lexical semantics. an introduction

Boris IomdinRussian Language Institute,

Russian Academy of Sciencesiomdin@ruslang.ru

Lecture 2. PlanGrammatical meaningGrammar and dictionaryCriteria of grammatical meanings:

ObligatorinessGeneralityNon-universalityInability to be expressed independentlyLimited motivation in reality

Integral description of the languageGrammar rules in the dictionary

Jabberwocky'Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;All mimsy were the borogoves,And the mome raths outgrabe.

(Lewis Carroll)

Grammatical meaningA generalized meaning common to a

series of words and regularly expressed in the language

A. Zaliznyak: a grammatical meaning is a meaning that for each word of a given class has to be expressed necessarily

O. Jespersen: grammar deals with general facts

Grammatical meaning: criteriaObligatory: Grammatica ars

obligatoriaGeneralNot universalHardly expressed independentlyNot necessarily motivated in reality

Grammar and DictionaryGrammar deals with the general facts of

language, and lexicology with special facts. That cat denotes that particular animal is a special fact which concerns that word alone, but the formation of the plural by adding the sound –s is a general fact because it concerns a great many other words as well: rats, hats, works, books, caps, chiefs, etc.

O. Jespersen, The philosophy of grammar, 1924

Grammatical categoriesA grammatical category is a generalization

of at least two grammatical meanings which are regularly distinguished in their forms.

Nominal grammatical categories: number, gender, case, definiteness, animatedness, possession, …

Verbal grammatical categories: tense, mode, voice, aspect, evidentiality, causation, …

Are they universal?No gender in English / …No case in English / French / …No aspect in English / French / German / …No definiteness in Slavic languages (except

Bulgarian)No number in Pirahã (Brazil)Nothing (?) obligatory in Chinese

GrammaticalizationA process when lexical meanings become

grammaticalSemantic bleaching: my back hurts > back of

the class > back in 1980; Turkish arkamda ‘behind me’, literally ‘on my spine’

Phonetic erosion: going to > gonna, homo > on

Morphological reduction: will, shallObligatorification: articles (Latin ille ‘he’ / illa

‘she’ > Italian il / la, French le / la, ...)

DegrammaticalizationA process when grammatical meanings

become lexical (a rare phenomenon). Many authors claim that grammaticalization is unidirectional and degrammaticalization does not exist at all.

There are several pros and contrasI don’t like communism and other ismsable < -able (drinkable, movable)Bulgarian neshto ‘something’ > ‘thing’

Partial motivation: gendermuzhchina (M) – der Mensch (M) – un homme (M)zhenshchina (F) – die Frau (F) – une femme (M)rebyonok (M) – das Kind (N) – un enfant (M)devochka (M) – das Mädchen (N) – une fille (F)tarelka (F) – der Teller (M) – une assiette (F)blyudce (N) – die Untertasse (F) – une soucoupe (F)ryumka (F) – das Weinglas (N) – un petit verre (M)solntse (N) – die Sonne (F) – le soleil (M)luna (F) – der Mond (M) – la lune (F)shanson (M) – das Chanson (N) – une chanson (F)Euro?

masakit be illmatakot fear

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be illmatakot fear

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakitmatakot fear

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivegalit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit galit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envymadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitinmadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak gladinis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak glad magalakininis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused mahiyain

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused mahiyain shy

Example 1. Tagalog

masakit be ill sakit illmatakot fear takot afraid

maibigin amorousmaramdamin sensitive

mainggit envy mainggitin enviousmadasalin pious, devout

galak glad magalakin jovialinis irritated mainisin irritable

maselosin possessivemagalit be angry galit angry

mahabag sympathize mahabagin soft-heartedmahiya be confused hiya confused mahiyain shy

Example 1. Tagalog

Example 2. Spanish1. El hombre es mortal. The man is mortal. 2. El te esta dulce. The tea is sweet. 3. Pedro es madrileño. Pedro is native of

Madrid.4. El gato es simpatico. The cat is nice. 5. El te "Lipton" es bueno. Lipton tea is

good. 6. El mar esta tranquilo. The sea is calm. 7. Maria esta libre hoy. Maria is free

today.

Example 2. Spanish8. El azucar ... dulce. The sugar is sweet.9. El jersey ... sucio. The sweater is dirty. 10. El pescado ... fresco. The fish is fresh. 11. El jersey ... azul. The sweater is blue. 12. Dolores ... nerviosa, porque el examen

de hoy ... dificil. Dolores is nervous because today’s exam is difficult.

A riddle in Spanish–... roja? Is it red? – No, ... negra. No, it is black. – Y por que ... blanca? And why is it white? – Porque ... verde. Because it is green.

Integral description of languageJuri Apresjan, The unified, or integrated

theory of linguistic descriptionEvery complete linguistic description is

ultimately made up of a grammar and a dictionary.

Grammar and dictionary should be mutually adjusted, i.e. coordinated with regard to the types of information included and the formal devices used to record them.

Disparity example: numeralsAre numerals a part of speech in English?No number marking: five booksDerivation patterns: X+teen, X+ty, X+th, X+foldSyntactic features: five books, five by fiveAdditive construction: twenty-five = ‘20 + 5’

(stone wall ≠ ‘stone + wall’)Classing numerals as nouns or adjectives (as most

dictionaries do) plays havoc with the grammatical rules for genuine nouns or adjectives.

Grammar rules in the dictionaryMany grammar rules may have to be

included in some dictionary entries:Morphological rulesSyntactic rulesCollocation rulesSemantic rulesPragmatic rulesCommunicative rules, etc.

Morphological rules: examplesFriend, pal, buddy, acquaintance:

two meanings of the plural formHis friends / pals / buddies came.The friends / pals / buddies decided to

meet.His acquaintances came.*The acquaintances decided to meet.

Morphological rules: examplesRussian: absence of imperative formsxotet’, zhelat’, zhazhdat’, mechtat’ ‘want,

dream’xotet’ and zhazhdat’ have no imperativefor zhelat’ and mechtat’, negative

imperative is possible:Ne zhelaj nikomu zla ‘Do not wish evil to anyone’,I ne mechtaj ob aetom ‘Don’t even dream about that’.

Syntactic rules: examplesSentences with the expletive itIt tried / tormented / tortured him to think

that…*It afflicted / racked him to think that…

It was hard / difficult to climb up the steep slope.

*It was arduous to climb up the steep slope.

Syntactic rules: examplesGovernment (by prepositions or verbs)come with delight / with joy/ with pleasurejump in delight / *in joy / *in pleasure

My mind is at rest / at ease about it.*My mind is at comfort about it.

Syntactic rules: examplesGovernment (by prepositions or verbs)to spring / to leap over a fenceto leap a fence*to spring a fence

love for somebody / of somethingattachment to somebody / to something

Syntactic rules: examplesAttributive vs. predicative adjectivesan affectionate / devoted / fond / doting motherShe is affectionate / devoted to me / fond of him.*She is doting.

a watchful / vigilant / alert guardThe guard is watchful / vigilant / alert / awake.*an awake guard.

Next lectureLinguistic relativity. The naïve

picture of the world