linguistics linguistics is the scientific study of language. such study has, broadly speaking, three...

Linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of

language. Such study has, broadly speaking, three aspects:

language form, language meaning, language in context Linguistics analyzes human language as a

system for relating sounds or signed gestures and meaning

Phonetics Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that

comprises the study of the sounds of human speech, or—in the case of sign languages—the equivalent aspects of sign. It is concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds or signs their physiological production, acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiological status. Phonology, on the other hand, is concerned with the abstract, grammatical characterization of systems of sounds or signs.

Phonetics The field of phonetics is a multilayered subject of linguistics that

focuses on speech. In the case of oral languages there are three basic areas of study:

Articulatory Phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds by the articulatory and vocal tract by the speaker.

Acoustic Phonetics: the study of the physical transmission of speech sounds from the speaker to the listener.

Auditory Phonetics: the study of the reception and perception of speech sounds by the listener.

These areas are inter-connected through the common mechanism of sound, such as wavelength (pitch), amplitude, and harmonics.

Organs Of Speech

Phonetic symbols for vowels

Phonetic symbols for consonants

Diphthong A diphthong, literally "two sounds" or "two

tones", also known as a gliding vowel, refers to two adjacent vowel sounds occurring within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue and/or other parts of the speech apparatus moves during the pronunciation of the vowel. For most dialects of English, the phrase "no highway cowboys" contains five distinct diphthongs.

Phonetic symbols for Diphthong

Note-taking Note-taking is the practice of recording

information captured from another source. By taking notes, the writer records the essence of the information, freeing their mind from having to recall everything. Notes are commonly drawn from a transient source, such as an oral discussion at a meeting, or a lecture (notes of a meeting are usually called minutes), in which case the notes may be the only record of the event. Note taking is a form of self-discipline.

Linear note-taking Outlines tend to proceed down a page, using

headings and bullets to structure information. A common system consists of headings that use Roman numerals, letters of the alphabet, and Arabic numerals at different levels. A typical structure would be:

I. First main topic A. Subtopic 1. Detail 2. Detail B. Subtopic II. Second main topic A. Subtopic

Non-linear note-taking There are many types of non-linear note-taking

techniques, including: Clustering Concept mappingIdea mappingInstant replaysKnowledge mapsLearning mapsMind mappingModel mapsPyramid principle

Note-making

Note making is an advanced writing skill which is acquiring increasing importance due to knowledge explosion. There is a need to remember at least the main points of any given subject. Making notes is a complex activity which combines several skills.

How to make notes Read the passage carefully. Heading

What is the main idea of the passage? Frame a heading based on the central idea and write it in the middle of the page.

SubheadingsHow has the main idea been presented and developed? Are there two or three subordinate/associated ideas? You can frame subheadings based on these.

How to make notes Points

Are there further details or points of the subtitles that you wish to keep in these notes? Indent, i.e., suitably space and number. All subheadings should be written at a uniform distance from the margin.

IndentingAll points should also maintain the same distance away from the margin.

Note: Do not write full sentences. And use abbreviations wherever necessary.

Bibliography Bibliography as a discipline, is traditionally the

academic study of books as physical, cultural objects; in this sense, it is also known as bibliology[.

Carter and Barker (2010) describe bibliography as a twofold scholarly discipline—

the organized listing of books (enumerative bibliography)

the systematic description of books as physical objects (descriptive bibliography).

Dictionary A dictionary is collection of words in one or

more specific languages, often listed alphabetically with usage of information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, translation, and other information; or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. It is a lexicographical product designed for utility/function, curated with selected data, and presented in a way that shows inter-relationships among the data.

Type of DictionariesSpecialized dictionariesDefining dictionaries Prescriptive vs. descriptive Dictionaries for natural language processing

Thesaurus In general usage, a thesaurus is a reference

work that lists words grouped together according to similarity of meaning. The main purpose of such reference works is to help the user “to find the word, or words, by which an idea may be most fitly and aptly expressed”. Although including synonyms, a thesaurus should not be taken as a complete list of all the synonyms for a particular word. The entries are also designed for drawing distinctions between similar words and assisting in choosing exactly the right word.

Encyclopedia An encyclopedia is a type of reference work or

compendium holding a comprehensive summary of information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge.

Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries, which are usually accessed alphabetically by article name. Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most dictionaries.

Generally speaking, unlike dictionary entries, which focus on linguistic information about words, encyclopedia articles focus on factual information to cover the thing or concept for which the article name stands

Greetings

Requests

Business Communication

Meaning of CommunicationCommunication is a purposeful activity of exchanging information and meaning across space and time using various technical or natural means, whichever is available or preferred. Communication requires a sender, a message, a medium and a recipient, although the receiver does not have to be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space. Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver understands the sender's message.

Communication Chart

Three Primary Steps Of Communication Thought: First, information exists in the mind

of the sender. This can be a concept, idea, information, or feeling.

Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols.

Decoding: Finally, the receiver translates the words or symbols into a concept or information that a person can understand.

Communication Process

Non-verbal Communication: Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying

meaning in the form of non-word messages. Some forms of non verbal communication include chronemics, haptics, gesture, body language or posture, facial expression and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols, infographics, and tone of voice, as well as through an aggregate of the above. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage. This form of communication is the most known for interacting with people. These include voice lesson quality, emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Research has shown that up to 55% of human communication may occur through non verbal facial expressions, and a further 38% through paralanguage.Likewise, written texts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of emoticons to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form.

Non-verbal Communication:

Verbal Communication Effective verbal or spoken communication is dependent on a

number of factors and cannot be fully isolated from other important interpersonal skills such as non-verbal communication, listening skills and clarification. Human spoken and pictorial languages can be described as a system of symbols and the grammars by which the symbols are manipulated. The word "language" also refers to common properties of languages. Language learning normally occurs most intensively during human childhood. Most of the thousands of human languages use patterns of sound or gesture for symbols which enable communication with others around them. Languages seem to share certain properties although many of these include exceptions. There is no defined line between a language and a dialect. Constructed languages such as Esperanto, programming languages and various mathematical formalisms are not necessarily restricted to the properties shared by human languages. Communication is the flow or exchange of information from one person to another or a group of people.

Verbal Communication

Physical barriers. Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the environment. An example of this is the natural barrier which exists if staff are located in different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which frequently causes communication difficulties for an organization

Barriers to effective communication

Barriers to effective communicationAttitudinal barriers. Attitudinal barriers come

about as a result of problems with staff in an organization. These may be brought about, for example, by such factors as poor management, lack of consultation with employees, personality conflicts which can result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the personal attitudes of individual employees which may be due to lack of motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to enable them to carry out particular tasks, or simply resistance to change due to entrenched attitudes and ideas

Barriers to effective communication

Physiological barriers. These may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused—for example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.

Barriers to effective communication

Group Discussion A discussion group is a group of individuals

with similar interest who gather either formally or informally to bring up ideas, solve problems or give comments.

Academic Group Discussion Small group of professionals or students formally or

informally negotiate about an academic topic within certain fields. This implementation could be seen as an investigation or research based on various academic levels. For instance, "one hundred eighty college-level psychology students" breakdown into different groups to participate in giving an orderly arrangement of preferred events. Nevertheless, discussion groups could support professional services and hold events to a range of demographics; another distinguished example is from "The London Biological Mass Spectrometry Discussion Group", which sustainably operates by gathering "technicians, clinicians, academics, industrialists and students" to exchange ideas on an academic level. It attributes to the development of participants' cognitive, critical thinking, and analytical skills.

Interview An interview is a conversation between two

or more people where questions are asked by the interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee

Types of interviewsInformal, Conversational interview: No

predetermined questions are asked, in order to remain as open and adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with the flow”.

General interview guide approach: Intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee; this provides more focus than the conversational approach, but still allows a degree of freedom and adaptability in getting the information from the interviewee.

Types of interviewsStandardized, open-ended interview: The same

open-ended questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed and compared.

Closed, fixed-response interview: All interviewees are asked the same questions and asked to choose answers from among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful for those not practiced in interviewing. This type of interview is also referred to as structured.

Presentation

A Presentation is a means of

communication which can be

adapted to various speaking

situations, such as talking to a group,

addressing a meeting or

briefing a team.

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