delonix regia and Acacia arabica trees growing in
industrially polluted area with predominance of SO2. Recently Chauhan et al.
(2004) has also reported delayed flowering and reduced floral density in Cassia
siamea growing along road side of Agra one of the highly polluted cities of our
country. Thus the present findings are in confirmation with these earlier reports.
Pawar and Dubey (1985) correlate this delay with air pollution stress because
due to many physiological and bio-chemical alterations, less photosynthate is
available for reproductive growth and development.
IPA VPA
20
1.4.2 Morphology of Flowers
Higher value of Length and Breadth ratio (L/B) clearly indicated that there was
more reduction in length of sepals and petals as compared to their width.
Generally reduction in length of both floral parts, i.e. sepals and petals results
has been noted maximum.
The reduction in number of flower size and cone development due to the air
pollution specially SO2 has been reported by many workers (Houston and
Dochinger 1977, Beda 1982 and Ernst et al. 1985) Flower size reduction in
calendula due to SO2 exposure has been reported (Singh et al. 1985 and Yunus
et al. 1985).
Joshi and Sikka (2002) have reported reduced fresh and dry weight in flowers of
Cassia fistula, Delonix regia and Peltophorum inerme growing in differently
polluted are of Indore city. Pollution induced changes in floral morphology of
Cassia siamea has been reported recently by Chauhan et al. (2004).
Higher reduction in size of stamens and carpel in comparison to sepals and
petals can be attributed to their more complex physiological and biochemical
requirements. Maximum flower size reduction in C. fistula as compared to other
species is a result of its higher sensitivity to air pollution, which has been
reported earlier on the basis of various morphological and phytochemical
observations by many workers (Pawar 1982, Joshi 1989, Singh and Rao 1983,
Agrawal 1986). Thus it is obvious that C. fistula is a very sensitive plant to
urban air pollution not only regarding its vegetative and biochemical aspects but
reproductive behaviour as well.
1.4.3 Flower Colour
Increment in floral pigment with their age can be attributed to the effect of light.
Exposure of plants to white light increases the anthocyanin content in flowers
resulted in their darkening (Stafford 1965 and Drumm and Mohr 1978). In the
present study also the same pattern was observed. However the higher rates of
reduction in anthocyanin pigment of flowers growing in polluted sites with their
exposure time in comparison to low polluted area can be attributed to the
phytotoxic activity of air pollutants. The decrease in floral colour in polluted
21
areas appears to be enzymatic in nature. Increased activities of glucosidase and
poly-phenolonidase in the plant growing in mixed pollution area (Godzite 1967)
and glycosidase (Bucher 1979) have been reported, which are known to reduce
their pigments (Goodwin 1976). One of the reasons for plant wise variation in
anthocyanin content reduction can be related to the thickness of petals. More
reduction in P. inerme and C. fistula may be due their thin and delicates petals.
Since the bright colour of flowers serve to attract the pollinators and thus ensure
the pollination effectively. Fading of the flowers in such polluted habitats may
also results in less fruiting and seed setting especially in entomophyllous
flowers.
1.4.4 Floral Biomass
Decrease flower weight in polluted sites is related to reduction in floral size.
Such changes in floral biomass can be either indirect effect of air pollution due
to less allocation of photosynthates (Lechowicz 1987) or a direct effect of toxic
gases on floral parts during their growth and development. There observations
are in confirmation with earlier reports (Joshi and Sikka 2002). Higher
sensitivity of Cassia fistula flower in comparison to rest of the species can be
attributed to its overall sensitivity of plant, and can be accounted to the delicacy
of floral parts, which remained totally exposed to pollutants to right from their
initiation to full bloom in absence of leaves. Minimum alteration in C. siamea
and P. inerme can be account on their resistant nature of their plants. These two
plants have also been reported to have higher value of Air pollution Tolerance
Index (Singh and Rao 1983 and Agrawal 1986).
1.4.5 Pollen Characters
The pollen grains are very sensitive to air pollution and thus have been used for
monitoring of atmospheric pollution (Rosen 1983). The sensitivity of pollens to
SO2 (Karmosky and Stairs 1974 and Varshney and Varshney 1981) and
fluorides (Facteau and Rowe 1977) has been reported as poor germination and
reduced tube growth.
In present study also reduction in pollen grains size, viability, germination and
tube length has been noted in all the plant species studied. These effects are
22
considered to be the influence of various air pollution combinations of IPA and
VPA sites, effect of other pollutants cannot be denied too.
Increased SO2 concentration is reported to reduce pollen germination
significantly (Dubey 1983 and Varshney and Varshney 1981, 1986). Similarly
Krishnayya and Bedi (1986) have reported reduced pollen germination and seed
viability in two species of Cassia growing near highways as a function of lead
accumulation thought they mainly consider it as an effect of lead. Reduction in
pollen size, viability and shape reduction in pine pollens have been reported by
Fedatov et al. (1983). Reduced pollen viability in some vegetables as a function
of SO2 pollution in the vicinity of Mathura refinery was also reported by
Bhardwaj and Chauhan (1990). The present findings regarding the interaction of
pollen characteristics and urban pollutants are in confirmation with findings of
Joshi and Sikka (2002) and Chauhan et al. (2004). The highest reduction in
pollen size in D. regia as compared to other fours species can be attributed to
the pollen size. Because D. regia pollens are bigger in their size and thus they
require more photosynthate to maintain it, which is poorly available under
pollution stress. This might have resulted in higher reduction in size. Reduction
in pollen size due to high pollution in Pinus sylvestris have been reported
(Mamajev and Shkarlet 1972). Recently Chauhan et al. (2004) has also reported
change in morphology especially in ornamentations of pollen grains of C.
siamea pollen collected from high vehicular load. Such pollen grains failed to
show distinct colpi and reticulate sculpturing with comparison to less polluted
sites. They opined that this is due to the deposition of pollutants particularly,
suspended particulates matter due to heavy movement of automobiles.
But this interpretation does not seem to be logical because change in surface
characteristic might be a result of overall pollution load. Actually during
development stage; pollen grains are concealed in anther lobe. Hence these are
not coming in direct contact with particulate matter. Ornamentation and other
morphological features have been taken shape prior to anthesis. So these
changes might have occurred before anthesis.
In most of the studies carried out in areas exposed to industrially polluted, yet in
most instance it is accompanied by other pollutants and additive effects must be
reckoned with Bonte (1982). Nakada et al. (1976) showed the in vitro studies
23
indicates that the addition of SO2 to NO2 or O3 or HCHO, considerably increase
the percentage inhibition compared with the action of each product examined
separately.
There is little information available on the mechanism of action of SO2 on the
pollen tube. However Ma et al. (1973) have measured the pollen mitotic index
of Tradescantia paludosa treated in vitro by SO2 they assumed the SO2 broke
down the chromosomes of the pollen tube. Delayed and reduced floral yield of
carnation and geranium species have been reported along with vegetative
growth retardation (Feder 1970). Ozone induced inhibition in pollen
germination and pollen tube growth has been observed (Feder 1981). Work
done by Mumford et al. (1972) suggests that O3 induces the autolysis of
structural glycoproteins and stimulates amino-acid synthesis in pollen and
inhibited germination by 40-90 %.
Thus it can be concluded that the changes observed in present study in flowers
and pollens grains are the results of cumulative effect of urban air pollutants, i.e.
SO2, NOX and Photochemical oxidants along with particulates.
24
Air Pollution Impact on Fruits
2.1 Introduction
The union of the male and female generative cells, after pollination, to form the
fertilized egg leads to the formation of fruits and seeds. A fruit is the mature
female part specially ovary which may or may not include other parts of the
flower. The seed is the ripened ovule contained within the fruit. Later on in due
course of time germination of seeds give rise to new plants.
Seeds are typically composed of three parts the embryo, endosperm and the
seed coat. Fruits may contain one to several seeds. The term „fruit‟ and „seed‟
are often used loosely, for example the so called „seeds‟ of many members of
poaceae are actually one seeded fruits. There are different types of fruits,
depending on how they are derived. They may be fleshy, dry indehiscent,
dehiscent, aggregate etc. The fruits of Leguminoceae are derived from single
carpel with marginal placentation having one to many seeds. These fruits are
dry dehiscent or indehiscent and commonly called Pods.
Most angiospermic seeds have a seed coat derived from either two integuments
or single integument of the ovule. In bitegmic seeds the term „testa‟ is applied
only to the outer layer, formed from outer integument, the part formed from the
inner integument being the tegment.
Seed coat may be complex multilayered tissue or simply enlarged ovule wall.
This generally includes a hard, protective layer formed from all or part of the
testa. Corner (1976) has classified seed coat according to the position of this
mechanical layer. In exotestal seedcoat the mechanical layer is formed from
the outer epidermis of the outer integument and in endotegmic seed coat, it is
derived from the inner wall of the inner integument. Some times the mechanical
layer consists of one or more rows of elongated, palisade like cells, such as the
macrosclerides in the exotesta of many leguminoceae, which is the family under
study during the present research work.
Apart from the obvious mechanical protective function, to prevent destruction
of the seed by dehydration or predation, the seed coat often has important
subsidiary functions, usually related to dispersal. These may bear corresponding
25
specialized structures. Like presence of wings in wind dispersal seeds and
fleshy seeds for dispersal by animals.
Of the many seeds produced by a plant, only a small proportion survives.
Predation, rotting, falling in the wrong place or any of the many other natural
and man made hazards besetting a seed. Those that do survive will sooner or
later germinate.
While the seed is dormant, all its processes are slowed down so as to utilize
available limited food resources very economically to keep the embryo alive.
When the dormancy is broken and the conditions are favorable for germination,
the seed rapidly takes in water and the respiration rate rises back to normal as
cell starts to grow and divide. The area of greatest growth at first is the root
initial and young root soon pushes its way out through the seed coat. Such seeds
are called as germinated.
At germination the testa is ruptured and the radicle emerges through the
micropyle. The seedling is the most Juvenile stage of the plant, immediately
after germination, seedlings have a root (radicle) and a hypocotyls, which bears
the cotyledons and plumules bud. This bud produces the stem and leaves, which
soon resemble those of the mature plant. The cotyledons or seed leaves usually
differ from the first foliage leaves. In large seeded dicotyledons such as the
legumes the cotyledons are fleshy and swollen, with a food storage function.
The overall physiology and biochemistry of sexual reproduction i.e. flowering,
fruiting, seed setting and seed germination is influenced by various
environmental constrains of which air pollution is one of the most significant
factors. Looking to the deteriorating air quality the present study was planned to
assess the impact of urban air pollution on fruits and seeds of the selected plant
species.
2.2 Experimental
Apart from foliar injury plants also show changes in their reproductive parts
too, in response to polluted air. This study was aimed to know the effects of air
pollution on fruit morphology and seed quality. The colour, size and weight of
fruits and seeds along with seed count and viability were studied.
26
2.2.1 Colour of Pods
Mature pods of C. fistula, C. siamea, C. pulcherrima, D. regia and P. inerme
were collected during 2002, 2003and 2004 from the selected areas of Indore
city from a height of 3 to 4 meter. Colour of pods and injury symptoms on them
were recorded visually and compared with reference area.
2.2.1 Size of Pods
Pod size measurement was performed by taking 20 pods from five trees of each
test species brought to the laboratory in polythene bags. Thus 100 pods from
each species from every study area were collected. Length and Breadth of pods
were recorded with the help of a standards measuring tape. In case of C. fistula
in place of breadth diameter was measured.
2.2.3. Weight of Pods
Hundred pods each for year 2002, 2003 and 2004 were collected from different
pollution areas along with Low pollution area were dried in oven at 80º C for 24
hours and their dry weight was recorded using an electronic balance. The results
are presented as grams per pod.
2.2.4 Seed Count
The effect of airborne pollutants on seed per fruit of selected tree species was
also studied. For this purpose seeds were taken out from the pods collected or
dry weight measurement and seed number per pod was also recorded.
2.2.5 Seed Viability
Seed viability was tested following Cottrell (1947) to test the viability imbibed
seed were cut, so that the embryo is bisected and then seed were placed in a
1.0% solution of 2,3,5 Triphenyl -2 H-tetrazolium chloride (TTC). Viable
embryo releases hydrogen ion during respiration, which combines with TTC,
imparting red or pink colour to seeds. The seeds in which embryo turned pink or
red after 24 hours were considered as viable and their number were recorded.
The test was conducted in petri plates containing filter paper. Four replicates of
27
25 seeds per petri plates were used for the study. The results are presented as
percent viability.
Like other aerial parts of the plant fruit are also remain exposed to polluted air
throughout their developmental span. This ranges from few months to years
depending upon the nature of plants. During this prolonged exposure they
interact with air pollutants resulting in the variation in various morphological
features like shape, size and colour.
2.3 Results
2.3.1 Colour of Pods
Like leaves the fruit also remain exposed to the ambient air during their
developmental period, thus they too showed response to polluted air. The pods
of all the test species collected from polluted sites appeared dark in colour as
compared to the pods collected from low pollution area, which were less dark
and shiny.
It was also observed that the colour of the pods growing in Industrial Pollution
area affected more than pods collected from Vehicular Pollution Area. In most
of pods their normal dark brown colour has turned in to dark brown to black due
to the interaction of pollutants and deposition of particulate matter on them.
Chlorotic and necrotic spots with tip burn were also observed in some pods of
C. pulcherrima in the polluted areas (Table 2.1, Plate-2.1 to 2.5).
Table 2.1: Colour of pods collected from different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of Plant
species
Low Pollution Area
TPL* 308.02 g/m3
Industrial Pollution
Area
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
Vehicular Pollution
Area
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
C. fistula Blackish-brown Dark black brown Dark black brown
C. siamea Brownish Light brown Light brown
C. pulcherrima Brown Dark brown Dark brown
D. regia Dark black Dark black brown Dark black brown
P. inerme Shiny blackish-brown Blackish brown Blackish brown
*TPL -Total Pollution Load
28
2.3.2. Size of Pods
The polluted air has affected the size of the pods. There was a reduction in
length as well as breadth of the pods in plants growing in different polluted
sites. It is evident from the data presented in Table 2.2 and Fig. 2.1 that the
reduction in pod length was more in Industrial Polluted Area as compared to
Vehicular Polluted Area.
Plate-2.1: Cassia fistula pods showing
colour change and size reduction. Plate-2.2: Cassia siamea pods showing
colour change and size reduction.
Plate-2.3: Caesalpinia pulcherrima pods
showing colour change and size
reduction.
Plate-2.4: Peltoforum inerme pods
showing colour change and size
reduction.
Plate-2.5: Delonix regia pods showing
size reduction.
29
Table 2.2 : Length and Breadth Ratio of pods collected from different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of
Plant
species
Y
E
A
R
Low Pollution Area
TPL*308.02 g/m3
Industrial Pollution Area
TPL* 539.15 g/m3
Vehicular Pollution Area
TPL* 506.81 g/m3
L B L/B
Ratio
L B L/B
Ratio
%
Red
(L)
% Red
(B) L B L/B
Ratio
%
Red
(L)
% Red
(B)
C.
fistula
S1
S2
S3
41.00
40.32
41.24
8.00
7.99
8.09
5.12
5.04
5.09
34.85
38.92
37.99
7.34
7.54
7.42
4.74
5.16
5.11
37.87
36.45
39.20
7.87
7.33
8.13
4.81
4.71
4.82
A 40.85
±0.24
8.02
±0.10
5.09
±0.20
37.25
0.20
7.43
±1.10
5.01
±0.48
8.81 7.35 37.84
±0.52
7.91
±0.68
4.78
±0.49
7.36 1.37
C.
siamea
S1
S2
S3
17.42
17.36
17.28
1.20
1.30
1.20
14.51
13.35
14.40
15.24
14.74
16.40
1.1
0.9
0.8
13.85
16.37
20.50
16.27
16.98
16.54
1.20
1.10
1.10
13.5
15.4
15.0
A 17.35
±0.10
1.20
±0.01
14.08
±0.08
15.46
±1.48
0.9
±0.01
16.90
±3.25
10.89 18.18 16.59
±0.59
1.10
±0.01
14.67
±0.67
4.38 8.33
C.
pulche-
rrima
S1
S2
S3
10.1
9.74
10.3
1.5
1.4
1.6
6.73
6.95
6.27
9.54
8.99
9.39
1.1
1.3
1.5
6.81
6.91
6.26
9.62
9.70
9.02
1.40
1.32
1.20
6.87
7.34
7.51
A 10.04
±1.29
1.5
±1.11
6.65
±1.35
9.30
±1.29
1.4
±1.10
6.66
±1.54
7.37 6.66 9.44
±1.78
1.30
±1.15
7.2
±1.29
5.97 13.3
D.
regia
S1
S2
S3
39.25
38.00
37.75
3.15
3.50
3.60
12.46
10.85
10.48
37.46
37.89
38.20
3.10
3.48
3.56
12.08
10.88
10.73
38.24
38.43
37.09
3.12
3.34
3.52
12.25
11.50
10.70
A 38.33
±0.83
3.48
±0.41
11.05
±0.56
37.85
±1.20
3.43
±1.38
11.06
±1.06
1.25 1.45 37.42
±0.42
3.31
±0.08
11.5
±1.08
1.06
4.88
P.
inerme
S1
S2
S3
9.60
9.77
9.82
2.2
2.0
2.1
4.36
4.88
4.67
7.43
8.24
9.47
1.7
2.00
1.9
4.36
4.12
4.98
8.29
8.74
9.59
1.9
2.1
1.9
4.36
4.16
5.04
A 9.73
±0.43
2.1
±0.02
4.64
±0.58
8.38
±1.28
1.85
0.42
4.60
0.28
14.40 11.90 8.87
±0.93
1.9
0.20
4.44
0.43
8.83 9.52
*TPL -Total Pollution Load, L – Length, B – Breadth, Red – Reduction,
Sampling year - S1 –2002, S2 –2003, S3–2004 ; A – Average Values
Maximum reduction in pod length was noted in P. inerme where it was 14.40 %
and 8.83% respectively in IPA and VPA with reference to LPA. Whereas
minimum reduction was recorded in D. regia where the values were 1.25 % and
1.06% respectively in IPA and VPA. The rest of two species of Cassia appeared
more or less affected similarly at both sites.
The breadths of the pods were also found decreased in all the species.
Maximum reduction in breadth of the pod was recorded in C. siamea (18.18%)
and C. pulcherrima (13.30%) respectively in IPA and VPA. Regarding breadth
of pod C. fistula found to be affected least in VPA.
30
The L/B ratio of pods was also changed (Table 2.2). There was a slight increase
in the ratio for C. siamea, C. pulcherrima and D. regia. However this ratio
decreased in P. inerme and C. fistula showed that the pods breadth was
comparatively more affected than length in most of the species studied. Thus it
can be concluded that there was overall growth retardation in pods of all the test
species growing in polluted areas.
2.3.3 Weight of Pods
Dry weight of pods is presented in Table 2.3. It can be seen from the table that
dry weight of pods has also been reduced in all the plant species. The maximum
reduction was observed in C. siamea i.e. 44.0 % in IPA and 30.30 % in VPA
and minimum in C. pulcherrima, i.e 8.96% in IPA and 8.79% in VPA
respectively. Whereas D. regia and P. inerme showed more than 20 % reduction
in dry weight. Areas wise there was more reduction in pod dry weight in
Industrial area than Vehicular area (Fig. 2.3).
Table 2.3 : Dry weight of pods collected from different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of
Plant
species
Year
LPA
TPL* 308.02
g/m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15
g/m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL* 506.81
g/m3
% Reduction
C. fistula
2002
2003
2004
67.92
65.70
63.82
51.78
54.48
52.72
50.88
53.74
55.34
Avg. 65.81±2.80 52.99 ± 1.25 19.48 % 53.32 ± 3.40 18.97 %
C. pulcherrima
2002
2003
2004
12.37
11.69
10.42
11.98
10.23
9.17
9.09
10.87
11.48
Avg. 11.49±0.65 10.46 ± 1.34 8.96 % 10.48 ± 1.02 8.97%
C. siamea
2002
2003
2004
12.97
13.11
13.53
7.28
7.39
7.47
8.98
9.59
9.04
Avg. 13.20±0.05 7.38±0.006 44.0 % 9.20 ±0.05 30.30%
D. regia
2002
2003
2004
77.93
68.43
67.71
51.27
54.25
56.79
57.64
51.37
58.45
Avg. 71.35±2.95 54.10±5.08 24.17% 55.82 2.95 21.76%
P. inerme
2002
2003
2004
10.37
10.87
9.24
8.52
6.56
7.88
8.63
7.48
7.69
Avg. 10.16±0.09 7.65±0.66 24.70% 7.93 0.15 21.91%
* TPL - Total Pollution Load, ** Avg. - Average of 100 pods
31
IPA VPA
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Fig. 2.3 : % reduction in dry weight of pods over LPA.
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
%
R
ed
ucti
on
2.3.4. Seed count
A perusal of Table 2.4 to 2.8 indicates that there was a reduction in seed
number, which ranges from 20.55 % to 3.15 %. The maximum lowering in seed
per pod was noted in C. siamea in Industrial area, while the minimum reduction
was recorded for C. pulcherrima in VPA. The response of C. fistula, D. regia
and P. inerme was almost same in both the polluted sites (Fig. 2.4).
0
5
10
15
20
25
Fig. 2.4 : % reduction in Seed/pod over LPA.
C.fistula
C.siamea
C.pulcherrima
D.regia
P.inerme
IPA VPA
%
Re
du
cti
on
Further it is also evident that number of unhealthy seeds per pod is high in both
the polluted sites in comparison with reference area. It clearly indicates that
whatever be the nature of the pollutant it adversely influenced the seed number
and quality.
On the overall basis it can be stated that the colour, size, shape, weight and
number of seeds per pod all were adversely affected by air pollution prevailing
32
in the area. Higher reduction in industrial pollution area in above parameters in
comparison to vehicular pollution area corresponds to the preventing pollution.
Table 2.4 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Cassia fistula growing in different
polluted areas of Indore city
Year
Low Pollution Area Industrial Pollution Area Vehicular Pollution Area TPL* 308.08 g/m3 TPL* 539.15 g/m3 TPL* 506.81 g/m3
No. of
seed per
pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed per
pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed per
pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
2002 46.44 46.00 0.44 46.00 44.87 1.13 45.80 44.68 1.12
2003 46.96 46.28 0.68 45.98 44.88 1.10 45.00 43.96 1.04
2004 62.09 51.51 0.68 45.04 43.89 1.15 46.12 45.03 1.09
51.83
3.69
47.93
2.18
0.60
0.46
45.67
0.92
44.54
0.93
1.12
0.20
45.64
.92
44.55
0.89
1.08
0.65
#11.88 % #11.94%
*TPL -Total Pollution Load, # % Reduction
Table 2.5 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Cassia siamea growing in different
polluted areas of Indore city
Year
Low Pollution Area Industrial Pollution Area Vehicular Pollution Area TPL* 308.08 g/m3 TPL* 539.15 g/m3 TPL* 506.81 g/m3
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed per
pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
2002 23.88 22.64 0.16 17.20 16.96 0.20 19.48 18.52 19.38
2003 20.12 19.88 0.16 17.08 17.00 0.08 22.36 21.84 0.28
2004 21.96 21.72 0.24 17.06 17.04 0.20 20.92 20.02 0.72
21.65
1.64
21.41
1.43
0.18
0.17
17.20
0.41
17.12
0.41
0.16
0.32
20.92
1.38
20.18
1.52
6.79
2.94
#5.08% #3.37%
Table 2.6 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Caesalpinia pulcherrima growing in
different polluted areas of Indore city
Year
Low Pollution Area Industrial Pollution Area Vehicular Pollution Area TPL* 308.08 g/m3 TPL* 539.15 g/m3 TPL* 506.81 g/m3
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
2002 8.20 8.12 0.12 7.96 7.44 0.52 7.90 7.34 0.56
2003 8.28 8.16 0.12 8.00 7.60 0.56 7.99 7.51 0.48
2004 824 8.16 0.08 7.80 7.32 0.48 8.05 7.46 0.59
8.24
0.23
8.14
0.20
0.10
0.20
7.92
0.49
7.45
0.49
0.52
0.23
7.98
0.32
7.43
0.28
0.54
0.29
#3.88% #3.15%
Table 2.7 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Delonix regia growing in different
polluted areas of Indore city
Year
Low Pollution Area Industrial Pollution Area Vehicular Pollution Area TPL* 308.08 g/m3 TPL* 539.15 g/m3 TPL* 506.81 g/m3
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
2002 24.40 24.28 0.12 20.24 20.00 0.24 21.24 20.80 0.36
2003 23.28 22.96 0.32 20.36 20.04 0.32 23.08 22.28 0.08
2004 23.20 22.36 0.34 20.44 20.02 0.24 22.25 21.75 0.45 23.96
0.48
22.84
0.84
0.42
0.46
20.34
0.38
20.02
0.16
0.26
0.25
22.28
0.43
21.94
0.53
0.29
1.15 #15.10% #7.01%
33
Table 2.8 : Healthy and unhealthy seeds per pod in Peltophorum inerme growing in
different polluted areas of Indore city
Year
Low Pollution Area Industrial Pollution Area Vehicular Pollution Area TPL* 308.08 g/m3 TPL* 539.15 g/m3 TPL* 506.81 g/m3
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed per
pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
No. of
seed
per pod
No. of
healthy
seed
No. of
unhealthy
seed
2002 2.24 2.05 0.19 2.12 1.80 0.32 2.18 1.90 0.28
2003 2.48 2.28 0.20 2.22 1.84 0.38 2.23 1.89 0.34
2004 2.01 2.17 0.24 2.27 1.83 0.44 2.29 1.81 0.48
2.57
0.80
2.36
0.60
0.21
0.20
2.20
0.33
1.82
0.18
0.38
0.28
2.23
0.27
1.86
0.25
0.36
0.17
#14.39% #13.22%
*TPL -Total Pollution Load, # % Reduction
2.3.5 Seed Viability
Perusal of Table 2.9 and Fig. 2.5 revealed that air pollution has adversely
affected seed viability. The seed viability was more reduced in Industrial
Polluted Area than Vehicular Pollution Area. Maximum reduction in seed
viability was observed in D. regia i.e. 8.04% in IPA, and minimum reduction in
seed viability was recorded in C. pulcherrima, i.e. 2.22% in IPA. While in VPA
maximum reduction in seed viability was noted in C. siamea, i.e. 6.3 and
minimum in C. fistula 3.29%.
2.4 Discussion
Significant morphological and physiological changes in the leaves exposed to
air pollutants have been extensively worked out by many workers (Jacbson and
Hill 1970, Chaphekar 1972, Sharma 1976, Pawar and Dubey 1983, Pandya and
Bedi 1986 and Rangrajan et al. 1979).
These alterations are not restricted to vegetative parts only but greatly influence
reproductive structures too. Changes in pod colour, size and dry weight were
noticed during the present study this has also affected the overall fruit and seed
quality.
The darkening of the pods observed in plants facing air pollution may be due to
the impact of various gaseous as well as particulates present in the air. Pods of
plants such as D. regia and C. fistula remain exposed to air for months together.
Thus interacting with pollutants for longer duration, which result in alteration in
the physiological processes of fruit ripening, which may cause deviation in the
normal colour of the fruit. The darkening of the colour of pods may be
34
attributed to the loss of photosynthetic pigments as a result of harmful effects of
pollutants during their developmental stage and deposition of chemically active
particulates on them.
Table 2.9 : Seed viability of plant species collected from different polluted areas of
Indore city
Name of
plant
species
Year
LPA
TPL* 308.08 g/m3
IPA
TPL* 539.15 g/m3
VPA
TPL* 506.81 g/m3
% of viable seeds# % of viable
seeds#
% Reduction % of viable
seeds#
% Reduction
C. fistula
2002
2003
2004
92
88
90
80
84
88
84
88
92
Avg. 91.01.82 842.30 7.69 % 882.16 3.29 %
C. siamea
2002
2003
2004
96
92
94
92
88
90
88
92
84
Avg. 941.63 901.63 4.25% 882.30 6.38%
C. pulcherrima
2002
2003
2004
93
89
88
88
92
94
82
92
84
Avg. 902.30 883.05 2.22% 862.44 4.44%
D. regia
2002
2003
2004
92
87
84
84
76
80
80
84
80
Avg. 872.30 802.30 8.04% 842.30 3.44%
P. inerme
2002
2003
2004
96
92
88
91
89
87
92
88
80
Avg. 922.30 891.63 3.33% 860.26 8.69%
*TPL - Total Pollution Load, #- Average of 300 seeds
Reduction in fruit size, seed number and dry weight as a function of different
pollutants has been reported earlier (Houston and Dochinger 1977, Murdy 1979,
Murdy and Ragsdale 1980). These findings are in confirmation with present
study. Further Claussen (1970) and Cluster (1982) held responsible automobile
exhaust with NO2 and CO for such changes. Murdy and Ragsdale (1980) have
also shown that in Gernanium SO2 damages sexual reproduction in terms of
decreased seed set. SO2 induced fertility changes in Lepidium virginicum have
been reported (Murdy 1979).
35
Khan and Khan (1991) working on the impact of air pollution has also observed
reduced fruiting, smaller size and low weight of Tomato fruits. Reduction in
fruit per plant, seed out put and seed per fruit in Brassica juncia growing near a
thermal power plant have been reported by Saquib and Khan (1999). All these
reports support present findings.
Plants growing in Industrially polluted air with predominance of SO2 showed
reduced flowering and fruiting up to the extent of total absence of flowers and
fruits in some cases has also been reported earlier (Pawar 1982). Khan and
Khan (1991) and Saquib and Khan (1999) concentrated their studies on
vegetables only. However, no such work has been conducted with tree species
except (Rao 1972, Pawar 1982, Pawar and Dubey 1983 and Sikka and Joshi
2002). The result of the present study also reveals a reduction in fruit size, and
seed per pod, which agrees with earlier observations.
Recently Chauhan et al. (2004) has reported at Agra reduction in fruit length,
fruit number and seed per fruit in Cassia siamea and accounted it to automobile
pollution. More damage in fruits and seeds in industrially polluted area as
compared to Vehicular pollution area can be attributed to the total higher
pollution load in the ambient air of preceding area.
Reduction in pod number and mean pod weight in Cicer arietinum exposed to
80 ppb ozone has been reported by Singh and Rao (1982). Since the urban air
contains a mixture of gaseous and particulate pollutants. The effects observed
on fruits and seed morphology in present study are cumulative in which the role
of ozone cannot be ignored, which has became a common air pollutant of urban
areas.
In total the reducing trend in fruit size, seed quality and seed number is a result
of cumulative effect of various air pollutants present in ambient air of Indore
city of which many of them can not be monitored due to the lack of facilities.
36
Air Pollution Impact on Seed Quality and
Germination
3.1 Introduction
Ever since the origin of a species, the inherent capacity of reproduction has
resulted in its spread thus making the distribution a dynamic process (Ridley
1930). When a plant has reached a certain stage of development, its growing
point may under certain conditions, changes from the vegetative to reproductive
phase. The success of a species in propagating itself by seeds depends primarily
on the number and viability of the seeds produced by parents, provided that
those seeds find conditions suitable for germination and subsequent growth.
Morphologically seed is a mature integumented megasporangium. The size and
shape of the seed depends on the form of ovary, conditions under which the
parent plant grows during seed formation and obviously, on the species.
Other factors, which determine the size and shape of seeds, are the size of the
embryo, the amount of endosperm present and to what extent other tissues
participate in the seed structure (Mayer and Mayber 1963).
The seed according to Berlyn (1972), is a packet of energy, some of which is in
the form of information, it is the state of minimum entropy in the life cycle of
angiosperm and gymnosperms. A viable seed is one, which can germinate under
favorable conditions provided that any dormancy if present may be removed
(Roberts 1972).
The state of dormancy is overtly terminated when active metabolism, synthesis
and finally growth are resumed. In seeds the resumption of these activities is
identified with the initiation of various metabolic activities leading to
germination. Such post germinative activities can only take place in
environments within which the parent plant could function properly. One of the
requirements for germination is an adequate moisture supply yet which would
not interfere with the gaseous exchange, which is essential for aerobic
respiration and adequate supply of metabolic energy. Another such requirement
is for “normal” temperature, i.e. within the range, which is suitable for growth
of more mature seedling. Ostensibly, therefore exposure of seeds to
37
environment consisting of adequate moisture, aeration and „normal‟
temperature, should suffice for germination to take place.
Angiospermic seed may appear simple externally but possesses a complex eco-
physiology for its further resumption of growth, primarily its germination. Most
of the authors called seed germination as “the sprouting of seeds, or resumption
of growth by dormant embryo”. It is that group of processes which cause the
sudden transformation of dry seed in to the young seedling (Mayer 1953).
Thus germination is the period during which physiological processes are
initiated in the seed, leading to the elongation of cells and the formation of new
cells, tissues and organs, i.e. the period between hydration and the onset of
meristematic activities and finally differentiation of cell and organogensis.
Hence, the germination of seed may be defined as the sequential series of
morphogenetic events that result in the transformation of an embryo into
seedling. It is a half closed system i.e. initiated when quiescent embryo is
reactivated, but the terminal end of the system is open because the point where
germination ends and seedling growth commences is undefined (Mayer and
Mayber 1963).
Seeds with special germination requirements are said to be dormant or blocked
(Toole 1961). It has to be recognized that internal conditions of the seed may
also be considered as important factor in determining its germination (Stiles and
cocking 1961). According to Amen (1966), seed dormancy is an adaptive
mechanism of growth cessation. Since the environmental conditions before and
during seed development are very important. The present study was conducted
to know the effects of air pollution on morphological and physiological aspects
of seed and their germination.
3.2 Experimental
In order to study the effects of urban air pollution on the seed quality, quantity
and physiology, the following parameters were studied:
38
3.2.1 Seed Colour
Seed from the pods of C. fistula, C. siamea, C. pulcherrima, D. regia and P.
inerme were collected from different study areas of Indore city and seed colour
was observed and recorded with reference to low pollution area.
3.2.2 Seed Weight
For seed weight measurement seeds from the pods of test plants collected from
various sampling stations were taken out in distinct lots from each lot 100 seeds
were drawn randomly in three replicates and weighed in grams. The seed lot
with high seed weight is considered as Vigorous.
3.2.3 Seed Density
Seed density is a very important parameter to know their quality. To determine
the density of the seeds, a definite quantity of kerosene oil is poured in a
measuring cylinder and then initial level was noted. There after pre weighed
seed sample was added to the measuring cylinder and the rise in level of the
kerosene was noted.
The seed density was calculated as
Seed density = Weight of the seeds
Volume of the seeds
3.2.4 Seed Soundness
This is another test to know about the vigor of the seed. If the number of
shriveled, under-sized, under-developed, discolored and insect damaged seeds
are more in a seed lot it is considered poor. To study the soundness of seeds
collected from various polluted sites the above-mentioned characters were
observed in lots of 100 seed in triplicates.
3.2.5 Seed Germination
Since the seed of the entire five test plants are known to possess physical
dormancy (Cassia fistula, Athayia 1990 and Todaria and Negi 1992, Cassia
siamea, Todaria and Negi 1992, Delonix regia, Gill et al. 1981, Peltophorum
inerme, Anoliefo and Gill 1992, Caesalpina pulcherrima, Jones and Geneve
39
1995). They were subjected to mechanical scarification by rubbing them on a
sand paper no.10 before placing them for germination test. The germination test
was conducted at National Soybean Research Center (NRCS), Khandwa Road,
Indore. For the test germination paper was soaked in distilled water than 50
seeds in three replicates each were placed on the paper. Thiarm is used in small
quantity to protect seeds from fungal contamination during germination. All
seed lots were placed in a seed germinator. The seed were grown in four
replicates of 50 seeds. Numbers of germinated seed were counted daily.
3.3. RESULTS
3.3.1 Seed Colour
Like pods, which were exposed to air pollution, the seed colour was also found
to be changed. In both the polluted areas the seed colour became dark, were as
seeds of reference area were light in colour and shiny (Table 3.1). This was true
for all five species. The maximum colour darkening was noted in C. fistula,
while minimum colour change was recorded in D. regia and P. inerme as
compared to seeds collected from Low pollution area.
Table 3.1: Colour of seeds collected from different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of plant
species
Low Pollution Area
TPL*
308.02 g/ m3
Industrial Pollution
Area
TPL*
539.15 g/ m3
Vehicular Pollution
Area
TPL*
506.81 g/ m3
C. fistula Light brown and
shiny
Dark blackish- brown Dark blackish- brown
C. siamea Blackish-brown and
shiny
Blackish-brown Blackish-brown
C. pulcherrima Greenish-brown Dark greenish and
blackish-brown
Dark greenish and
blackish- brown
D. regia Ivory-greenish Dark greenish Dark greenish
P. inerme Light brown Light brown and
some darker
Light brown and
some darker
*TPL -Total Pollution Load
40
Table 3.2: Weight of 100 seeds (g) collected from different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of plant
species
LPA
TPL* 308.02
g/m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/m3
% Reduction
C. fistula 17.080
17.110
17.150
16.00
15.125
15.075
10.00
12.125
13.080
13.110
25.37 Avg. 17.113 0.025 15.40 0.89 12.771 .925
C. siamea 4.500
4.350
4.600
4.180
4.200
4.250
12.45
4.100
4.080
4.115
14.54 Avg. 15.451 0.619 13.526 1.034 13.203 0.98
C. pulcherrima 15.739
15.200
15.415
13.150
13.100
14.330
12.45
13.286
12.600
13.725
14.54 Avg. 15.451 0.619 13.526 1.034 13.203 0.98
D. regia 36.670
35.500
36.200
31.680
32.320
31.983
11.43
33.320
32.870
32.995
8.47 Avg. 36.123 0.911 31.994 0.647 33.061 0.505
P. inerme 5.105
5.250
5.360
4.500
4.420
4.330
15.69
4.100
4.050
4.085
22.14 Avg. 5.238 0.421 4.416 0.036 4.078 0.194
TPL – Total Pollution Load
41
Table 3.3 : Density of seeds collected from different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of Plant
species
LPA
TPL* 308.02
g/m3
IPA
TPL*
539.15 g/m3
% Reduction
VPA
TPL*
506.81 g/m3
%
Reduction
C. fistula 1.73
1.70
1.65
1.47
1.40
1.35
17.15
1.60
1 .65
1.60
4.73 Avg. 1.69 0.08 1.40 0.33 1.61 0.20
C. siamea 1.09
1.05
1.09
1.08
1.08
1.00
21.83
1.08
1.00
1.08
1.86 Avg. 1.07 0.20 1.05 0.27 1.05 0.27
C. pulcherrima 1.32
1.30
1.25
1.12
1.10
1.13
13.95
1.11
1.10
1.15
13.17 Avg. 1.29 0.23 1.11 0.01 1.12 0.20
D. regia 1.43
1.400
1.45
1.13
1.10
1.12
21.83
1.15
1.10
1.12
21.12 Avg. 1.42 0.20 1.11 0.16 1.12 0.18
P. inerme 1.31
1.20
1.28
1.05
1.00
1.05
18.25
1.20
1.30
1.25
0.793 Avg. 1.26 0.29 1.03 0.21 1.25 0.25
TPL – Total Pollution Load
Table 3.4: Soundness of seeds collected from different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of Plant
species
Low Pollution Area
TPL* 308.02 g/m3
Industrial Pollution Area
TPL* 539.15 g/m3
Vehicular Pollution Area
TPL* 506.81 g/m3
No. of
healthy
seeds**
No. of un-
healthy
seeds
No. of
healthy
seeds
%
Decrease
No. of un-
healthy
seeds
No. of
healthy
seeds
%
Decrease
No. of un-
healthy
seeds
C. fistula 92 08 82 10.86 18 86 6.52 14
C. siamea 93 07 78 16.12 22 82 11.82 18
C. pulcherrima 93 07 88 4.16 12 84 9.67 16
D. regia 94 06 88 6.38 12 91 3.19 09
P. inerme 96 04 90 6.25 10 93 3.12 07
*TPL – Total Pollution Load
** Total number of unhealthy seeds = (a + b + c + d + e)
Where, Shriveled seeds (a), Under-sized seeds (b), Under-developed seeds (c), Discoloured
seeds (d) and Insect damaged seeds (e).
42
Table 3.5: % Reduction in seed germination in different polluted areas of Indore city
Name of plant
species
Y
E
A
R
Low Pollution
Area
TPL* 308.02
g/m3
Industrial Pollution
Area
TPL* 539.15 g/ m3
Vehicular Pollution Area
TPL* 506.81 g/ m3
% Germination %
Germination
%
Reduction
%
Germination
%
Reduction
C. fistula S1
S2
S3
S4
80
92
88
92
76
80
76
68
12.79%
74
76
80
84
8.72% A 86.0 3.16 75.0±2.64 78.50 2.64
C. siamea S1
S2
S3
S4
84
92
96
92
92
76
80
84
8.79%
76
80
84
92
8.79% A 91.0 2.64 83.0 3.16 83.0 3.16
C. pulche-rrima S1
S2
S3
S4
96
92
96
88
80
68
76
84
17.20%
92
84
80
81
9.40% A 93.0 2.44 77.0±3.16 84.25 2.12
D. regia S1
S2
S3
S4
90
96
84
96
70
76
68
72
21.85%
83
81
83
82
10.10% A 91.5±2.95 71.50±2.23 82.25±+1.17
P. inerme S1
S2
S3
S4
96
80
84
88
72
68
64
76
19.54%
84
76
78
82
8.04% A 87.0 3.16 70.0 2.82 80.0 2.64
*TPL -Total Pollution Load, Sampling year - S1 –2002, S2 –2003, S3–2004 ; A – Average Values,
Samples of 100 seeds each.
3.3.2 Seed Weight
The results presented in Table 3.2 and Fig. 3.1 clearly indicates a reduction in
weight as compared to Low pollution area. Maximum reduction in seed weight
was recorded in P. inerme (15.69%) followed by C. pulcherrima (12.45%) and
minimum in C. fistula (10.00%) in Industrial Pollution Area. While in Vehicular
Pollution Area maximum reduction was recorded in C. fistula (25.37%)
followed by P. inerme (22.14%) and minimum in D. regia (8.45%). Obviously
the seeds of P. inerme, C. pulcherrima and C. fistula affected more than other
species due to air pollutants.
43
3.3.3 Seed Density
Seed density is an important characteristics related to seed quality and seed
vigor. Seeds collected from polluted sites showed poor density. In this
connection the air of IPA was found to be more damaging than VPA (Table 3.3,
Fig. 3.2). As for as different species are concerned D. regia was more affected
in both the sites as there was more than 21 % reduction noted, while minimum
reduction was observed in IPA for C. pulcherrima, i.e. 13.95 and 0.79 for P.
inerme at VPA.
3.3.4 Seed Soundness
The data pertaining to soundness of seeds are presented in Table 3.4 and Fig.
3.3. A seed lot with higher proportion of shriveled, under-sized, under-
developed, discoloured and insect damage seed is considered as poor. It is
evident that the percentage of unhealthy seeds in comparison to Low pollution
area was higher in both the polluted sites. Higher proportion of poor seed was
found in C.siamea, whereas lower proportion of poor seed was recorded in
P.inerme IPA and VPA respectively (Fig. 3.1 to 3.5).
3.3.5 Seed Germination
The data presented in Table 3.3.5 and Fig. 3.5 clearly indicates that the seed
collected from polluted areas germinated poorly than the reference area. It was
also observed that the seeds of reference area germinated 10-15 days early than
the seeds of polluted areas.
In IPA maximum reduction in seed germination was observed in D. regia
(21.85%) followed by P. inerme (19.54%) and minimum reduction was noted in
44
C. siamea (8.79%). In VPA also maximum reduction was observed in D. regia
(10.10%) and C. pulcherrima (8.045%) respectively. Thus it is clear that D.
regia affected more irrespective of pollution site indicating its sensitivity to air
pollution.
The maximum reduction in seedling growth was recorded in P. inerme, i.e.
5.01 % in VPA followed by D. regia, i.e. 3.29% in IPA (Table 3.6) and
minimum reduction in seedling growth was recorded in C. fistula for VPA and
P. inerme for IPA as compared to Low pollution area.
3.4 DISCUSSION
Air pollution resulting from industrial and urban development has resulted in
localized and regional damage to plants. The main air pollutants toxic to plants
are Ozone, Sulphur dioxide and Nitrogen dioxide. Presently Ozone is
considered to cause more worldwide damage to vegetation than all the other air
pollutants combined (Heagle 1989). There is ample evidence that gaseous air
pollutants has adverse effects on leaves and total yield and that these effects
vary enormously among genotype and environments. However, less research
has been directed to the correlation of leaf injury and its associated
photosynthesis impairment with air pollution effects on flowering, pollination
and seed set and on carbon allocation from leaves to developing fruit (Ormord
1996).
Significant reduction in fruit length, percent fruit setting and seed per fruit in C.
siamea growing along road side in Agra has been recently reported by Chauhan
et al. (2004) which further support the present finding. The present observations
are supported by several workers (Dubey and Pawar 1985, Rout and Varshney
1996 and Awasthy 1998). According to these workers there is a mark reduction
in fruit numbers, size, colour, quality and consumer acceptability in the
presence of air pollutants and automobile exhaust.
The phase of germination for a plant is an important aspect from its growth and
production point of view. Seed collected from variously polluted sites were
subjected to germination and vigour test showed reduction in these values.
Similar observations have been noted in C. tora and C. occindentalis seeds
45
collected from automobile polluted sites by Krishnayya and Bedi (1986). They
have also reported reduced seed viability as a function of lead pollution.
The present findings are also in confirmations with the work of Houston and
Dochinger (1979) and Murdy and Ragasdale (1980). Degradation of both seed
quality and quantity in Wheat grown in SO2 polluted Industrial area has been
reported (Pawar 1982). Seed quality in terms of crude protein and oil content
was reduced by elevated ozone level in ambient air (Ollerenshow et al. 1999).
However the individual pods borne on their branches were heavier and
contained more seeds perhaps as a consequence of compensatory response
(Ollerenshow et al. 1999).
Reduced seed germination, less vigour and poor seedling growth observed in all
the study plants can be attributed to air pollutants prevailing in those sites from
where these samples had been collected. Early germination of seeds of reference
area in comparison to seeds of polluted sites can be a function of their good
health, high vigour and vitality, on account of their higher values of seed weight
and density. This clearly indicates their good quality over polluted site seeds.
Maximum reduction in seed germination in C. fistula and P. inerme indicates
that pollutants affected seeds of these trees more. The maximum reduction in
germination of C. fistula seeds is in confirmation with the maximum loss in
seed weight and seed density of the same plant. Thus it is clear that seeds of C.
fistula were affected more by pollution than rest of tree species. Which is
further confirmed through its poor seedling performance. All these alterations
might have resulted due to the combined effect of mixture of gaseous as well as
particulate pollution on the vegetative as well as reproductive parts of the plants
during the course of their developmental stages.
Change in seed colour reduction in seed weight, seed density, soundness and
germination in plants growing in Industrial and Vehicular Pollution Areas can
be attributed to the prevailing air pollution in these sites from where the samples
were collected. Obviously the change in seed colour is an indirect effect of air
pollutants on them. During the course of development the seeds were not
exposed directly to the pollutants as the fruits. Thus the change in colour of the
seeds appears to be an indirect indication of seed quality.
46
On the basis of overall assessment of all the five tree species with reference to
their sensitivity to air pollution they can be arranged as:
C. fistula > C. siamea > D. regia > P. inerme > C. pulcherrima
Thus it is suggested that C. fistula is more sensitive to urban air pollution and C.
pulcherrima the least, while D. regia is moderately affected.
47
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We gratefully acknowledge help extended by Dr. Dilip Wagela, Scientist, M.P.
Pollution Control Board, Indore (India) and Professor Dr. Bholeshwar Dube, Head,
Department of Botany, Mata Jijabai Girls P.G. College, Indore (India) in the course of
research and preparation of the book.
48
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