learning a systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. 2...
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LEARNING A systematic, relatively permanent change in behavior
that occurs through experience. 2 types: 1. Associative learning:
occurs when we make a connection between two events. Classical and
Operant Conditioning Conditioning: the process of learning
associations. 2. Observational learning: occurs when a person
observes and imitates anothers behavior. OPERANT CONDITIONING A
form of associative learning in which the consequences of a
behavior change the probability of a behaviors occurrence. Also
called instrumental learning Active process; behaviors occur
spontaneously; the learner decides whether or not to repeat
behavior based on the consequence Voluntary behavior Keywords:
behavior, consequences Important people: Thorndike Skinner Seligman
THE LAW OF EFFECT Studied by Edward Thorndike (1898)
Locked hungry cats in a puzzle box and placed food outside Cats
used trial and error to escape box and get food Voluntary behavior
changes because of its consequences: Pleasant consequences
strengthen behavior Unpleasant consequences weaken behavior
Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened and
behaviors followed by negative outcomes are weakened. B.F. SKINNER
Burrhus Frederic Skinner American psychologist
Mac daddy of Operant Conditioning Developed the Skinner Box to test
his concepts Used rodents and pigeons Free will is an illusion!
SKINNER BOX Originally known as an Operant Conditioning
Chamber
Used to control experimental conditions Has a lever or key that an
animal manipulates to obtain areinforcer such as food or water The
lever or key is connected to devices that record theanimals
response ABCS OF BEHAVIOR CONSEQUENCES Reinforcement
Punishment
A reinforcer is anything that INCREASES a behavior. + Positive
Reinforcement Addition of something pleasant. - Negative
Reinforcement Removal of something unpleasant. Two types: Escape
Learning Avoidance Learning A punisher is anything that DECREASES a
behavior. + Positive Punishment Addition of something unpleasant. -
Negative Punishment Removal of something pleasant. CONSEQUENCES
Reinforcement Punishment Positive Reinforcement Example:
Getting money for grades Getting a sticker for good behavior
Negative Reinforcement Taking aspirin to get rid of a headache
Skipping class vs. getting kicked out of class Positive Punishment
Example: Getting a spanking Getting a speeding ticket Negative
Punishment Having your phone taken away Going to jail CONTINGENCY
Contingency: means that the behavior must serves asa reliable
indicator that the consequence is on its way. SHAPING Rewarding
closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Reinforcing small steps on the way to the desired behavior. To
train a dog to get your slippers, you might reinforce these small
steps: First, to find the slippers Then, to put the slippers in his
mouth Next, to walk with the slippers in his mouth Last, to bring
the slippers to you PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS
Primary Reinforcer: Innate value Things that are naturally
reinforcing because they satisfy biological drives such as food,
water, sleep, sex Secondary Reinforcer: Learned/Conditioned value
Things that we learn are reinforcing such as money, grades TOKEN
ECONOMY Good behaviors are rewarded with tokens that can be
exchanged for desired rewards. Tokens: poker chips, fake
money/coins, stickers, tickets Based on applied behavior analysis
(ABA): the use of operant conditioning principles to change human
behavior. Also called behavior modification Emphasizes the use of
positive reinforcement to change behavior ACQUISITION The
association is made between the behavior and the consequence.
Learning occurs when the learner becomes aware that the behavior
has been reinforced or punished (consequence). GENERALIZATION &
DISCRIMINATION
Performing a reinforced behavior in a different situation. Same
behavior different situation Responding appropriately to stimuli
that signal that a behavior will or will not be reinforced.
Different behavior for different situations EXTINCTION &
SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY
Extinction: Decreases the frequency of a behavior when the behavior
is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous Recovery: The behavior
suddenlyresumes after extinction. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforces the desired behavior every
time it occurs. Learned quickly; easy to extinguish Examples: Using
a token to ride the subway. Putting coins in a vending machine to
get candy or soda. Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement: Reinforces
the desired behavior only part of the time. Slower acquisition;
harder to extinguish RATIO SCHEDULES Fixed-ratio schedule:
Reinforcement after a set number of behaviors. Example: Workers
paid per 100 envelops stuffed Getting to leave class after a
multiple choice test. *Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforcement after
a varying (unpredictable) number of behaviors. Examples: Playing a
slot machine Fishing/hunting INTERVAL SCHEDULES Fixed-interval
schedule:
Reinforcement of the first behavior after a set amount of time has
passed. Examples: Getting a paycheck every two weeks Scheduled
exams Variable-interval schedule: Reinforcement of the first
behavior after varying (unpredictable) amounts of time has passed.
Example: POP Quizzes Arrival of mail SCHEDULES OF
REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement Schedules Compared Schedule Response Rate Pattern of
Responses Resistance to Extinction Fixed-ratio schedule Very high
Steady response with low ratio. Brief pause after each
reinforcement with very high ratio. The higher the ratio, the more
resistance to extinction. Variable-ratio schedule Highest response
rate Constant response pattern, no pauses Most resistance to
extinction. Fixed-interval schedule Lowest response rate Long pause
after reinforcement, followed by gradual acceleration. The longer
the interval, the more resistance to extinction. Variable-interval
schedule Moderate Stable, uniform response. More resistance to
extinction than fixed- interval schedule with same average
interval. SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT IMMEDIATE & DELAYED
REINFORCEMENT
Immediate Reinforcement: A reinforcer that occurs immediately after
a behavior. More effective for lower animals Example: A rat gets a
food pellet when it presses a lever. Delayed Reinforcement: A
reinforcer that is postponed for a period of time after a behavior.
Has an effect on human behavior A paycheck that comes at the end of
a week. IMMEDIATE & DELAYED PUNISHMENT
Immediate Punishment: A punisher that occurs immediately after a
behavior. More effective for lower animals *Punishment works best
when it is immediate and harsh! Delayed Punishment: A punisher that
is postponed for a period of time after a behavior. Has an effect
on human behavior DELAYED GRATIFICATION
The ability to resist the temptation for a small immediate reward
and wait for alarger delayed reward. Immediate & mildly valued
vs. delayed & highly valued Also called deferred gratification
Example: We may be more inclined to watching TV rather than get an
A in AP Psychology, which requires constant studying. Studied by
Walter Mischel The Marshmallow Test Results found that delayed
gratification correlated to: Higher SAT scores higher levels of
competence reported by parents & teachers Lower rates of
substance abuse Prefrontal cortex vs. limbic system MOTIVATION
Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a behavior due to external incentives such as
rewards and punishments. Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to
perform a behavior for its own sake, based on internal factors such
as needs and fun. OVERJUSTIFICATION Occurs when extrinsic
motivation decreases a person's intrinsic motivationto perform a
behavior or participate in an activity. When you pay more attention
to the incentive, and less attention to the enjoyment and
satisfaction that you receive from performing a behavior or
activity. Examples: A painter may not paint for pleasure when she
is accustomed to being paid for her work. Losing interest in
playing the violin after your mother promises to pay you for each
hour of practice. Rewarding kids for playing math games. After the
rewards are terminated, children spent significantly less time
playing the games than they had before they ever got rewards.
PREMACK PRINCIPLE Preferred behaviors can be used as reinforcement
for less preferred behaviors. Preferred: behaviors with a higher
level of intrinsic value/occur more often Using an activity that is
pleasurable to reward an activity that is less pleasurable.
Examples: You have to clean your room before you watch TV You have
to do your homework before you can go to the movies LEARNED
HELPLESSNESS An organism's learning through experience with
unavoidable negative stimuli that it has no control over negative
outcomes. Studied by Martin Seligman (1967) Dogs shocked for
prolonged period of time would stop attempting to escape, even when
given the opportunity to do so. Has implications in depression.
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