module 2 psychology & science. introduction blake’s problem attention-deficit/hyperactivity...

Module 2

Psychology & Science

INTRODUCTION

• Blake’s problem

• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

– Not diagnosed by any medical tests – Diagnosed on the basis of the occurrence of certain

behavioral problems– Symptoms should have been present from an early

age, persisted for at least six months, and contributed to maladaptive development

INTRODUCTION (CONT’D)

• ADHD

– Child must have six or more symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity, such as

• making careless mistakes in schoolwork• not following instructions• being easily distracted• fidgeting• leaving classroom seat• talking excessively

ANSWERING QUESTIONS

• Researchers tend to use three methods

• Each one provides different kinds of information

– Survey– Case study– Experiment

SURVEY

• Survey

– Way to obtain information by asking many individuals– Person to person, telephone or mail– Answer a fixed set of questions about particular

subjects

SURVEY (CONT’D)

• Disadvantages– Information can contain errors– Results can be biased– How questions are worded and who asks them

• Advantages– Quick and efficient way to collect information on

behaviors, beliefs, experiences, and attitudes from a large sample of people

– Can compare answers from various ethnic, age, socioeconomic, and cultural groups

CASE STUDY

• Case study – In-depth analysis of the thoughts, feelings, beliefs,

experiences, behaviors, or problems of a single individual

– Personal case study: testimonial• statement in support of a particular viewpoint based

on detailed observation of a person’s own personal experience

– Error and bias: self-fulfilling prophecy• having a strong belief or making a statement about a

future behavior and then acting, usually unknowingly, to fulfill or carry out that behavior

CASE STUDY (CONT’D)

• Disadvantage– Detailed information about a particular person may

not apply to others

• Advantage– Detailed information allows greater understanding of a

particular person’s life

EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS

• Placebo– Intervention, such as taking a pill, receiving an

injection, or undergoing an operation, that resembles medical therapy but, in fact, has no medical effects

• Placebo effect– Change in a patient’s illness that’s attributable to an

imagined treatment rather than to a medical treatment

EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS

EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT’D)

– Researchers believe that placebos work by reducing tension and distress and by creating powerful self-fulfilling prophecies

– Individuals think and behave as if the drug, actually a placebo, is effective

EXPERIMENT: USE OF PLACEBOS (CONT’D)

• Placebo examples

– Rhino horn– Centipedes– Tiger bones– Cough medication

CORRELATION

• Correlation– An association or relationship between the

occurrence of two or more events

• Correlation coefficient– A number that indicates the strength of a relationship

between two or more events: the closer the number is to –1.00 or +1.00, the greater is the strength of the relationship

CORRELATION (CONT’D)

CORRELATION (CONT’D)

• Perfect positive correlation coefficient– +1.00 means that an increase in one event is always

matched by an equal increase in a second event

• Positive correlation coefficient– Indicates that as one event tends to increase, the

second event tends to, but does not always, increase– Increases from +0.01 to +0.99 indicate a

strengthening of the relationship between the occurrence of two events

CORRELATION (CONT’D)

• Zero correlation– Indicates that there is no relationship between the

occurrence of one event and the occurrence of a second event

• Negative correlation coefficient– Indicates that as one event tends to increase, the

second event tends to, but does not always, decrease– -0.01 to -0.99 indicates a strengthening in the

relationship of one event increasing and the other decreasing

CORRELATION (CONT’D)

• Perfect negative correlation coefficient

– -1.00 means that an increase in one event is always matched by an equal decrease in a second event

– Correlations such as -1.00 are virtually never found in applied psychological research

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH

• What is the best technique for answering a question?

– Questionnaires and interviews– Laboratory experiments– Standardized tests– Animal models

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)

• Interview– Technique for obtaining information by asking

questions, ranging from open-ended to highly structured, about a subject’s behaviors and attitudes, usually in a one-on-one situation

• Questionnaire– Technique for obtaining information by asking

subjects to read a list of written questions and check off specific answers

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)

• Laboratory experiments– Techniques to gather information about the brain,

genes, or behavior with the least error and bias by using a controlled environment that allows careful observation and measurement

• Standardized tests– Technique to obtain information by administering a

psychological test that has been given to hundreds of people and shown to reliably measure thought patterns, personality traits, emotions, or behaviors

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)

• Animal models– Involves examining or manipulating some behavioral,

genetic, or physiological factor that closely approximates some human problem, disease, or condition

– Example• researchers genetically altered mice to have extra

receptors for brain chemicals involved in schizophrenia

DECISIONS ABOUT DOING RESEARCH (CONT’D)

• Choosing research settings

– Naturalistic setting• relatively normal environment in which researchers

gather information by observing individuals’ behaviors without attempting to change or control the situation

– Laboratory setting• involves studying individuals under systematic and

controlled conditions, with many of the real-world influences eliminated

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT

• Scientific method

– Approach of gathering information and answering questions so that errors and biases are minimized

– Experiment• a method for identifying cause-and-effect relationships

by following a set of rules and guidelines that minimize the possibility of error, bias, and chance occurrences

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)

• Conducting an experiment: seven rules

– Rule 1: Ask– Rule 2: Identify– Rule 3: Choose– Rule 4: Assign– Rule 5: Manipulate– Rule 6: Measure– Rule 7: Analyze

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)

• Rule 1: Ask

– Hypothesis

– Educated guess about some phenomenon stated in precise, concrete language to rule out any confusion or error in the meaning of its terms

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)

• Rule 2: Identify

– Independent variable• a treatment or something that the researcher

controls or manipulates

– Dependent variable• one or more of the subjects’ behaviors that are

used to measure the potential effects of the treatment or independent variable

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)

• Rule 3: Choose

– Random selection• each participant in a sample population has an

equal chance of being selected for the experiment

• Rule 4: Assign

– Experimental group• those who receive the treatment• control group (participants who undergo all the

same procedures as the experimental participants but don’t receive the treatment)

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)

• Rule 5: Manipulate

– Double-blind procedure• neither participants nor researchers know which

group is receiving which treatment

• Rule 6: Measure

– By giving the experimental group a different treatment than the control group, researchers can measure how the independent variable (treatment) affects those behaviors selected as the dependent variables

SCIENTIFIC METHOD: EXPERIMENT (CONT’D)

• Rule 7: Analyze

– Statistical procedures • used to determine whether differences observed in

dependent variables (behaviors) are due to independent variables (treatment) or to error or chance occurrence

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS

• Concerns about being a subject– Human and animal

• Code of ethics– American Psychological Association publishes a code

of ethics and conduct for psychologists to follow when doing research, counseling, teaching, and related activities

– Code spells out the responsibilities of psychologists and the rights of participants

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)

– Debriefing

– Includes explaining the purpose and method of the experiment, asking subjects their feelings about participating in the experiment, and helping the subjects deal with possible guilt or doubts that arise from their behaviors

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)

• Role of deception

– One way that researchers control for participants’ expectations is to use bogus procedures or instructions that prevent participants from learning the experiment’s true purpose

– Researchers must justify the deceptive techniques by the scientific, educational, or applied value of the study and can only use deception if no other reasonable way to test the hypothesis is available

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)

• Ethics of animal research

– How many animals are used in research?• estimated over 25 million animals used each year

in biomedical research– Are research animals mistreated?

• of the millions of animals used in research, only a few cases of animal mistreatment have been confirmed

• researchers support the Animal Research Act

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)

• Ethics of animal research

– Is the use of animals justified?• researchers are currently using animals to study

epilepsy, Alzheimer’s disease, fetal alcohol syndrome, schizophrenia, AIDS, and transplantation of brain tissue, none of which is possible with human subjects

– Who checks on the use of animals in research?• US Department of Agriculture• universities hire veterinarians• universities have animal subject committees

APPLICATION: RESEARCH CONCERNS (CONT’D)

• Ethics of animal research

– How do we strike a balance?• many experts in the scientific, medical, and mental

health communities believe that the conscientious and responsible use of animals in research is justified and should continue