navy instructor manual navedtra 134a
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Naval Educationand Training Command
Training Manu(TRAMA
NAVEDTRA 134AAugust 2009
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
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NAVEDTRA 134
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NAVEDTRA 134ii
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NAVEDTRA 134 ii
CHANGE RECORD
Number and description of change Entered by Date
Recommended changes to this manual will be forwarded to NETC (N74) via the chain
of command. Approved changes will be recorded on the Change Record of this manual.
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NAVEDTRA 134iv
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NAVEDTRA 134 v
FOREWORD
The NAVEDTRA series manuals:
NAVEDTRA130,TaskBasedCurriculumDevelopmentManual
NAVEDTRA131,PersonnelPerformanceProleBasedCurriculumDevelopment Manual
NAVEDTRA134,NavyInstructorManualNAVEDTRA135,NavySchoolManagementManual
TheNAVEDTRA130seriesofmanualsprovidesfundamentalguidancewithin the Naval Education and Training Command for the development
ofcurricula,thedeliveryofinstruction,andthemanagementandevaluation of training programs.
These manuals do not supersede the directive policy established
byNavalEducationandTrainingCommandInstructions(NETCINSTs)inthesesubjectareas.Rather,theysupplementtheNETCINSTsintwoimportantways.First,theyreectthephilosophicalprinciplesunderlyingNETCpolicyforcurriculum,instruction,andevaluation;andsecond,theyprovideproceduresforcarryingoutthatpolicy.
Eachofthe130seriesmanualsisdesignedasastand-alonedocumenttoserveaspecicusergroupsuchascurriculumdevelopers,instructors,trainingmanagers,orevaluatorsoftraining.Themanualsare,however,interrelatedandappropriatelycross-referencedtooneanother.
ThepurposeofNAVEDTRA134,NavyInstructorManual,istopresentknowledgefactorsandbackgroundinformationonthetheoryandtechniquesofNavyclassroominstruction.ItisdesignedtofollowtheoutlineoftheNavy'sformalInstructorTrainingCourseandistobeusedasasupplementarytextforthiscourse.Itmayalso be used as a general reference by those having responsibility
forconductingshipboardoron-the-jobtrainingprograms.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LETTEROFPROMULGATION.....................................i
CHANGERECORD............................................iii
FOREWORD ...................................................v
CHAPTERS
1.NAVYTRAINING..........................................1
2.THENAVYINSTRUCTOR....................................9
3.MOTIVATION............................................21
4.PRINCIPLESOFLEARNING................................29
5.EFFECTIVECOMMUNICATION...............................51
6.INSTRUCTIONALMETHODS.................................79
7.LEARNINGOBJECTIVES..................................101
8.TESTING..............................................113
9.COURSEMATERIALS.....................................133
10.INSTRUCTOREVALUATION................................163
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NAVEDTRA 134A Chapter 1 1
CHAPTER 1
NAVY TRAINING
INTRODUCTION
TheprimarypurposeoftheUnitedStatesNavystrainingestablishment is to provide operational forces with trained
personnel who can maintain a high degree of Fleet readiness.
Severalofcescoordinatewitheachothertoplanfortrainingandto determine the purposes of training within various commands.
Theseofcesare:ChiefofNavalOperations(CNO);Commander,U.S.FleetForcesCommand(CUSFF);SystemCommands(SYSCOMS);NavyEnterprises(TypeCommander;MarineCorpsCombatDevelopment
Command(MCCDC);NavalEducationandTrainingCommand(NETC);andCommander,NavyReserveForcesCommand(COMNAVRESFOR).
Aboutone-thirdofallpeopleintheNavyareinvolvedinsomekindoftrainingatanyonetime.Newtechnicaldevelopmentsaswellaslossesoftrainedpersonnelthroughpromotion,retirement,discharge,ortransfercreateaconstantneedfortraining.Toperformsuchalargeandcomplextrainingtaskwithanever-changingpopulation,andtoensureneededstandardizationwhilecarryingoutrequiredchanges,theNavyusesasystemsapproachto training. One of the purposes of this manual is to acquaint
youwiththedetailsoftheNavysformaltrainingsystemandtheeducational concepts upon which it is based.
REVOLUTION IN TRAINING (RIT)
InOctoberof2000,theNavyembarkedonwhathasbecomeknownastheRevolutioninTraining(RIT).TheRITbeganwithanExecutiveReviewofNavyTraining(ERNT),whichwasaCNO-directedworkinggrouptaskedtorecommendwaystoimprovetraining,education,andlearning throughout the Navy.
These recommendations included substantial revisions intraditionalmanpower,training,andeducationstrategies(e.g.,changes in the mix of classroom instruction vs. remote learning)
and in the content and delivery of learning. A major thrust of the
RITwastolinkdecisionsinmanpower,training,andeducationtowarghtingenterpriseperformancethroughHumanSystemsIntegrationandHumanPerformanceSystemsModel(HPSM)solutions.
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NAVEDTRA 134A Chapter 12
INTEGRATED LEARNING ENVIRONMENT (ILE)
InDecemberof2002,asaresultoftheERNT,NETCcreatedtheILEtotransformlegacysystemsandbusinessprocessesandtoenablenecessarychangestoaccomplishRITgoals.
TheILEencompassesallformsoftrainingmethods,includinginstructor-led,computer-/web-based,andblendedinstruction.TheILEsupportsreadinessbyexploitingcurrenttechnologiesandbestpractices to enhance institutional and individual learning and to
enhanceperformancesupportfortheNavystotalforce.
ILE Electronic Applications
TheseapplicationsarekeytechnicalcomponentsoftheILE:
NavyKnowledgeOnline(NKO)Portal:
oServesasthesinglepointofentrytoallNavyE-Learningcourses.
oProvidesknowledgemanagementfeaturesandspecializedcommunities of practice.
oLocatedathttps://wwwa.nko.navy.mil.
LearningManagementSystem(LMS):
oContainstheILEmastercatalogforaccessinginformaleducation and training content.
oManageslearnerlessonplansandtrainingday-to-dayprogress.o Allows management of learning events.
oProvidesaccesstothousandsofself-pacedtrainingcourseware offerings.
LearningContentManagementSystem(LCMS):
oProvidesforcreation,storage,reuse,andmanagementoflearning content.
oProvidesatemplate-drivenenvironmentforfast,efcient,andconsistentauthoringofknowledge-basedcontent.
oProvidestheabilitytodynamicallydelivercontentcustomizedtodisplayuniquethemesandtomatchuserproles.
oCanreceivecontentdevelopedintheAuthoringInstructionalMaterials(AIM),automatedtool.
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CorporateenterpriseTrainingActivityResourceSystem(CeTARS):
o Manages the collection of raw training data.
o Compiles the data.
oPerformsstatisticalcalculations.oProvidestheresultstoalllevelsofthemilitarytraining
organization.
THE NAVY TRAINING SYSTEM
The purpose of any systems approach
is to provide a method by which the
NavyTrainingOrganizationcananalyzeandapplyalltheelementsthatmakeuptheNavyTrainingSystem(Fig.1-1).ThepurposeoftheNavyTrainingSystemis to ensure a systematic approach for
determining what to train and how best to
accomplish that training. To understand
theNavysapproachtotraining,visualizeNavytrainingasasystemwiththreedistinctbutinterrelatedelements:preparationoftraining,deliveryoftraining,andevaluationoftraining.
PREPARATION OF TRAINING
BeforetheNavycanprovidetraining,itmustdeterminetraining
requirements;developtraining;andtraininstructors,curriculumdevelopers,andtrainingmanagers.Therefore,itusesaplanningprocess through which it determines the formal courses it will
offer and the number of students it will train in each course.
Itthensetsstandardsforcourseandcurriculumdevelopmentandprescribestheappropriatetrainingpathsforinstructors,curriculumdevelopers,andtrainingmanagers.
Determining Training Requirements
TheNavydeterminestrainingrequirementsfromtheFleetsneed
forpeoplewithparticularjobskills.Beforeprovidingformalcourses,itcheckstoseeifitsworkforcehasenoughpeoplewiththoseparticularskills.Ifitlackstrainedpersonnel,theNavythenprovidesformalcoursesineachskillareaunlesson-the-jobtrainingismorecost-effective.
Job,Duty,TaskAnalysis(JDTA)istheprocessthatNETCismaturingtolistthejobsperformedbyanoccupationaleld,whoperformsthem,andthefrequencyofperformance.Asurveyofjobsperformed within a rating may indicate a need to revise training.
Figure 1-1: Navy Training System
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NAVEDTRA 134A Chapter 14
TheNavyprovidesmostinitialskillstrainingandalmostalltrainingthatawardsaNavyEnlistedClassication(NEC)throughformal,residentialcourses.Itprovidesnon-NECskillstrainingcoursesinbothformalandinformalsettings.Identicationoftrainingrequirementsisanongoingprocess.Asskillrequirementsbecomeobsolete,theNavychanges,revises,ordeletescourses.Asnewskillrequirementsareidentied,italsointroduces newcourses.
PerOPNAVINST1500.76(series),theNavyTrainingSystemPlan(NTSP)istheprimarydocumentidentifyingmanpower,personnel,trainingrequirements,andresourcesfornewsystemsdevelopmentandmodernizationofexistinglegacysystems.ThisinstructionaddressesNTSPrequirements,acquisition/modernization,managementactionsrequiredtooptimizemanpowerandmaximizeHumanPerformance(HP).
Developing Training
Afteratrainingrequirementisvalidated,programmanagersmustdetermineiftherequiredtrainingisalreadyavailable.Ifitisnotavailable,theymustdetermineifachangeorrevisionto existing training can meet the training requirement or if new
curriculum development is required.
Ifnewcoursedevelopmentisnecessary,theprogrammanagermust decide the type of training needed and direct the design and
development of course materials. The program manager then mustensure that designated personnel receive the required training to
develop,conduct,orevaluatethecourse.Duringthedevelopmentoftraining,thedesignatedfunctionalcommanderandtrainingactivityworktogethertodesignthecourseofinstructionanddevelopthecourse materials.
Toestablishacourse,thefunctionalcommanderandthetrainingactivitymusttakethefollowingactions:
Identifythemanpower,facilities,support,andequipment
needed to meet the training requirement.Submitacoursedescriptionviathefunctionalcommanderfor
insertionintoCeTARStoreectintheCatalogofNavyTrainingCourses (CANTRAC).
AssignaCourseIdenticationNumber(CIN).SubmitpaperworktoassigntheNEC(ifcourseisNEC-awarding).
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TrainingmanagerswillbeabletotrackstudentsandtraininginformationrelatedtoaspeciccoursebecauseofthecoursesuniqueCINandCourseDataProcessing(CDP).TheCINmustbeincludedintheCeTARS.CeTARSisthecorporatedatabaseforformaltraininginformation.Itensurestimelycollectionanddissemination of information to meet the demands of various echelon
activities.Personnelmanagement,studenttrainingmanagement,classroomsupportmanagement,classeventresourcescheduling,publicationandequipmentmanagement,systemutilities,studenttestingandevaluation,andrelatedadministrativesupportarealltrackedbytheCINand/orCDPinCeTARS.
The development of technical course materials also follows
a systematic procedure. The goal of the systems approach is to
establish uniform training. The systems approach has the following
advantages:
Preventsorminimizesovertrainingandunder-trainingthroughtheproperidenticationoftrainingrequirements.
Ensuresuniformtrainingforallpersonnelatallfacilitiesthrough the use of standard guidelines for material design and
development.
Providesup-to-datetrainingthroughtheanalysisoftrainingmaterials and procedures.
Assessesoveralleffectivenessandidentiesdecienciesthroughthecontinuedfeedbackfromatrainingevaluationprogram.
Training Staff
Allofcerandenlistedpersonneloccupyinginstructor,trainingmanager,orcurriculumdeveloperbillets/positionswithinNETCmustcomplete the appropriate training path for their duty assignments.
Onlythroughintensive,recurringtrainingofinstructors,trainingmanagers,andcurriculumdeveloperscantheNavyachieveuniformtraining.
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DELIVERY OF TRAINING
Alloftheanalysis,coursedevelopment,andstafftrainingconducted as part of training preparation culminates in the
delivery of training. The responsibility of the instructors and
managers of Navy training courses is to
help the student to learn. No matter whatthecourseis,theireffortsareaimedattrainingthestudenttoperformaspecicjoboracquireaspeciccompetencyandtoapplythe principles learned. An important part of
this training is giving the students clear and
precise direction and explaining the best way
toperformtasksassociatedwiththeirjobs.
Training Management
Management and administration are two important elements
of instruction. Establishing instructional management andadministrativeguidelineshelpstopreventdifcultiesandsolve
problems that may develop in a learning
situation. Management involves several areas
of concern. The primary concern is the
safety of the students and staff. Another
concern is the effective and economical use
of instructional material and equipment.
Management is also concerned with the
full use of all educational and training
facilities.Managementinvolvesthelling
ofbillets,resolvingresourceneeds,addressingquality-of-lifeissues,andoverseeingafter-hourroutines.
AsineveryothercomponentoftheNavalTrainingSystem,coursemanagementismulti-faceted.Itconsistsofbothclassroommanagement and course management.
Classroommanagementistheinstructorsresponsibility.Aninstructormustestablishreceptive,cooperativeworkingrelationshipswithstudents,otherinstructors,andcoursemanagers.Theinstructorshouldmakewhateverarrangements
necessary to provide favorable learning conditions for allstudents. The students should be able to hear and see the
instructor without being distracted by other activities around
them.Theinstructormusthaveasafety-consciousattitudeandinstillineachstudentsafeworkhabitsandanawarenessofthehazardsofequipmentandmachinery.Theprinciplesandproceduresthe instructor adopts in classroom management greatly contribute to
the success of the instruction.
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Allinstructionaloperationsandproceduresaretheinstructorsadministrativeresponsibility.Tomakeinstructioneffective,instructorsshouldfullyusethetimespeciedforlessontopics.They should report equipment in need of repair and request supplies
needed to help them provide effective instruction. They should also
makesuretheclassroomorlaboratoryisreadyforthenextclassofstudentsorfortheinstructorsusethefollowingday.Thatincludes preparing all equipment and training materials.
Course management involves management of the instructional
material,thestaff,thestudents,andthephysicalplant(i.e.,building,equipment,furniture).NETCestablishesinstructions,manuals,anddirectivesthatspelloutthedutiesofschoolsupervisors,directors,andsupportpersonnelineachoftheseareas;theseareampliedbythefunctionalcommandersandthelocaltrainingactivity.Instructorsshouldbefamiliarwiththe
organizationalandmanagementresponsibilitiesoftheirtrainingactivity.
EVALUATION OF TRAINING
EvaluationmanagementmeasurestheeffectivenessoftheNavystrainingprograms.Everymemberofthecommand,fromthecommandingofcertotheinstructor,sharesresponsibilityfortheevaluationoftraining(Fig.1-2).
Evaluation is a joint effort and a tool used to improve training.
Evaluation is normally divided into internal evaluation and
external evaluation.
Figure 1-2: Evaluation of Training
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Internalevaluationinvolvesfeedbackonthecourseofinstruction on a regularly scheduled basis. This information
isusedtomakeimprovementstotraining.Examplesincludethefollowing:
Reviewsofsafety,thecourse,andattritionorsetbackpercentages.
Testingprograms,includingtest-itemanalysis.Formalevaluationofinstructorsinclassroom,laboratory,andelectronic classroom settings.
Studentcritiqueofboththecourseandtheinstructors.
Externalevaluationinvolvesthegatheringoffeedbackbyindividuals or groups outside the course. Although this information
isnormallynotgatheredasfrequentlyastheinternalfeedbackdata,itisalsousedtomakeimprovementstothetraining.
SUMMARY
TheNavyTrainingSystemisextremelycomplex.Itincludesthepreparationoftraining,deliveryoftraining,andevaluationoftraining. Although it requires coordination at all levels of the
NavyTrainingOrganization,themostessential,singlelinkinthe training chain is the instructor. The instructor is the one
who must simplify the learning process for students of varied
backgroundsandexperiences.Theinstructoristheonewhomustpresenttheknowledgeandskillsrequiredtotransformstudents
intoprocientandproductivemembersoftheoperatingforces.
TheNavyisengagedinanenterprise-widetransformationofhowitoperatesinanefforttoimproveandalignitsorganizations,incorporatenewtechnologiesintoNavytraining,exploitopportunitiesavailablefromtheprivatesector,anddevelopacontinuum of lifelong learning and personal and professional
developmentforSailors.AkeyenableratthefoundationofthistransformationistheNavysIntegratedLearningEnvironment(ILE).Inthenextchapter,wewilldiscussthevitalrolethattheNavyinstructor plays in Navy Training.
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CHAPTER 2
THE NAVY INSTRUCTOR
INTRODUCTION
Teaching has been described as both an art and a science.
Thescienceofteachinghelpstoexplainwhatmustbedone.Itis concerned with the why and how of instruction. The science
of teaching helps the new instructor understand the techniques
andacquiretheknowledgerequiredtodothejob.ThatiswhyNavy instructor training includes subjects on the principles
oflearning,motivation,communication,instructionalmethods,objectives,testing,andthewayspeoplelearn,amongothertopics.That is also why instructor training includes a lot of practice
teachingandteaching-performanceexaminations.Thesespecicpartsof the training are designed to help the beginning instructor grasp
the basic techniques or the science of instruction.
Afterbeginninginstructorslearntousethesetechniques,theycanstarttolearntheartofinstruction.Aswithanyart,someartists(instructors)willbemoreeffectivethanothers.Efcientinstructorsknowandfollowalltherulesandtechniquesofteaching.However,effectiveinstructorsareoftenthosewhoseizeevery opportunity to enhance the learning experience by being more
creativeintheiruseoftherulesandtechniques.Beforeyoucandothat,though,youmustknowtherulesandwhentoappropriatelyexploit the rules to their advantage.
Theartofinstructionreallycannotbetaught.Youdevelopitthroughexperienceandlearningwhatworks.Thescienceofinstructioncanbetaught.Therefore,themoreyouknowandunderstandaboutthescienceofteaching,thebetterequippedyouwill be to develop the art. Although almost anyone can become a
competentinstructor,somepeoplewilldevelopintotrulysuperiorinstructors.Thestartingplace,however,isthesameforallof
uswith the basics.
Inhistext,Instructional Technique (1981),IvorK.Daviesdiscussestheconceptsofefciencyandeffectiveness.AccordingtoDavies,efciencyisconcernedwithdoingthingsright,whileeffectiveness is doing the right things.
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Mostofuseasilyrecognizeefcientinstructors.Theydothingsright.Theyplantheirlesson,preparethelearningenvironment,conductproperlessonintroductions,askquestions,anduseinstructionalmediamaterial.That,however,doesnotensuretheyare effective. Effectiveness in instruction is much more than just
doingthingsright;itisdoingtherightthingstoenablestudentstolearn.Itismeasuredwhenstudentsdemonstratetheyhavemetthe objectives of the course as result of your instruction.
Ideally,yourinstructionwillbebothefcientandeffective.Throughstudyandexperience,youcanlearntodothingsright.This chapter presents information on the characteristics or traits
instructorsshouldhave,aswellasinformationontheduties,responsibilities,andconcernsuniquetoNavyinstructors.
PROFESSIONAL PRECEPTS
Ifyouweretoobserveefcientandeffectiveinstructors,youwould see that they all have certain qualities in common. These
qualities provide a list of ideal traits toward which you should
workasaninstructor.Thesetraitsalsoprovideyouwithabasisforself-evaluationandself-help.
Each of these traits belongs in one
ofthreebroadcategories:knowledge,ability,orpersonality.Together,thesethree categories contain the professional
qualitiesofaneffectiveandefcientinstructor. We refer to these asprofessionalprecepts(Fig.2-1).
KNOWLEDGE
Youmusthavemanytypesofknowledgetobebothefcientandeffectiveasaninstructor.First,youmustbethoroughlyfamiliarwiththesubjectyouwillbeteaching.Generally,yourassignmentto instructor duty indicates that you are a subject matter expert
(SME)inyourareaofassignment.Theformaltrainingyouhave
receivedinyourratingcoupledwithyouractualworkexperienceandon-the-jobtrainingwillprovideinvaluableknowledgetoyouinyourinstructorassignment.Youmaydiscover,however,thatknowingthe subject well enough to do the job yourself is quite different
fromknowinghowtoteachotherstodoit.Impartingyourknowledgeto others will bring you both your greatest challenges and rewards
as an instructor.
Figure 2-1: Professional Precepts
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Youwillknowandwillneedtoknowfarmoreaboutyoursubjectarea than you will actually teach your students. Only through
practicing,studying,researching,andkeepingupwithnewdevelopmentscanyouattainthewealthofknowledgerequiredinyour role as an instructor. Avail yourself of every opportunity
toobserveotherinstructors.Notonlywillthatbenetyouinlearningmoreaboutyoursubjectmatter,itwillalsoexpandyourknowledgeofinstructionaltechniques.
YouneedtounderstandthatyouwillbeconductingtrainingtomeettheneedsoftheNavy,notindividualmembers.AsdiscussedinChapter1,theprimarypurposeoftheNavytrainingestablishmentis to provide the operational forces with trained personnel who can
maintain a high degree of Fleet readiness.
Trainingandeducationhavemuchincommon,buttheydiffer
in some important ways. Education does not necessarily have apracticalordenedgoal;acquiringknowledgeforitsownsakeisalegitimategoalofeducation,butnotoftraining.Trainingshouldaccomplishatleastthreethings.Itshould:
Developknowledge,skills,andattitudes.Producechangesinbehavior.Meetspecicobjectives.
The focus of training is to prepare individuals to perform the
dutiesofthejobtowhichtheywillbeassigned.Yourchallenge
istohelpstudentslearntoleadthemingainingtheknowledge,skills,andattitudesthatwillmakethemsuccessful.
Inordertohelpstudentslearn,youneedtoknowsomethingabouttheirpreviouseducationandexperience.Studentrecordswillprovidesomeoftheinformationyouneed.Previousinstructorsofstudents can also provide you with valuable information about your
studentsandcourses.However,yourinteractionwiththestudentinthe training environment is your greatest source of information.
Finally,youneedtoknowsomebasicinstructionalstrategies
andtechniques.Thatbringsusbackonceagaintodiscussingthescience and art of instruction. Formal instructor training and this
text will provide you with information on the science of teaching.
Youwillgainexperienceintheartofinstructionthroughyourinteractionwithstudents,otherinstructors,andtrainingadministrators.Youshouldcontinuouslystrivetoexpandyourknowledgeinboththescienceandartofinstruction.
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ABILITY
As a Navy trainer you should have two basic types of ability:
leadershipandinstructional.Someindividualsaresaidtopossessnaturalabilitythatis,theyareborninstructorsorbornleaders. While certain traits may set those people apart from
others,theyhaveprobablyalsoworkedveryhardatbeingborninstructors and leaders.
Instructionalability,alongwithleadershipability,isessentialtoyourefciencyandeffectivenessasaninstructor.Youmustnotonlyknowtheprinciples,methods,andtechniquesofinstruction,youmustalsobeabletoapplythemeffectively.Yourabilityasaninstructorshouldgrowwithexperience.However,yourabilitywillgrowonlyifyoumakeaconsciousefforttoimprove.
Research,uponwhichtheNavysleadershiptrainingisbased,has
denedanumberofleadershipskills,knowledge,andbehaviorsthatdistinguish superior Navy leaders from average performers.
Efcientandeffectiveinstructorsdisplayleadershipskillssuchasplanningandorganizing,optimizingtheiruseofresources,delegatingauthority,monitoringprogressandresults,disciplining,andrewarding.Theirskillfuluseofinuencehelpsthemtopersuadeothers,buildteamwork,developsubordinates,andmaintainself-control.Inadvisingandcounseling,theyunderstandstudentsneedsaswellascreatepositiveandrealisticexpectations.Inapplyingconceptstojobsituations,their
knowledgeandexperiencehelpthemtoidentifyproblems,sortthroughfacts,anddecideonappropriatecoursesofaction.
AsaNavyinstructor,youwillndthatleadershipbyexampletakesonaparticularlyimportantsignicance.Everythingyoudoisunderscrutiny.Notonlymustyouinstructinanefcientandeffectivemanner,youmustalsoserveasarolemodelinyourmilitaryconduct,attitude,appearance,andbearing.YoushouldexemplifytheNavysCoreValuesofHonor,Courage,andCommitment.
Asstatedearlierinthischapter,almostanyonecanbecomea
competentinstructor.Youaremistaken,however,ifyouassumethat job experience and formal training alone will prepare you to
instructothers.Youmusthaveagreatamountofknowledgebutknowledgeisnotenough.Youmusthaveexcellentleadershipabilitybutleadershipabilityisnotenough.Youmustcareaboutthestudentsyouinstructbutcaringisnotenough.Youmustbededicated to the Navy and to helping others succeedbut dedication
isnotenough.Yourabilitytobeefcientaswellaseffectiverequiresyoutohaveallofthesequalitiesandtoworkatcontinually improving them.
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PERSONALITY
Forthepurposeofthisdiscussion,personalityisdenedasthepatternofcollectivecharacter,behavioral,temperamental,emotional,andmentaltraitsofanindividual.
Tobesuccessfulasaninstructor,youmustgaintherespectofyour students by displaying a professional attitude toward others.
Alwaysshowasincereinterestinallofyourstudents,regardlessoftheirrace,gender,geographicalheritage,religiousafliation,maritalstatus,orlevelofintellect.Remainconstantlyawarethatstudentswillbeinuencedbyyourbehaviorandtheexampleyousetboth in and out of the training environment.
Aswithmostprofessions,instructorsmustadheretocertainrules of conduct in the performance of their duties. The following
are some of the rules of conduct you should follow:
If you do not know an answer, admit it.Donotbluff.Attimes,questions will arise that you will not be able to answer. Find
thecorrectanswerattheearliestopportunity,thenprovidethe information to the class as soon as practical.
Keep your remarks professional and appropriate in theclassroom.Donotuseprofanityorobscenities.Useofprofaneor obscene language is one of the fastest ways to lose the
respect of your students. Do not use inappropriate humor or
makedisparagingremarks,eveninajokingmanner.Be patient.Beawarethatnotallpeoplelearninthesamewayor at the same rate. While you may easily become frustrated
withapersonwhoishavingdifcultywithseeminglysimplematerial,neverallowyourfrustrationtoshow.Ifall
elsefails,takeabreaktocoolofforconsultwithotherinstructorstondanotherapproachtoresolvethedifculty.Inthemajorityofsituations,studentsaresincerelytryingtounderstandwhatisbeingtaught.Yourjobistondawaytohelpthem.Youmayneedtoadaptyourinstructiontodifferentlearning styles for different students.
Do not use sarcasm in the classroom. The use of sarcasm is
anotherwaytolosetherespectofyourstudents.Sarcasm,whetheritisdirectedatoneindividualortheentiregroup,is never appropriate.
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Maintain rapport with students. While it is appropriate to befriendlyandcourteoustoyourstudents,itisnotappropriateto be too familiar with them. Establish good rapport by
connecting with your students using common ground. One such
wayisexpressingtothemthatyouvebeenwheretheyareand
explainingtothemwhattheycanexpect.Studentsarealwayseager to listen and get a perspective of what they can expectonce they reach the Fleet.
Treat students with respect. All of the individuals you trainshould feel you have a sincere interest in their efforts to
learn.Althoughyourstudentswillnothaveyourknowledgeorexperience,youshouldthinkofthemasbeingphysically,
mentally,andemotionallymatureandtreatthemaccordingly.
INSTRUCTOR RESPONSIBILITIES
Whileyouareassignedasaninstructor,youmustabidebythedirectivesandinstructionswithinyourchainofcommand.Youalsomust exhibit and enforce proper military conduct and discipline at
all times. Always maintain a professional relationship with your
students both in and out of the classroom.
Whateveryourtask,approachyourjobwithhonesty,enthusiasm,andgenuinededication.AsaNavyinstructor,youlloneofthemostcriticalpositionsinthetrainingprogram.Yourresponsibilitiesincludemakingthebestofyourowntimeandthestudentstimetodevelopthoseskills,knowledge,andattitudes
essential to effective performance.
RESPONSIBILITY TO STUDENTS
Although your
instructional and
leadership role
inuencesstudentsinthe formal training
environment,beaware that many other
inuencesalsoaffecttheir performance.
Studentshavemanymilitary duties and
responsibilities that
affecttheirlives.Inaddition,personalinvolvementswithfamilymembers,friends,peers,andothersmaybeinuencesonstudentperformance(Fig.2-2).
Figure 2-2: Inuences on Student Performance.
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Fraternization
Asaninstructor,youmustbeawareoftheNavyspolicyonfraternization,OPANVINST5370.2(series)andindividualcommandpolicy,particularlyasitappliesbetweenyouandyourstudents.Beespeciallycarefulinyourpersonalassociations,particularly
with regard to interactions with students. Not only are personalrelationshipsbetweenofcersandenlistedmembersthatareundulyfamiliaranddonotrespectdifferencesinrankandgradeprohibited,butpersonalrelationshipswhichareundulyfamiliarbetweenstaff/instructorsandstudentswithinNavytrainingcommandsarealsoprohibited.Bothviolatethelong-standingcustomandtraditionoftheNavalservice,areprejudicialtogoodorderanddiscipline,andmaybeofanaturetobringdiscreditontheNavalservice.MakesureyouractionsandtheactionsofyourstudentssupporttheNavyspolicyonfraternizationandreecttheNavysCoreValues.
Sexual Harassment
AsaNavyinstructor,makesureyoumaintainhighstandardsofhonesty,integrity,impartiality,andconductindealingwithallpersonnel,regardlessofgender.Sexualharassmentisunacceptableconductthatunderminestheintegrityoftheinstructor-studentrelationship.TheNavyhasapolicyofzerotoleranceofsexualharassment,pertheSECNAVINST5300.26(series)andindividualcommand policy.
Sexualharassmentisaformofdiscriminationinvolvingunwelcomesexualadvances,requestsforsexualfavors,andotherverbalorphysical conduct of a sexual nature when the following occurs:
Submissiontoorrejectionofsuchconductismadeeitherexplicitlyorimplicitlyatermorconditionofapersonsjob,pay,orcareer.
Submissiontoorrejectionofsuchconductbyapersonisusedas a basis for career or employment decisions affecting this
person.
Suchconductinterfereswithanindividualsperformanceor
createsanintimidating,hostile,oroffensiveenvironment.
Preventionofsexualharassmentistheresponsibilityofallpersonnel.Asaninstructor,however,youareinaparticularlyimportantpositiontopreventsexualharassment.Takeanactiverole in educating your students on the seriousness of such behavior
and immediately confront any conduct that may be construed as
inappropriate.Whenconfrontedaboutinappropriatebehavior,
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individualsoftensaytheywereonlyjokingortheydidntmeananythingbyit.Sexualharassment,realorperceived,isnotajoke.
Creatingapositivecommand/classroomclimate,wherebehavioris professional and appropriate and where everyone up and down
the chain treats his or her subordinates and peers with courtesy
andrespect,willdomorethananyotheractionyoumaytakeasaninstructor to eliminate sexual harassment.
Diversity
Every member of the Navy is responsible for promoting a culture
that embraces diversity. According to the Department of the Navy
DiversityStatement,datedAugust27,2007:Thetermdiversityencompassesnotonlythetraditionalcategoriesofrace,religion,
age,gender,andnationalorigin,butalsoallthedifferentcharacteristics and attributes of individuals that enhance themission readiness of the Department of the Navy and strengthen the
capabilities of our Navy Total Force.
Yourroleindiversityistocreateacultureofempowermentwhereallarewelcometocontribute.Asaninstructor,youmustmakeapersonalandprofessionalcommitmenttoimproveyourunderstanding of diversity as well as support diversity throughout
theNavy.OurCoreValuesofHonor,Courage,andCommitmentendorseour efforts to treat each individual with respect and leverage the
strengthofournationsdiversity.
Tothegreatestextentpossible,trytohelpstudentsresolveconictsresultingfromthesevariousinuences.Yourroleas an instructor places you in a unique position to identify
personsexperiencingconict.Sinceyouinteractwithstudentsonafrequentbasis,noticechangesinstudentsperformanceorbehavior,thentakestepstohelpthem.
Yourresponsibilitytoyourstudentsistoteacheffectively,setagoodexampleforthemtofollow,andhelpthemresolveconicts
that may hinder their proper training.
RESPONSIBILITY FOR TRAINING SAFETY
SafetyisanintegralpartofallelementsoftheNavalEducationandTrainingCommand(NETC)mission.NETCInstruction5100.1isthepolicydocumentgoverningtrainingsafety.TheNavalSafetyCenter(NSC)hasissuedpoliciesandprocedurestoeliminateorreduce
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thechancesofmishapsormishap-relatedinjuriestostudentsandinstructors during training. This policy states that safety and
supervisory procedures shall be maintained at a level that ensures
safetraining,whileprovidingtherealismneededtofulllFleetoperational requirements within practical limits. These procedures
are essential to an aggressive training program that prepares
personnel to perform professionally during normal as well as
high-riskactivities.
Never forget that as an instructor
you are a role model for your students.
Thisistrueinallaspectsoftraining,especiallytrainingsafety.Youmustdemonstrate proper safety procedures in
additiontoteachingthem.Beawarethatyour behavior often has greater impact
onstudentsthanyourwords.Youhavenogreater responsibility as an instructorthan that related to the safety of the
personnel you train. The safety habits
they learn from you will go forward with
them beyond the classroom.
RESPONSIBILITY FOR SECURITY
ManyNavycoursescontainmaterialsthatincludeclassiedinformationforsecuritypurposes.Whenteachingclassied
information,youmustbeawareofseveralrequirements:
Neverdiscussanyclassiedmaterialthatisnotintheapprovedcurriculum.Remembertodiscloseclassiedinformation
onlytoproperlyclearedpersonnelwithaneedtoknowtheinformation.
Never present or discuss information that carries a highersecurityclassicationthanthatoftheapprovedcurriculum.
Do not incorporate into your course materials any informationthatcarriesahighersecurityclassicationthanthatoftheapproved curriculum. That includes information incorporated
intoyourlessonplanthroughpersonalization,studenthandouts,trainingmaterials,andtestitems.
Alwaysmakesureyoucanaccountforclassiedtrainingmaterials or references used in the training environment at all
times.
Immediately report any situation you suspect may constitute asecurity violation.
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Protectionofclassiedmaterialsdemandsconstantattentionbyeveryoneinvolved.Aswithsafety,yourbehaviorasaninstructorhas a great impact upon your students. Never say or do anything
thatwilldownplaytheimportanceofthesecurityofclassiedmaterials.Ineverysituationasaninstructor,youarearolemodel to your students. The security habits they learn from you
will go forward with them beyond the classroom.
RESPONSIBILITY FOR CURRICULUM
A relatively small number of instructors have curriculum
developmentduties.However,youmaybecomeinvolvedincurriculumrevision and will almost certainly be involved with curriculum
maintenance.Therefore,youneedtounderstandthefollowingtermsanddenitionsassociatedwiththemaintenanceofcurriculum.ThesourceofthisinformationistheNavySchoolManagementManual,
NAVEDTRA135(series):
Curriculum.Alltrainingconductedwithinaschool,outlinedintospecictopics,alongwithdetailedtrainingobjectives.
Surveillance. A process that provides ongoing evaluationof training or training materials to ensure continued
effectiveness and currency of content to meet the training
requirements.
Interim Change. A minor change to correct editorial andtypographicalerrors,teachability,safety,orurgenttype
commander-issuedsubjects.
Change.AmodicationtotrainingmaterialsthatDOESNOTaffectcoursemission,itsobjectives,changecourselengthbyoneormoredays,orrequireadditionalresources.
Technical Change.Anychangetotactical(i.e.,shipboard)ortraining-uniqueequipmentordocumentationoriginatingintheTrainingSupportAgencys(normallyaSYSCOM)parentmaterialagency that affects curriculum. A technical change may or may
notaffectindividuallessonobjectives,butDOESNOTaffect
courseobjectives,courselength,orresources.Revision.Achangetoanycoursemission,courselengthbyone
ormoredays,ortrainingmaterialsthatrequireadditionalresources. A revision will incorporate previous changes and
supersedes preceding editions of the training materials.
Curriculum maintenance is an ongoing effort to ensure the course
curriculumisbothcurrentandaccurate.Anydeciencynotedasa result of surveillance requires a change or revision to the
curriculum or training.
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SUMMARY
TheNavyTrainingSysteminvolvesmanyelements.Whileallareimportant,theinstructoristhekeystoneoftheentireprogram. The success of the Navy depends to a great extent on
the effectiveness of the instruction that individuals receive
duringtraining.AsaNavyinstructor,youplayacriticalroleinproviding our operating forces with personnel trained to maintain
ahighdegreeofFleetreadiness.Yoursuccessinthatrolewill depend upon your commitment to developing the professional
qualitiesofaninstructor,fulllingyourresponsibilitiesforboththecontentandqualityofthecurriculumyoudeliver,andmodelingappropriateCoreValuesandstandardsofconduct,particularlywithrespecttofraternizationandsexualharassment.Insodoing,youwillhavearmfoundationuponwhichtodevelopspecicteachingskillsandactivelyinvolveyourstudentsinthelearning process.
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CHAPTER 3
MOTIVATION
INTRODUCTION
Motivating students
to learn is possibly one
of the most pondered and
discussed areas among
people involved in the
education and training
of others. How to get
students interested
and involved in the
learning process has
long been one of the
greatest challenges for
instructors.Motivationinvolvestheactivation,direction,andpersistenceofaspeciedbehavior.Whilestudentsareresponsiblefortheirownlearning,youcangreatlyenhancetheirdesiretolearnbycreativelyusingmotivationaltechniques.Intheeducationalsense,motivationistheprocessofpromptingapersonto learn. The majority of your students will respond to general
methodsofmotivation.Some,however,mayneedyoutoprovide
appropriateincentivesforthemtolearn.Therefore,youmustlearntorecognizetheirneedsanddrives.
Generally,allbehaviorismotivated.Thegoalofinstructionistomotivatestudentstoachievecourseobjectives.Instructorssometimesmistakenlybelievethatastudentwhoisnotparticipatinginclassroomactivitiesornishinghomeworkassignmentsisnotmotivated.Strictlyspeaking,thestudentisnot motivated to behave in the manner desired by the instructor. A
greatdealofstudyhasgoneintondingwhatmotivateslearners.Inspiteofvaryinglevelsofpersonalmotivation,mostpeople
will respond to certain conditions with increased motivation tolearn.Asaninstructor,youshoulddoeverythingwithinyourpowerto establish the most desirable conditions possible to impact a
positivelearningenvironment.Thischapterprovidesbackgroundinformation on the principles of motivation and offers some
practical techniques for instructors to use in the motivation of
their students.
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MOTIVATION THEORY AND PRINCIPLES
Psychologistsusetheconceptofmotivationtoaccountforchangesinthefrequencyandthevigorofapersonsactivities.Wearealwaysdoingsomething,butsomeofouractivitiesoccurmoreoftenthanothersandcontinuelonger.Additionally,some
activities are pursued more vigorouslythan others. Outcomes that usually give
risetopleasantfeelingswillbepursued;those that usually give rise to unpleasant
feelings will be avoided. While a motive
cannotbeobserveddirectly,whenactivatedbyasituation,wecanseeitseffectonbehavior.Wesaypersonsaremotivated,orwespeakoftheirmotivation.Manytheories of motivation provide insight into
how instructors can use strategies to motivate learners to meet
instructionalgoals.TwoofthosetheoriesareAbrahamH.MaslowsHierarchyofNeedsTheoryandJohnKellersAttentionRelevanceCondenceandSatisfaction(ARCS)Model.
MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS THEORY
Simplystated,AbrahamH.Maslowstheoryproposesthatindividualswillseektogratifyhigher order (growth) needs only when all
lowerorder(deciency)needshavebeenrelativelywell-satised.BasedonMaslows
theory,peoplearedriventosatisfyunfullledneedsinaspecicorder.Maslowshierarchycontainsalowerlevelofneeds,knownasdeciencyneeds,andahigherlevel,knownasgrowthneeds.Deciencyneedsincludephysiological,safety,belongingness,love,andesteemneeds.Growthneedsincludeself-actualization,desireforknowledgeandunderstanding,andaestheticneeds(Fig.3-1).
The implications of this particular theory to the training
environmentareintriguing.Astheinstructor,youcontrolwhattakesplaceintheclassroomorlaboratory.Thatmeansyouplayan important role in gratifying the needs of your students.
Studentsaremorelikelytotrytosatisfytheirdesiretoknowand understand once their physical and psychological needs have
beenmet.Theyneedtofeelsafe,relaxed,andcomfortable(bothphysicallyandpsychologically);haveself-esteem;andhaveasenseof belonging.
Figure 3-1: Maslows Hierarchy ofNeeds Theory
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ApplyingMaslowstheoryintheclassroommaybelimitedbyyourknowledgeofthestudentsoryourabilitytomeettheirneeds.Chapter2discussedvariousinuencesthataffectstudentsinthetrainingenvironment.Youneedtobeawareofthoseinuencesandknowtheresourcesavailabletohelpstudentsinvolvedinconictsthat interfere with their training. This will greatly increase your
effectiveness in motivating students to learn.
ThekeyprinciplestoapplyingMaslowsmotivationtheoryinatrainingsituationaresummarizedbelow:
Needs and Drives.Whenstudentshaveaneedordrive,theylacksomething.Aneedisusuallydenedasadecitorlackthatcausesadesireforsatisfaction.Theneedtobelong,forinstance,canmotivateastudenttoseekgroupacceptance.Thatneed,ordrive,cancausethestudenttobehaveinamanner
that eventually reduces the need and results in satisfaction.Interest.Interestreferstoapersonsviewofanactivity
asworthwhileorenjoyableforitsownsake.Aninstructorwhocapturesstudentsinterestdrawsontheirinternalmotivation.Asaninstructor,youwilllearntocontrolstudentinterestthroughoutthelesson;thelearningprocessbreaksdownwhenstudentsloseinterest.Togenerateinterest,statethepurposeofthelessonatitsbeginning.Emphasizewhystudents
needtolearnthematerialandhowtheywillbenetfromtheinformation.Ifpossible,relateapersonalexperiencewiththetopicsimportance(i.e.,SeaStory).Afterstudents
understandtheneedtolearnsomething,theyaremorelikelytogive their full attention to your instruction.
Values.Thestudentsvalues,attitudes,andprevious experiences affect the nature and
amount of what they learn. The motivation
youusemusttastudentsvaluesystem.
Studentshavemoreinterestinasubjectthat deals with goals they see as
importantintheirlives.Forexample,alessonontheagortheCodeofConduct would probably motivate a
student who values patriotism.
Attitudes. Attitudes consist offeelingsfororagainstpeople,
objects,orideas.Showingapositiveattitudeaboutthesubject you present can cause the student to want to learn.
Studentshavemoredesiretolearnwhentheirinstructorsshowan interest in what they teach.
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Incentives.Incentivesorrewardscanalsostimulatemotivation.Incentivessuchasgoodgrades,awards,orselection as a distinguished graduate may motivate some
students.
Achievement.Achievementisastrongdesire,alonging,anaim,
agoal,oradesiredobjective.Tomakeanefforttosucceed,students must have a need and a desire to achieve at a certainlevel.
KELLERS ARCS MODEL
InJohnKellersARCSmodel(Fig.3-2),therearefourprinciplesinthemotivationtheory.TheyareAttention,Relevance,CondenceandSatisfaction.Thefour principles can be used to meet the
challenge,andyoucanusethestrategiestogainandmaintainalearnersattentionand encourage them to engage in the
thinkingandactivitiesneededtopromote learning.
Attention.Attractingattentionisanimportantrststep,butdontbefooled.Learnerswillcertainlypayattentionifyoudosomethingsurprisinglikeblowaboatswainspipe.Butunlesswhatyoudoafterthatmakessensetolearnersorisrelevanttothem,youwontkeeptheirattentionand
theyareunlikelytolearnwhatfollows.Learnersmustthinkaboutwhattheyhear,see,ordotooptimizelearning.Thevivid descriptions of relevant sea stories or questions posed
directly to the learner are among the best strategies that can
capturetheirattentionandfocustheirthinking.Relevance. Relevance motivates trainees by connecting what theyare learning to what they will be doing on the job. When they
seetherelevance,theyaremorelikelytoputforththeeffortittakestounderstandandapplywhatisbeingtaught.
Condence.Whenstudentsfeelcondenttheycandosomethingcompetently,evenifittakessomeeffort,theyaremorelikely
togiveitatry.Instructorscanguidelearnersbyhelpingthemsetchallengingbutachievablegoals,buildingtheircondence,andhelpingthembecomeawareoftherelationshipbetween effort and success.
Satisfaction. Feeling good about an experience often servesasitsownmotivator.Sometasksarerewardinginthemselves,and students will stay motivated until they achieve their
goals.Othertimes,recognitionfromotherscontributesto
Figure 3-2: Kellers ARCS Model
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theirsenseofsatisfaction.Asaninstructor,youcanincreaselearnerssatisfactionbycreatingopportunitiesforthemto
succeed,maintaininghighstandards,andrecognizingstudentsattainment of those standards.
APPLYING MOTIVATION TECHNIQUES TO INSTRUCTION
The techniques of motivation have application in each part of a
lessontopic:theintroduction,thepresentation,andthesummary.Letslookateachpartmorecloselytoseehowyoucanapplymoti-vation techniques to it.
LESSON INTRODUCTION
Asaninstructor,youcanusemotivationatthebeginningofalessonasameansofintroducingthematerial,stimulating
interest,arousingcuriosity,anddevelopingaspeciclearninggoal.Besidesshowingtheneedforlearningtheinformation,theintroductionshouldserveasaconnectinglinkbetweenthepresentlesson and previous lessons.
Usethelessonintroductiontodiscussspecicreasonswhystudents need to learn the information you plan to present. To
reinforcetheirdesiretolearn,showstudentshowtheinformationrelatestotheircareeradvancementorsomeotherneed.Givethestudentsspecicexamplesofhowtheywillapplywhattheyarelearningonthejob.Inmanycases,youmaymotivatestudentsby
telling them they will need the information to understand futurelessons or to pass later assessments.
Ideally,thelessonintroductionshouldprovidearoadmapforlearning. A clear introduction can contribute greatly to a lesson
by removing doubts in the minds of learners about where the lesson
isgoingandhowtheyaregoingtogetthere.Itshouldexplainhowyouhaveorganizedyourideas.Studentsunderstandbetterandretainmorewhentheyknowwhattoexpect.Effectivevisualaidsmay be helpful at this point.
The purpose of the introduction is to motivate students to learnby listening to the information you will present in the body of
thelesson.Attention-gettingmethodsforbeginningalessonmayinclude:
Focusontheimportanceofthesubject.Usestartlingstatistics.
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Askrhetoricalquestions.Arhetoricalquestionisoneyoudirectatthestudents,butdonotreallyexpectthemto
answer.Forexample,Haveyouever?orCanyouimagine?Usequotations.Astrikingquotationwillarouseinterest,
particularlyonebyawellknownperson.
Askoverheadquestions.Anoverheadquestionisaninterest-arousing question directed to the entire class.
Tellastory.Astoryisaninterestingwayofintroducingalesson,especiallywhenitrelatestoexperiencesstudentshavehad.Whilehumormaybeappropriate,donttellirrelevantstories,jokes,orincidentsthatdistractfromthelesson.
Alloftheseattention-gettingdevicesare potentially useful during the lesson
introduction.However,decidewhichonesto use based solely on the subject and
thestudents.Yourprimaryconcernistofocus student attention on the subject.
Theintroductiontoalesson,nomatterwhatformthelessonplantakes,mustaccomplishcertaingoals.Itshould:
Developstudentsinterest.Statethelessonobjectivesand
theirsignicance.Directstudentthinkingalongdesiredlines.Outlinethescopeofthelesson.
Showstudentsthevalueofthesubjectmatter.Explainthemethodormethodsyouwilluse.Letthestudentsknowwhatyouexpectofthem.Tellthestudentshowmanyperiodsthelessonisscheduledfor
andwhenyouexpecttonish.
Afteryouhavewontheattentionofthestudents,youmustthendirect them to the subject of the lesson.
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LESSON PRESENTATION
Tomaintainstudentinterest,do notreadalessonplanverbatim.Makesureyou are thoroughly familiar with the
materialyouarepresenting.Knowyour
lesson plan as well as the informationin the references from which you will
teach.Tomeetthespecicobjectivesofthelesson,youmustknowexactlywhat you are going to teach and how
youaregoingtoteachit.Further,youmustbecarefulnottoover-teach;thatis,toprovideextraneousinformationmerelybecauseyouareknowledgeableinaparticulararea.Helpstudentsdene
themostimportantpartsofthematerialtotakeawaywiththemby
stickingtowhattheyreallyneedtoknowintheclassroom.
Presentthematerialinalogicalsequencebeginningwiththeknownandmovingtotheunknown.Althoughslightvariationsandexcursionsoffthemainlineofalessoncanpromoteinterest,keepthemtoaminimum.Duringthepresentation,oneofthebestmotivatorsistheuseoftrainingaids,e.g.,graphics,models,animations,etc.Anotheristoperiodicallyaskquestionsthatcheckforstudentsunderstanding.
LESSON SUMMARY Alessonsummaryisusedtorecapturestudentsattentionandbuild to a motivational climax. While you may want to give short
orinterimsummariesatvariousplacesinalesson,givenalsummaries after you have covered all of the main points of the
lesson.Quicklyreviewingthemainpointsandaskingquestionscanreinforcestudentslearningandhelpthemretainmoreinformation.
Remember the purpose of the summary is to instill in students
a desire to retain and use what they have learned. Although you
motivatestudentsthroughoutthelesson,thesummaryisyourlast
chancetoemphasizehowimportanttheinformationistothemasindividuals. The ultimate goal of instruction is to cause students
toremainmotivatedbeyondtheinstructorsinuenceandapplywhatthey have learned on the job and in other areas of their lives.
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SUMMARY
Youmustconstantlymotivateyourstudentstolearn.Graspeveryopportunitytomotivatestudents.Asaninstructor,youmustndwhichmethodsanddevicesworkbestwithyourstudentsincertain
situations. After
instructionbegins,assessstudentsachievementlevel,learningstyles,andmotivational patterns
to determine their
readiness to learn.
RememberMaslowstheoryandKellersmodel.Besensitive
toyourstudentsneedsandprovidethemwithaproperlearningenvironment. Those students with adequate motivation should then
bereadytolearn.FollowingMaslowstheoryand/orKellersmodeldoesnotmeanyoushouldcoddlestudentsintolearning.Rather,itmeansyoulookuponeachstudentasahumanbeingwithcertaininherent rights.
Asaninstructor,beprofessional,intellectuallyhonest,andawareofyourinuenceonstudents.Setagoodexampleatalltimesbymaintaininganeat,clean,andproperpersonalappearanceandmilitarybearing.Becourteous;usepropertitleswhen
addressingmilitaryorcivilianstudents.Setrulesearlyinthecourseandmaintainthem.Welcomeandprotfromtheevaluationsofthestudentsandotherinstructors.Avoidarguments,controldistractions,andbefairinallyourdealingswithstudents--aboveallbeconsistent.Thiswillhelpyougainandkeeptherespectof your students and colleagues and greatly contribute to your
studentsoverallmotivationbothinandoutoftheclassroom.
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CHAPTER 4
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
INTRODUCTION
YourgoalasaNavyinstructoristocontributetotheacademicsuccessofyourstudentsand,ultimately,tothesuccessoftheNavyinachievingitsmission.Asaninstructor,yourprimaryobjective is to ensure your students understand the concepts of
yourlessonsandlectures.Bygraspingtheseconcepts,studentswillhaveanopportunitytodevelopknowledge,gainskillsets,andinsomecases,changebehaviorsandperceptions.Keepinmindthatcoursecontentalonemaynotaccomplishthesegoals,butyourability to engage your students effectively will greatly increase
their chances for success.
Asaninstructor,yourmasteryofthesubjectmatter,inconjunctionwithyourabilitytodeliveraneffectivelesson,islikelytobecomeadeterminingfactorinyourstudentsabilitytolearnandsucceed.Howpeoplearetaughtoftenhasasmuch,ifnotmore,ofaninuenceontheirlearningoutcomethanthecontent itself. That is because the abilities of the instructor
are,inmanycases,akeyfactorindeterminingtheoutcomeofthestudentslearningexperience.Thisrequiresyou,asthe
instructor,tohaveathoroughunderstandingofthelearningprocessbeforeyoueverpresentyourrstlesson.
The information in this chapter is designed to give you a
foundational understanding of learning styles and instructional
modalities from both historical and modern perspectives. The intent
hereistwofold.First,toofferyouanunderstandingofhowstudentslearn,andsecond,tooutlinevariousinstructionalstylesyoucanusetobesttyourstudentsdifferinglearningstyles,knownasinstructionaldifferentiation.
MalcolmKnowlesinTheAdultLearner(1973)popularizedthetermandragogy,atermreferringtoasetofcoreprinciplesthatapplytoadultlearning.Inhisearlywork,Knowlesdrewattentionto factors that distinguished adult learning (andragogy) from child
learning (pedagogy). Whether we are discussing adult or child
learning,theexplanationoflearningisverysimilar.
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DEFINITION OF LEARNING
Whatislearning?Learningoccurswhenthereisachangeinbehaviorasaresultofexperience.Thischangeisreectedinapersonsnewlyacquiredperceptionsorthoughts,physicalbehaviors,emotionalreactionsorattitudes.Learningmayormay
notbedirectlyobservable.Forexample,itiseasytoobserveastudentdrivingacar(physicalskill),butattitudinalchangesmust often be observed over time and may only display themselves
well after the course has ended.
LAWS OF LEARNING
Attheonsetofthe20thcentury,EdwardL.Thorndike,apioneerintheeldofeducationalpsychology,suggestedthreelaws
of learning. These laws weredeemedaccurateandreectiveofthewholelearningprocess,andassuch,weregenerallyacceptedasfacts. They were delineated as:
TheLawofReadiness,TheLawofExercise,andTheLawofEffect.Sincethattime,furtherresearchrevealed the learning process to
beabitmorecomplex.Assuch,anadditionalthreelawswereaddedtoThorndikesoriginals.Theyare:TheLawofPrimacy,TheLawof
Intensity,andTheLawofRecency.Letuslookateachofthelawsof learning more closely.
LAW OF READINESS
The Law of Readiness states that people can only learn when they
arephysicallyandmentallyready.Individualslearnbestwhentheyarereadytolearn,andtheywillnotlearnmuchiftheyseenoreasonforlearning.Whenstudentshaveastrongpurpose,aclearobjective,andasoundreasonforlearning,theyusuallymakemoreprogressthanstudentswholackmotivation.Readystudents
arewillingparticipantsinthelearningprocess,whichmakestheinstructorsjobeasier.Studentswithworriesorconcernsoutsidetheclassroom,orthosewhosufferpersonalproblems,havelittleinterestinlearningand,thus,maynotbereadytolearn.
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LAW OF EXERCISE
TheLawofExercisestressesthatpracticemakespermanentandperfect (when taught correctly). Those topics most often repeated
are easiest to remember. Rarely can the mind recall new concepts
afterasingleexposure;however,everytimeitispracticed,
learning continues and is further enforced. The instructor mustprovideopportunitiesforstudentstopracticeorrepeatthetask.Repetitionconsistsofmanytypesofactivities,including:recall,review,restatement,manualdrill,andphysicalapplication.
LAW OF EFFECT
The Law of Effect involves the emotional reaction of the learner.
Learning will always be much more effective when a feeling of
satisfaction,pleasantness,orrewardaccompaniesorisaresultof the learning process. Learning is strengthened when it is
accompaniedbyapleasantorsatisfyingfeelinganditisweakenedwhen it is associated with an unpleasant experience. An experience
thatproducesfeelingsofdefeat,frustration,anger,orconfusionin a trainee is unpleasant. instructors should be cautious about
usingnegativemotivation.Usuallyitisbettertoshowstudentsthat a problem is not impossible but is within their capability to
understand and solve.
LAW OF PRIMACY
TheGreekwordkairosisdenedasthemosttimelyor
opportunemoment.Therefore,TheLawofPrimacyisakairoticeventforlearning.Thislawstatesthattherstinstructionaleventoftencreatesastrong,almostunshakeable,impressiononthelearner.Fortheinstructors,thismeanswhattheyteachthersttimemustbecorrect,asthestudentsrstlearningexperienceshouldbepositiveandfunctionallyrelatedtotraining.Ifasubjectisincorrectlytaught,itmustbecorrected.Itisfarmoredifcult,timeconsuming,andcostlytoprovideremediationforaparticularsubjectthanitistotakethetimetoproperlyprepareforandteachitcorrectlythersttime.
LAW OF INTENSITY
TheLawofIntensitystatesthatifthestimulus(experience)isreal,achangeinbehavior(learning)isfarmorelikelytooccur.Avivid,dramaticorexcitinglearningexperienceteachesmorethan a routine or boring experience. A trainee will learn more from
therealthingthanfromasubstitute.Demonstrations,skits,andmodels do much to intensify the learning experiences of students.
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LAW OF RECENCY
Allthingsbeingequal,thethingslearnedlastwillbebestremembered. The opposite is also true. The longer a student is away
fromanewfactorunderstanding,theharderitistoremember.Forexample,itisfairlyeasytorememberatelephonenumber
dialedafewminutesago,butitisusuallyimpossibletorememberanewnumberdialedlastweek.Reviews,warm-ups,andsimilaractivities are all based on the principle that the more recent the
exercise,themoreeffectivetheperformance.Practicingaskillor new concept just before using it will ensure a more effective
performance.InstructorsrecognizetheLawofRecencywhentheyplanalessonsummaryoraconclusionofthelecture.Repeat,restate,orreemphasizeimportantmattersattheendofalessontomakesurethatstudentsrememberthem,insteadofinconsequentialdetails.
LEARNING THEORY
Asmentionedearlier,therearenumeroustheoriesonlearning.Everylearningtheoryts,oralignswith,oneofthetwomodelswewill consider here. The behaviorist theory is very traditional and
time-honored.Conversely,theconstructivisttheoryismorerecent,modern,butstillwell-tested.
BEHAVIORIST THEORY
AlthoughmostnotablyassociatedwithB.F.Skinner,JohnWatson
andtheircontemporaries,theearliestformsofbehaviorismwereactuallypresentinancientGreece.Take,forexample,theSocraticMethodforteachingdebateasaskill.Inthismethod,theteacherselected a student and provided him with a topic. The teacher
then taught the student the two types of rational appeals used in
formulatingaproperargument,whichwerebasedoninductiveanddeductive reasoning.
Inductivereasoningisaprocessofgeneralizinginformationby moving from detailed facts to general principles to draw an
understandingofasubject.Heresanexample:5+7=12.5
and7areoddnumbers,but12isanevennumber.Therefore,anodd number added to another odd number will result in an even
number.
Deductivereasoningmovesfromthegeneraltothespecic,
essentiallydeterminingacauseandaneffect.Itisoftenseenasdiametricallyopposedtoinductivereasoning,butbotharevalid and valued methods of reasoning. Here is an example of
deductivereasoning:Allmenaremortal.Socratesisaman.Therefore,Socratesismortal.
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Thestudentsabilitytoreasonwasthendemonstratedthroughalong exchange of questions and answers between the teacher and the
student. The student was engaged in a debate to allow the teacher
tojudgethestudentsabilitytoadequatelybuildargumentsbasedon one of the two forms of reasoning.
Theteacherdidthisrstbyprovidingthestudentwithbackgroundinformationorcluesaboutthesubject,thenpresentingaquestion,andnallybyprovidingthestudentwithfeedback.Thegoal of this exchange was for the student to formulate a response
toadequatelyanswertheteachersquestion,usingvariousmethodsofargument.Thisteaching-learningexchange,fundamentally,isthebasis for the behaviorist model of instruction.
The behaviorist model of instruction is one of the most
commonformsofteachingusedtoday,andisoftenreferredtoasInstructor-LedLearning(ILL).Behavioristsareoftenassociated
withdirectinstruction,muchasonewouldseeinaninstructor-ledclassroom.Behavioriststypicallyworktoestablishthepedagogicprocess within the learning environment by introducing a stimulus
(question,problem,riddle,etc.)andawaitingaresponseinthestudentsbehavior.Assuch,muchoftheteaching-learningexchangein this modality is conducted through a system of structured
lessonsthatprovidedetailedoutlinesofthelessonsobjectivesand expectations prior to instruction.
Navy instruction is traditionally driven by the behaviorist
learningtheory,wheretheinstructorengagesthestudentsin
anongoing-exchangeofquestionsandanswerswiththegoalofdeveloping in the students a more comprehensive understanding of
the subject matter as the lessons progress.
CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY
Insteadofviewingknowledgeassomethingtobereceived,theconstructivist model of learning enables the student to construct
knowledgethroughinteraction.Learnersbuildtheirowninternalrenditions of external events often by relating them to prior
experiences. The constructivist theory is often associated with
JohnDeweyandMalcolmKnowles.
Constructivismisverymuchstudent-focused,self-directedlearning. The student actively constructs or builds new ideas
andmeaningasaresultofanopendialogueandongoingreectionononesownpriorexperiencesorknowledge.Itisabuilding-blockmodelforlearningandhasincreasedinpopularitythroughoutclassroomsacrosstheUnitedStatessincethe1960s.
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Therearechallengestoconstructivism,though,justastherearewithotherlearningtheories.Forexample,disequilibriumoccursifnewinformationdoesnotmakesenseinrelationtoprior experience. This state of imbalance requires learners to
readjustmentalschema,orcreatenewschemainordertounderstandinformation.Therefore,aninstructormusthelplearnersunderstandtheirexistingcognitivestructuresandactivatepriorknowledgeatthe time of learning.
Iflearnerscanmaketheconnection,theymakesenseofnewinformation,whichthenbecomesstoredwithrelevantpriorknowledgeinanetwork(Bransford,Goldman,&Hasselbring,1996;Gagne,1995).Inthisperspective,priorknowledgeisanimportantinuenceinlearning.Constructivistmodelsoflearningadvocateinteractivelearningenvironmentsinwhichstudentsmaketheirownmeaningbyconnectingnewknowledgetopriorexperiences(Greeno,
Collins,&Resnick,1996).Aconstructiviststrategythatfocusesonthesocialfactorsaffectinglearning,denesknowledgeastheresultofsocialconsensus,andthusndsallthenecessaryingredientsinsociallife(Gruender,1996).
Studentsaretypicallygivenopportunitiestoorganizetheirownproblem-solvingandtoworkcollaborativelytoachievemutualgoals.Asasocialactivity,studentslearntoaskquestions,exchangeideas,andsolveproblems(Walker&Lambert,1995).Theyalsolearnhowtoaskcriticalquestionsabouttheworkofothers,whichinturnhelpslearnerstoaskcriticalquestionsof
themselves.Whenthesetwoprocessesoccur,theinstructorassumesthe facilitation role.
An instructor in a facilitation role encourages students to
bepersonallyresponsibleandself-directedinlearningandusesavarietyofteachingmethodsandlearningresources.Seminalresearch on adult learning indicates that mature learners prefer
to be in charge of their own learning with minimal direction from
instructors(Cross,1998;Wlodkowski,1993).However,therearetimes when instructors in a facilitation role must maintain control
to varying degrees because of the nature of the subject matter
andthelearnerslimitedbackgrounds.Forexample,learnerswithentry-levelknowledgemayrequireamorestructuredexperiencewithless autonomy.
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WAYS OF LEARNNG
Alllearningshouldbemeaningful.Tomakelearningasmeaningfulaspossible,youneedtounderstandhowstudentslearn.Ofthevedifferentwaysoflearningaddressedhere,
no one particular way is necessarily betterthantheothers.Yourstudentswillusesomecombination of these ways of learning in
everyclassyouteach.Yourunderstandingof the ways people learn will assist you in
helping your students learn and retain the
information presented.
Imitation:Asignicantpartofwhatapersonlearnsoccursthroughimitation.Thiswayoflearningbeginsearlyinpeopleslivesandlaststhroughouttheirlifetime.Learningtakesplaceevenwithout
directreinforcementoftherepeatedbehavior.Therefore,asaNavyinstructor,youmustcreateatrainingenvironmentforstudentsto observe others and always strive to set the proper example
becauseyouaretheirrolemodel.Additionally,youneedtoprovidepositive reinforcement to students for properly imitated behavior.
Trial and Error:Sometimesreferredtoasdiscoverylearning,trialanderrorislearningbydoing.Studentsachievesuccesssoonerwhentheproperexampleissetforthemtoimitate.Properexamplesreducethenumberoferrorsstudentsmake,andthus,helpdevelopself-condence.Althoughmasteryofmostskillsrequires
thiswayoflearningtosomedegree,itdoesinvolvesomehazards.Thinkbacktowhenyoulearnedhowtorideabicycletohelpyouvisualizesomeofthehazardsofthiswayoflearning.Itcanbedangeroustothestudentsandtheequipment.Itcanalsobecomefrustratingifrepeatedtrialsdontleadtosomesuccess.
Association: Association is a comparison of past learning to anewlearningsituation.Itisamentalprocessthatservesasareference point for students. Learners can confront new problems
more easily if those new problems contain elements similar to those
previouslymastered.Forexample,tohelpstudentsmoreeasily
understandelectricityowinginacircuit,youmightcompareittowaterowingthroughapipe.Usecomparisons,contrasts,andexamples to reinforce your explanations. Although you will have
manyopportunitiestouseassociationduringyourlessons,rememberthat you will have students with different experience levels in
yourclass.Makesureyouuseassociationstowhichallstudentscan relate.
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Insight:Insightistheunderstandingthatthewholeismorethanthe sum of the parts. Learning by insight occurs when the learner
suddenly grasps the way elements of a problem situation are
connected.Thetermdescribesapersonsunplanneddiscoveryofasolutiontoaproblem--oftenreferredtoastheah-haphenomenon.
Thatphenomenonresultsfromamentalreorganizationofideasandconceptsratherthanfromsimpletrialanderror.Someindividualsgaininsightmorerapidlythanothers.Individualbackgroundsaffecteachlearnersabilitytogaininsight,asdoesthesequencein which you present basic learning experiences. To help students
gaininsight,youmuststimulatethinking.Useappropriatequestionstogettheirmindsworking.Encouragethoughtratherthanrotememorizationbyusingquestionsthatrequireassociations,comparisons,andcontrasts.
Transfer: Transfer is the process of applying past learning to
new but somewhat similar situations. This process is important inNavy training as the training environment can rarely duplicate
theactualjobenvironment.Yourgoalistoteachstudentstheimportanceofapplyingtheirlearningonthejob.Wherepossible,provide realistic exercises by using the actual (or same type of)
equipmentstudentswilluseonthejob.TheNavysdamagecontrolteamtrainingisagoodexampleofhowthistypeoflearningtakesplace.
THE SCIENCE OF LEARNING
The Executive Review of Navy Training (ERNT) charter placedemphasisontheScienceofLearningandHumanPerformanceprocess.TheScienceofLearningcanbedenedasthebodyofknowledgederivedthroughscienticresearchaboutthewaythatpeoplelearn,thefactorsthataffectlearning,andthewaysinwhichinstructional methods and technology can be used to facilitate
learning(Hays,2006).TheScienceofLearninghasbeenarapidlygrowingresearcheldoverthelastthreedecades.Atitscore,theScienceofLearningseekstounderstandhowindividualsandteamscome to acquire the competencies needed to perform their jobs.
Theoristshaveidentiedbasicprinciplesofknowledgeandskill
acquisition,andhavedeterminedhowtomaximizethetransferof learned competencies to the job. The long held notion that
tellingisteachingandlisteningislearningdoesnotrecognizewhatresearchersnowunderstand:individualsretainknowledgebestwhentheylearntheorywhileapplyingit,individualsinternalizecomplexinformationathigherrateswhentheylearnitinacollaborativeenvironment;andlearningismaximizedwhenorganizationalstructuresarealigned.
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FACTORS AFFECTING LEARNING
Many factors affect learning. No two people learn in exactly
the same way or at the same rate. Each is subject to a variety of
positiveandnegativeinuencesintheprocess.Youneedtobeawareofthemanyfactorsaffectinglearning.Themoreyouknow,
thebetterchanceyouhaveofpositivelyinuencingthelearningprocess.
LEARNER MOTIVATION
Perhapsthesinglemostimportantfactorinastudentseducationaladvancementismotivation.Unfortunately,itisoneof the hardest for instructors to get a handle on or to channel
effectively.Humansbasicallytrytosucceedand,conversely,try vigorously to avoid failure. While we need to remember that
occasionalfailureishuman,wemustdoeverythingpossibletoorganizestudenteffortstowardsuccess.Simplethingslikeword
selection in the training environment can add to or detract fromthe learning effort. Motivation often has as much or more impact
than scholastic ability.
Studentsbringdifferentabilitiesandexperiencelevelstothetraining environment. Motivation often determines whether or not
a student achieves course objectives. Many times students with
thehighestASVABscoresdonotmakethegradewhilestudentswithacademicwaiversdoverywell.TalktoanyseasonedNavyinstructorand he or she can probably recall at least one special student
whomadeitinspiteofminimalbackgroundorless-than-average
ability.Littledoubtexiststhatmotivation,eitherinternallyorexternallystimulated,initiatesanddirectsbehavior.Conversely,whenmotivationisderaileditcanlikelyreduceorenddesiredbehavior.
SENSORY LEARNING
Sensorylearningisthersttypeoflearningthatoccursforanyhumanbeing.Itsinuenceisapparentinchildrenaswewatchthemgrowup.Eachsense,eithersingularlyorinvariouscombinations,providesapathwaytolearning.Withthatinmind,anexaminationof sensory learning and its special considerations may provide
insight into the learning process.
Thesenseoftouch,whileimportantinitself,becomesamajorlearning factor when combined with other senses. Children do not
associate the word hot with anything in particular until they
associatethewordwiththeirsenseoftouch.Throughexperience,webecomesensitivetotemperature,pressure,andtheoverallfeel
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ofthings.Forinstance,anexperiencedengineerdoesnotneedatemperaturegaugetodetermineifabearingisrunninghot,justas an experienced damage control investigator does not need one to
decide that the temperature of a watertight door is above normal.
The senses of taste and smell may not seem important in Navy
trainingandinmanycasestheyarenot.Considerifyouwill,though,theimportanceoftastetothetrainingofcooksandbakers.Thesenseofsmell,whichiscloselyassociatedwithtaste,isverystrongandprimitiveinnature.Itispartofourhumanwarningsystem.Forexample,electriciansimmediatelyrecognizethe smell of burning insulation. Others become sensitive to the
smellofvariousgases.Therefore,thesenseofsmellisavaluablelearning tool in certain applications. Let us consider the various
types of sensory learners:
Visual Learner.Sightisconsideredthemostimportantsense,accountingforasmuchas75percentofourbasiclearning.Mostearlylearningcomesfromseeingandimitating.Therefore,you would be wise to consider using appropriate visual aids
inyourpresentations.Forexample,visuallearnersprefer
andenjoygraphicillustrations,colorcoding,maps,writtenmaterialstodenenewconcepts,wallcharts,drawingsanddesignsandsittingupcloseduringbriefs.Besuretorecognizeandaccommodatestudentswithanyvisualimpairment.
Auditory Learner.Hearingisthesecondmostimportantsense,accounting for a large percentage of the remaining sensory
learningcapacity.Expertsdifferonspecicnumbers,butthesignicanceofsightandsoundtogetherisoverwhelming.Yourspeech patterns and volume are critical classroom learning
factors.Forexample,auditorylearnerspreferaverbalpresentationofnewinformation,alecture,agroupdiscussiontohearotherpointsofview,fast-pacedverbalexchangeofideas,agoodjokeorstorytheycanrepeat,verbalcuesorpneumonicdevicestohelpthemrememberinformation,wordstoaccompanyacartoon,andoralreportsfromworkinggroups.Justaswithsightimpairments,youmustaccommodatestudentswithhearing impairments.
Kinesthetic Learner.Althoughitisnotnormallyidentiedasoneofthesenses,thephenomenonofkinesthesiaisanextensionofsensorylearning.Thinkofitasasensoryperceptionresidinginonesmuscles,joints,andtendonsthatgives people a special awareness of their spatial relationship
withtheirsurroundings.Kinesthesiaisactuallyablendofallsenseswithpsychomotorandperceptualskills.Itmanifestsitselfinpeoplesabilitytobalanceormovewithcoordination.Forexample,kinestheticlearnerslikemovement,
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hands-onexperiencetolearn,gestureswhilemakingapoint,role-playexercisesoverdiscussiongroups,shakinghands
whenmeetingorgreetingpeople,tryingnewthingswithoutalengthyexplanationoftheactivity,frequentbreaks,regularopportunitiestochangeseatingorroomarrangement,andthey
wouldratherjustdoitratherthantalkaboutit.
Remember,studentsdeveloptheirskillsthroughpractice.Youcannot realistically expect students in a welding class to have the
coordinationtoweldthebacksideofapipeintheoverheadwhileusingamirrorwithoutsomepracticetorstdevelopthemorebasicskillofwelding.
Retention,withrespecttosensorylearning,isopentomanyinterpretationsandopinions.Ithasbeenestimatedthatpeopleretainonlytenpercentofwhattheyread,twentypercentofwhat
theyhear,andthirtypercentofwhattheysee.Whenthosesensesarecombined,however,retentiontakesadramaticleapforward.Thosesameestimatestellusthatwhensomeonehearsandsees,retentionmayjumpashighasftypercent.Thatmakesagreatargument for incorporating appropriate audiovisual media into your
instruction.Byaskingproperquestionstoaugmentsightandsoundtostimulatethinking,youcanpushstudentretentionclosetothe seventy percent level. Requiring students to use all of their
sensesinskilltrainingalongwithproceduralstepsandprinciplescan increase their retention to as much as ninety percent. That
implies a fair degree of mastery learning.
LEARNING STYLES OR PREFERENCES
Much has been written about individual learning styles
(preferences) and the ways in which particular styles affect the
waywelearnorprefertolearn.Justasstudentshavedifferentwaysoflearningnewmaterial,theyalsohavedifferentstylesoflearning.Onepersonslearningstylemaynotbeeffectiveforanotherperson.Youmustbeexibleandperceptiveenoughtousevarious instructor techniques that appeal to more than one learning
style. Varying your instructing techniques increases the chances
forallstudentstomastertheobjectivesofthetraining.Youespeciallyneedtoknowastudentslearningstylewhenyouprovideremediation or tutoring for a student having academic problems.
Mostpeoplehaveadominantstyleoflearning,butuseallofthe basic learning preferences to some extent depending upon the
situation.LetusexamineDavidKolbsExperientialLearningTheorythatidentiesfourdistinctlearningstyles,whicharebasedonafour-stagelearningcycle:
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Concrete Experience.Manylearnerspreferanexperience-basedapproach to learning. They rely heavily on their own feelings and
personaljudgments.Personalinvolvementisthekeyforthem.Theylearnbestbyimitationafterwatchingotherstakepartinrole-playingandsimulations.Theyverymuchliketobeinvolvedwith
therealthing.Forexample,supposeyouweretryingtoteachyourstudentshowtooperatearepump.Concretelearnerswouldprefertowatchyoudemonstratetheoperation.Thentheywouldlikean opportunity to operate the pump by imitating your performance.
Active Experimentation. Other learners prefer to learn by becominginvolvedwiththesubjectandtakinganactivestep-by-stepapproach.Theylearnbestfromsmallgroupdiscussions,structuredexercises,andproblem-solvingapproaches.Activelearnersareexperimenterswhoprefertosystematicallytryoutnewskills.Atrial-and-errorwayoflearningappealstothem.Tooperatethe
repump,activelearnerswouldsystematicallytryoutseveraldifferent ways of operation.
Reective Observation.Somelearnersliketoobserveandreect(makecomparisonsandcontrasts)beforedrawingconclusions.Theylearnbestfromlectures,lms,andreading.Reectivelearnersprefer to play the role of the impartial observer while watching
others.Tooperatetherepump,reectivelearnerswouldwatchothersoperatethepumpandreect(think)aboutthedifferentwaysofoperation.Theywouldthenanalyzetheirobservationsbeforeattempting to operate the pump themselves.
Abstract Conceptualization.Abstractlearnerspreferatheory-based,analyticalapproachtolearning.Theylearnbestfromlecturesbyexperts,theoreticalreading,casestudies,andactivitiesthatrequiresolitarythinking.Abstractlearnersliketondthetheorybehindthesubjectmatterandanalyzetheapproachtodiscoverwhatconceptsareinvolved.Inoperatingtherepump,theywouldprefertoreadaboutitsprinciplesofoperationandtoanalyzetheconceptsinvolvedinitsoperationbefore attempting to operate it.
Research shows that students learn best and retain informationlonger when they are exposed to learning situations that include
all four learning styles. That research found that retention
of information improved dramatically when instructors employed
methods designed to involve more than one learning style. Note the
following percentages:
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Abstract=TwentypercentretainedAbstractandreective=Fiftypercentretained
Abstract,reective,andconcrete=SeventypercentretainedAbstract,reective,concrete,andactive=Ninetypercentretained
HOW CAN STUDENTS LEARN MORE EFFECTIVELY?
Welearnnewthingsconstantlynewnames,newprocedures,newconcepts.Doyouconsideryourselfafastlearner?Ifso,whatdoyoudothathelpsyoutolearnnewinformation?Ifnot,isthereanything you can do to help your learning process so that you can
learnfasterandmoreefciently?Thefollowingdiscussionprovidessome methods or techniques you can share with students to help them
learnnewinformationmoreefciently.
Aspreviouslydiscussed,learninginvolvesprocessingnewinformationsothatitcanbestoredinlong-termmemory.Inordertolearnmoreefciently,itisnecessarytoprocessandstorenewinformationinsuchawaythatitcanberetrievedfromlong-termmemory when needed. Consider the following learning strategies:
Repetition:Youhaveprobablyusedavarietyoflearningstrategiesinthepastwithoutevenrealizingwhatyouweredoing.Forinstance,youmayhaverepeatedsomethingoverandoverinyourminduntilitstuck.Repetitionisonewaytotransferinformationfromshort-termmemorytolong-termmemory.Repetitioncanbe
enhanced by saying the information aloud or writing it. The moresensesusedinimprintingtheinformationinlong-termmemory,themorelikelyyouwillbeabletorecallitlater.Reviewisanotherformofrepetition.Withoutreview,mostinformationwouldbelostfrommemoryveryquickly.
Memory Aids: Another common learning strategy is the use of memoryaids. Devise methods to help you remember a particular piece
ofinformation.Forinstance,whentryingtorememberwhethertoturnavalvehandleclockwiseorcounter-clockwisetoshutoffthevalve,manypeoplewilluseamemoryaidtheylearnedinchildhood:
righty-tighty;lefty-loosey.
Memorizing vs. Understanding Althoughmemoryaidsmaybehelpfulwhentryingtomemorizealistoftermsorsteps,theydohavesomedisadvantages.Forinstance,somelistsdonoteasilylendthemselvestomakingacronymsormnemonicsentences.Also,ifyoucannotrememberthecorrectacronymormnemonic,youwillnotbeabletorememberthe list. The biggest problem with memory aids is that they aid
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memorization,buttheydonotpromoteunderstanding.Seekingunderstanding is the most effective way to learn new information.
Active Learning:Learningshouldbeanactiveprocess.Studentsshould pay attention to what they are trying to learn and not let
theirthoughtsdrifttootherthings.Payingattention,however,isonlytherststep.Theymustalsothinkaboutwhattheyarelearning.Studentsmusttrytomakesenseoutoftheinformationandlookforrelationships,suchascategories,similaritiesanddifferences,orcauseandeffect.
Studying in Chunks(Chunking):Studentstendtorememberrstthings and last things best and forget the information in the
middle.Totakeadvantageofthistendency,advisestudentstostudyintwentytoftyminutechunksoftime,centeredonasingleideaorgroupofrelatedideas.Chunkingtheinformationtolearn
forthepurposeofanalyzingitalsohelpsstudentstounderstanditbetter.Recommendthatstudentstakeatleastatenminutebreakbeforestudyingthenextchunkofinformation.Thisstrategyallowsthemtohavemorebeginningandendingpointsintheirlearning,takingadvantageofnaturallearningtendencies.
Relating New Information to Prior Knowledge (Scaffolding): Donotjusttrytomemorizenewinformation.Makesenseoutofitbyconsideringitinlightofwhatyoualreadyknow.Whenyourelateinformation,youarecreatingawebofmemoriesthatleadtoeachother.Themorewaystherearetoaccessinformationinlong-
termmemory,themorelikelywewillbeabletorecallitwhennecessary.
Using the Puzzle Approach: Have you ever put together a jigsawpuzzle?Generally,peoplewillstartthepuzzlebyndingandttingtogethertheoutsidepiecessothattheyhaveaframeofreferencefortherestofthepuzzle.Whenlearningsomethingnew,rstlearnthegeneralconceptbeforetryingtolearnthedetails.This strategy will help you to understand the details later as you
considerhowtheytwithinyourframeworkofunderstanding.
Testing Understanding: A good practice when learning newinformationistoputtheinformationinyourownwords.Ifyoucannot,thenyoudonotunderstandit.Ifpossible,asksomeonemoreknowledgeabletolistentoyourinterpretationoftheinformation and assess your level of understanding. Another method
istocreateamentalpictureoftheinformation.Often,apictureis easier to recall than words.
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Applying Information:TheoldsayingUseitorloseitappliesjustasmuchtoinformationstoredinlong-termmemoryasitdoestophysicaltness.Howeasilywerecallinformationdepends a great deal on how frequently we use the information.
That is why application and practice are so important. When you
learnnewinformation,ndopportunitiestouseit.Notonlydoesfrequentusehelpwithretention,butalsoeverytimeyouusetheinformation,youareformingmoreassociationstoitwithin your memory that will help you remember the information
later.Theseassociations,inturn,increaseyourunderstandingof the information as you see its applicabi
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