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This is the author’s version of a work that was submitted/accepted for pub-lication in the following source:
Brayley, Nadine, Obst, Patricia L., White, Katherine M., Lewis, Ioni M.,Warburton, Jeni, & Spencer, Nancy(2015)Examining the predictive value of combining the theory of planned be-haviour and the volunteer functions inventory.Australian Journal of Psychology, 67 (3), pp. 149-156.
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c© Copyright 2014 The Australian Psychological Society
This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Brayley, Nadine, Obst, PatriciaL., White, Katherine M., Lewis, Ioni M., Warburton, Jeni, & Spencer, Nancy (2014) Exam-ining the predictive value of combining the theory of planned behaviour and the volunteerfunctions inventory. Austrlalian Journal of Psychology., which has been published in finalform at [10.1111/ajpy.12078]. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes inaccordance With Wiley Terms and Conditions for self-archiving.
Notice: Changes introduced as a result of publishing processes such ascopy-editing and formatting may not be reflected in this document. For adefinitive version of this work, please refer to the published source:
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajpy.12078
Running Head: COMLEMENTARY THEORIES 2
Abstract
The functions of the volunteer functions inventory were combined with the constructs of the
theory of planned behaviour (i.e., attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural
control) to establish whether a stronger, single explanatory model prevailed. Undertaken in
the context of episodic, skilled volunteering by individuals who were retired or approaching
retirement (N = 186), the research advances on prior studies which either examined the
predictive capacity of each model independently or compared their explanatory value. Using
hierarchical regression analysis, the functions of the volunteer functions inventory (when
controlling for demographic variables) explained an additional 7.0% of variability in
individuals’ willingness to volunteer over and above that accounted for by the theory of
planned behaviour. Significant predictors in the final model included attitudes, subjective
norms and perceived behavioural control from the theory of planned behaviour and the
understanding function from the volunteer functions inventory. It is proposed that the items
comprising the understanding function may represent a deeper psychological construct (e.g.,
self-actualisation) not accounted for by the theory of planned behaviour. The findings
highlight the potential benefit of combining these two prominent models in terms of
improving understanding of volunteerism and providing a single parsimonious model for
raising rates of this important behaviour.
Key words: Episodic volunteering, volunteer functions inventory, theory of planned
behaviour, older people, self-actualisation
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 3
Examining the Predictive Value of Combining the Theory of Planned Behaviour and the
Volunteer Functions Inventory
The study of volunteerism has taken a variety of paths in an attempt to strengthen
understanding of the behaviour and to establish the most effective means of influencing its
occurrence across diverse populations and settings. Indeed, the understanding of volunteering
has been enhanced in recent times by examining the behaviour from a broader range of
theoretical perspectives (see Wilson, 2012). The volunteer functions inventory (VFI; Clary et
al., 1998), a prominently applied theory within volunteering research (Hustinx, Cnaan, &
Handy, 2010), has played an instrumental role in advancing knowledge of intrinsic
motivation to volunteer across many contexts. Acknowledging that volunteering is an act
influenced by factors both intrinsic and external to the individual, the theory of planned
behaviour (TPB; Ajzen, 1991) provides researchers with a framework for assessing
individual and contextual determinants of the behaviour. In addition to examining the
respective explanatory value of these two models in isolation, previous volunteering studies
have also compared the predictive capacity of the two frameworks (e.g., Greenslade & White,
2005), at times positioning the theories in opposition to one another. To date, however, the
explanatory value gained by combining these two models has escaped the focus of empirical
research. The current study, therefore, amalgamated the VFI motivational functions with the
standard constructs of the TPB to establish whether a stronger predictive model prevailed.
Theoretical Background and Reasoning
Following its introduction to the field of psychology over two decades ago (Ajzen,
1985), the theory of planned behaviour is now a well substantiated model across many fields
(see Armitage & Conner, 2001). Its value as a theory for explaining volunteering has been
demonstrated in a variety of populations and settings, including young adults (Hyde &
Knowles, 2013) and older people (Warburton & Terry, 2000; Warburton, Terry, Rosenman,
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 4
& Shapiro, 2001). The TPB has also been validated within the context of related helping
behaviours such as charitable giving (Smith & McSweeney, 2007; van der Linden, 2011),
blood donation (Reid & Wood, 2008), and organ donation (Hyde & White, 2009). As a
social-cognitive decision making model, the TPB suggests that an individual’s intention to
perform a behaviour is the immediate precursor to their engagement in the behaviour.
Intention to act may also be operationalised as willingness to perform the behaviour. Hence,
both behavioural intention and willingness are two means of measuring the underlying
construct, readiness to act (Ajzen, 2011).
According to the TPB, intent or willingness to act out behaviours results from the
combined effect of three independent constructs (i.e., representing the direct TPB): attitudes
(i.e., the individual’s positive and negative appraisals of the behaviour), subjective norms
(i.e., perceived normative support for the behaviour), and perceived behavioural control
(PBC; the individual’s perceptions of how difficult or easy it will be to perform the
behaviour). Generally, more positive attitudes toward a behaviour, greater perceptions of
social encouragement to perform a behaviour, and higher levels of PBC should lead to higher
levels of readiness to act, although the degree to which a person has actual control over the
behaviour, governed by their access to resources and opportunities will also influence
behavioural performance. Each of the three standard TPB constructs (i.e., attitude, subjective
norms, and PBC) is underpinned by a corresponding set of beliefs (coined the indirect
component of the TPB), namely behavioural beliefs (i.e., perceptions of the advantages and
disadvantages of volunteering), normative beliefs (i.e., perceptions of support by important
others for volunteering), and control beliefs (i.e., views of facilitators and barriers to
volunteering), respectively. The current research focused on the direct component of the TPB
only.
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 5
In contrast to the TPB, the VFI is a 30 item inventory derived from the functional
approach to volunteering (FAV; Clary et al., 1998). The FAV stems from the functional
approach to attitudes (see Katz, 1960; Smith, Bruner, & White, 1956) wherein attitudes,
which are defined as positive or negative appraisals of an object or aspects of society, are
driven by the functions that they serve for the individual. Similarly, the FAV espouses that
volunteering serves six key purposes (i.e., functions) for individuals and that the importance
of these motives may differ across people and volunteering opportunities. Individuals
volunteer for altruistic reasons (i.e., the values function), to learn and to use skills that would
otherwise go unused (i.e., the understanding function), for social engagement and to adhere to
normative expectations of important others (i.e., the social function), to foster career
advantages (i.e., the career function), and to either protect the ego (i.e., the protection
function) or enhance self-esteem (i.e., the enhancement function). In comparison to the TPB
which, from its conception, has been used as a model of behaviour prediction, the VFI was
initially established as a tool for building persuasive recruitment messages and for facilitating
volunteer satisfaction (see Clary et al., 1998; Clary, Snyder, Ridge, Miene, & Haugen, 1994).
Despite the different fundamental purposes of the VFI and the TPB, studies have
compared the predictive value of the two models, presumably to establish which framework
more effectively explains the factors influencing volunteer engagement. Seemingly, enquiries
have been based on the premise that the TPB includes both benefits and costs along with
control factors influencing volunteering whereas the VFI encompasses only intrinsic motives.
Greenslade and White (2005) hypothesised that, for individuals who volunteered at rates
exceeding the Australian national average (i.e., greater than 3 hours per week), the TPB
would explain a greater amount of variance in volunteering behaviour than the VFI. In
comparison to the TPB (which accounted for 57% of variability in volunteering behaviour),
the VFI explained only 26% of variability. Whereas attitude, subjective norms, and self-
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 6
efficacy (the measure of PBC used within the research) from the TPB uniquely predicted
volunteering, only the social function of the VFI significantly predicted above average
participation in volunteerism. Greenslade and White (2005) did not explore the combined
explanatory value of the two frameworks.
Although the value of the previously noted investigations to the field of volunteering
is acknowledged, there is presently no single model which adequately explains volunteering
behaviour across contexts and populations. Undoubtedly, motivation plays a significant role
in an individual’s decision to volunteer, as do attitudes, normative support, and external
factors that either support or prevent participation. To date, no investigation has considered
the viability of a model which encompasses all of these important determinants of
volunteering (i.e., by combining the VFI and the TPB) and which may be used by researchers
and practitioners to improve rates of volunteering. The current study addressed this research
gap.
In terms of potential outcomes of the present study, the sufficiency principle
associated with the TPB (see Ajzen, 2011) would suggest that the VFI functions should be
accounted for through the direct component of the model (i.e., attitude, subjective norms and
PBC). In particular, as the functional approach to volunteering and the VFI were based upon
the functional approach to attitudes, substantial overlap between the VFI functions and the
attitudes construct of the TPB would be feasible. Arguably, however, it is also possible that
some of the VFI functions may represent deeper psychological constructs that are
theoretically distinct from the standard attitudes measure of the TPB, which typically assesses
(i.e., using a semantic differential scale) perceptions of the instrumental and experiential
benefits or disadvantages of performing a behaviour (Francis et al., 2004; Rise, Sheeran, &
Hukkelberg, 2010). Recently, Ajzen (2011) articulated the model’s malleability to additional
variables (i.e., producing extended version of the TPB) and Fishbein and Ajzen (2010)
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 7
suggested that additional predictors may be added to the framework based on criteria,
including their theoretical uniqueness to the standard constructs, their potential influence on
behavioural intention and actual behaviour, and their relevance to a range of social science
behaviours.
Several studies have found support for extended versions of the TPB within the
volunteering context. Warburton and Terry (2000) and Hyde and Knowles (2013) found
moral norm to be an important predictor of volunteering intention, over and above the
standard TPB variables, in older and younger adults respectively. Notably, there are several
VFI functions which could feasibly make a valued and unique extension to the TPB within
the volunteering setting. For example, items assessing the understanding function within the
VFI are focused on personal learning and skill application, motives which could be linked to
focal variables such as self-actualisation. The understanding, enhancement, and social
functions have been identified, within previous research, as important motives for older
volunteers (i.e., the sample used within the current study; Greenslade & White, 2005; Okun,
Barr, & Herzog, 1998), supporting the likelihood that they may represent unique and valuable
extensions to the TPB. Based on this knowledge, the current research hypothesised that one
or more of the VFI functions would improve the explanatory capacity of the TPB.
Method
Approval to complete the research was granted by the University’s Human Research
Ethics Committee. The target behaviour was episodic, skilled volunteering in rural non-profit
agencies. The focus on this type of volunteering stemmed from the need to assist rural
agencies (many of which provide important services but struggle to remain sustainable) to
build organisational capacity, in conjunction with contemporary retirees’ reported interest in
short term, challenging volunteering roles aligned with their accumulated skills (i.e., as
opposed to ongoing volunteering commitments; Esmond, 2001). Hence, the study focused on
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 8
volunteering opportunties that required the use of specific business skills sets associated with
capacity building, including: business management, business development, human resource
management, information technology, finance/accounting, marketing/promotions, and public
service administration. Episodic volunteering was defined as project based volunteering
undertaken for a period of no longer than six months (either face to face, through electronic
means, or through a combination of both approaches).
A survey including questions measuring the standard TPB variables (i.e., attitude,
subjective norms, and PBC), the VFI functions, and demographic variables likely to influence
volunteering (i.e., age, gender, past volunteering experience, and retirement status) was
developed and administered both online (n = 154) and in paper form (n = 32). Assessment of
the direct TPB formed part of a broader standard TPB based questionnaire (i.e., that also
measured the indirect component of the theory), the results of which are reported elsewhere
(Brayley, 2013). The opportunity to participate in the research was advertised through a
variety of sources typically accessed by older citizens (e.g., the National Seniors Association,
local newspapers, a charity organisation, a shopping centre), along with snowball sampling.
Participants were offered the opportunity to enter a prize draw to win one of ten $AUD50 gift
vouchers as a thank you for their time.
Participants
Older adults (N = 186; 56.10 % male) ranging in age from 50 to 86 years (Mage= 63.7
years) participated in the research. Although the majority of participants were fully retired
(60%), some were semi-retired (21%) or were working fulltime but planned to retire within
two years (19%). Most individuals (96.7%) reported English as their first language. All
participants resided principally in Queensland, Australia and had past vocational experience
in the business skills sets noted previously.
Measures
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 9
TPB constructs. Items assessing the TPB variables (attitudes, subjective norms, and
PBC; provided in Table 1) were measured in accordance with TPB conventions. Seven
semantic differential scales, prompted by the common stem ‘I think volunteering with a rural
agency on an episodic basis would be…’ were used to assess attitudes to volunteering.
Response choices (e.g., good/bad, useful/useless) ranged from 1 to 7 with higher scores
suggesting a less positive attitude. Scores were reversed prior to data analysis so that higher
scores reflected more positive attitudes. Subjective norms and PBC were assessed on a seven
point Likert type scale ranging from 1(strongly agree) to 7(strongly disagree). Willingness to
volunteer (i.e., the dependent variable) was also rated on a seven point scale ranging from
1(extremely unwilling) to 7(extremely willing). As the overarching aim of the broader study
was to inform the viability of establishing a skilled volunteering service involving retirees, a
measure of actual volunteering behaviour was not obtained. Mean scores were calculated for
each of the TPB scales, all of which were internally reliable (i.e., Cronbach’s alphas ranging
from .73 to .93).
VFI functions. Scales measuring the VFI functions were assessed using standard
inventory items (see Clary et al., 1998). The careers function was excluded from the study
given that the research focused intentionally on individuals who were retired and approaching
retirement and, as such, the career function, which included items such as ‘volunteering
allows me to explore different career options’, held limited relevance. Each of the remaining
five sub-scales (i.e., reflecting the five VFI functions) was assessed using five statements,
totalling 25 VFI items within the questionnaire. Items relating to the values function reflected
the importance of helping others and showing compassion (e.g., I feel it is important to help
others) whereas those measuring the protection function were oriented toward alleviating
guilt and personal issues (e.g., Volunteering is a good escape from my own problems).
Statements depicting the understanding function focused primarily on learning (e.g.,
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 10
Volunteering allows me to gain a new perspective on things). The enhancement function was
captured through items oriented to self- esteem enhancement (e.g., Volunteering increases my
self-esteem) as compared to the social function which captured motives relating primarily to
normative influence on volunteering (e.g., People who I’m close to want me to volunteer). All
VFI subscales were internally reliable (Cronbach’s alphas ranged from .80 to .87).
Table 1
Items Measuring TPB Variables
Variable Item Attitude I think volunteering with a rural agency on an episodic basis
would be: Good/bad Useful/useless Satisfying/non satisfying Easy/difficult Safe/unsafe Interesting/boring
Subjective norms Most people who are important to me would approve of me volunteering with a rural agency if a service is established. Most people who are important to me would think that I should volunteer with a rural agency on an episodic basis if a service is established. If a service is established, most people who are important to me would think that my volunteering with a rural agency is a good thing to do.
PBC I have complete control over whether or not I volunteer with a rural agency if a service is established. It would be easy for me to volunteer with a rural agency if a service is established. I am confident that I could volunteer with a rural agency if a service is established. It is mostly up to me whether or not I volunteer with a rural agency if a service is established.
Willingness to volunteer If a volunteering service is established, how willing would you be to volunteer with a rural agency on an episodic basis?
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 11
Results
Preliminary Analyses
The underlying requirements for regression analyses were met. All findings were
interpreted at the alpha level of .05 unless otherwise stated. Participants’ mean scores for the
VFI subscales and TPB measures did not differ significantly as a function of completion
mode (i.e., electronic vs. paper versions). Similarly, there were no significant differences in
participants’ levels of willingness to volunteer, or their mean scores on the VFI subscales or
TPB variables (see Table 2), as a function of retirement status (i.e., fully retired, semi-retired,
or planning retirement within 2 years).
Table 2
Correlations between TPB and VFI Variables
Variables M(SD) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Willingness 5.31(1.35)
2. Attitude 5.70(1.19) .59***
3. Subjective Norms
5.00(1.24) .66*** .44***
4. PBC 5.35(1.04) .64*** .47*** .70***
5. Values
6. Social
7. Enhancement
8. Understanding
9. Protection
5.09(0.97)
3.81(1.21)
3.83(1.25)
4.65(1.02)
2.90(1.20)
.42***
.32***
.39***
.56***
.28***
.30***
.27***
.21**
.37***
.11
.41***
.39***
.21**
.41***
.20**
.31***
.04
.18
.36***
.14
.59***
.42***
.63***
.33***
.51***
.53***
.58***
.68***
.76***
.54***
Note: p < .001 = ***, p < .01 = **
Regression Analyses
A three step hierarchical regression (see Table 3) was completed to establish whether
the VFI functions would improve the predictive capacity of the TPB. Demographic variables
likely to influence volunteering behaviour (e.g., age, gender, education level, past
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 12
volunteering experience, and retirement status) were entered at Step 1, followed by the
standard TPB variables (i.e., attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC) at Step 2, and the VFI
functions at Step 3 (i.e., values, social, enhancement, understanding, and protection). As
reported in Table 3, the variance in willingness to volunteer accounted for by the
demographic variables in Step 1 did not differ significantly from zero. When added to the
model in Step 2, the standard TPB variables accounted for a significant amount of change in
variance and all three constructs were significant, positive predictors of willingness to
volunteer. Hence, the TPB (i.e., controlling for demographic variables) accounted for 51 % of
variability in willingness to undertake episodic, skilled volunteering. The subsequent addition
of the five VFI constructs (Step 3) improved the predictive capacity of the model beyond the
variance explained by the three TPB variables (R2change
= 7.0%). The strongest predictor (i.e.,
based on β weights) was subjective norms, followed by attitude, the understanding function,
and PBC. The understanding function was the only VFI function to make a significant
contribution to the model. The final model (i.e., including the TPB and VFI constructs)
explained 62% (R2Adjusted) of variability in individuals’ willingness to volunteer.
Running Head: COMLEMENTARY THEORIES 2 Table 3
Hierarchical Regression Analysis Predicting Willingness to Volunteer (including TPB Variables and VFI Functions)
R2 F df B SE B 95% CI LL UL
β t Part
Step 1
Age
Gender
Level of education
Past volunteering
Retirement status
.07
2.14 5,144
0.02
0.13
-0.63
-0.20
0.18
0.02
0.23
0.22
0.23
0.25
-0.02
0.60
1.07
-0.65
-0.32
0.06
0.33
-0.19
0.26
0.68
.08
-.05
-.23
-.07
.07
0.88
-0.57
2.80**
-0.85
0.71
.01
.00
.05
.01
.00
Step 2
Age
Gender
Level of education
Past volunteering
Retirement status
Attitude
Subjective norm
.51 57.10*** 3,141
-0.00
-0.03
-0.11
0.01
-0.00
0.37
0.37
0.01
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.17
0.07
0.09
-0.03
0.35
-0.42
-0.31
-0.34
0.22
0.20
0.03
0.29
0.20
0.32
0.34
0.51
0.54
.01
-.01
-.04
.00
.00
.32
.35
-0.20
0.18
-0.68
0.04
0.01
5.01***
4.37***
.00
.00
.00
.00
.00
.08
.06
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 3
R2 F df B SE B 95% CI LL UL
β t Part
PBC 0.31 0.10 0.11 0.52 .24 2.98** .03
Step 3
Age
Gender
Level of education
Past volunteering
Retirement status
Attitude
Subjective norm
PBC
Values
Social
Enhancement
Understanding
Protection
.07 5.75*** 5,136
0.01
-0.09
-0.22
-0.07
0.06
0.30
0.31
0.26
0.03
-0.12
0.08
0.32
0.09
0.01
0.16
0.15
0.15
0.16
0.07
0.09
0.10
0.10
0.09
0.10
0.11
0.10
-0.02
-0.41
0.51
-0.37
-0.26
0.16
0.14
0.06
-0.18
-0.30
-0.12
0.09
-0.11
0.03
0.22
0.08
0.23
0.38
0.44
0.48
0.46
0.23
0.05
0.27
0.54
0.28
.04
-.03
-.08
-.03
.02
.26
.29
.20
.02
.11
.07
.24
.08
0.61
-0.59
-1.45
-0.46
0.40
4.30***
3.60***
2.57*
0.25
-1.38
0.75
2.75**
0.87
.00
.00
.01
.00
.00
.05
.03
.02
.00
.01
.00
.05
.01
Note. N = 150; *** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05; CI = Confidence Interval; LL = lower limit, UL = upper limit. All variables were measured on a continuous scale with the exception of gender (male vs. female), level of education (university degree vs. no university degree) and retirement status (fully retired, semi-retired, and planning retirement within 2 years).
Running Head: COMLEMENTARY THEORIES 2
Discussion
The current study makes a valuable contribution to the volunteering literature by considering
the predictive benefit of combining the motivational functions of the VFI (Clary et al., 1998) with the
standard constructs of the TPB (Ajzen, 1991). Although recognising the potential overlap between
the functional motives for volunteering and the attitude construct from the TPB (i.e., given that the
functional approach to volunteering is based around the functional approach to measuring attitudes;
see Katz, 1960), and the sufficiency principle of the TPB, the current study was prompted by the
supposition that some of the VFI functions may represent important predictors of volunteering which
are distinctly separate to the standard TPB variables. When the VFI functions were added to the model
in the final regression step (i.e., along with demographic variables and the standard TPB constructs),
the extended framework accounted for an additional 7.0% of variability in willingness to volunteer.
Indeed, along with attitude, subjective norms, and PBC, the understanding function was a significant
predictor of willingness to volunteer supporting the notion that there may be predictive advantage in
combining the two models.
There are a number of ways in which these results can be interpreted. First, it is important to
consider why the understanding function added significant value to the TPB and was not accounted for
by the standard TPB variables (i.e., as was the case with the other four VFI functions). One possible
explanation may be that the items assessing the understanding function, which encapsulate motivation
relating to learning and self-development are, indeed, tapping a deeper latent psychological construct
such as self-actualisation, defined as “an individual’s expression of their full potential and a desire for
self-fulfilment” (Ivtzan, Gardner, Bernard, Sekhon, & Hart, 2013, p. 119). As Clary et al. (1998)
articulate the association between the understanding function and self-development, this proposition is
probable.
In a qualitative study (N = 15) involving older volunteers, Narushima (2005) found that
ongoing learning, facilitated through volunteering, was linked to feelings of self-growth. The former
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 3
study likened the scholarship that occurred through volunteering to the process of transformational
learning (Mezirow, 1994) wherein, through volunteerism, older people undertook critical evaluation of
themselves, including personal reflection and contemplation of new roles. Through transformational
learning, adults may rethink the perspectives they hold regarding their life experiences (Taylor, 2008).
Similarly, Leonard and Onyx (2009) identified that Australian Grey Nomads (i.e.," individuals over
the age of 50 years who travel for extended periods of time around Australia"; Leonard & Onyx, 2009,
p. 315) may engage in volunteering during their travels given it’s transformative learning benefits. At
least some of the VFI items composing the understanding function (e.g.," volunteering allows me to
gain a new perspective on things, volunteering allows me to explore my strengths"; Clary et al., 1998,
p. 1520) appear to represent the notion of transformational learning and, correspondingly, the deeper
construct of self-growth or self-actualisation. The potential link between the understanding function
and self-actualisation warrants further examination; research examining the correlation between a well
validated measure of self-actualisation and the understanding function will provide convergent validity
(e.g., the Personal Orientation Inventory; Shostrom, 1964) to clarify this issue.
Considering whether the VFI understanding function is representative of motives relating to the
affirmation or maintenance of one’s self-identity is also a worthy line of examination. Identity theory
(see Stets & Burke, 2000) postulates that salient identities influence an individual’s behaviour choices,
prompting the pursuit of behaviours which are identity supporting (Stryker & Burke, 2000). In the
current volunteering context, engagement in skilled volunteering may stem from one’s need to
preserve their professional identity during retirement, a phenomenon which is evidenced in prior
research (see Teuscher, 2008). A recent meta-analysis by Rise et al. (2010) found support for self-
identity as a unique contributor to behavioural intention, over and above the three standard TPB
variables. When self-identity was combined with attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC, the model
accounted for 42% of variance, 6% of which was attributed to self-identity. In their study, attitudes
and self-identity were the strongest predictors among the variables. Support was found also for the
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 4
autonomous predictive value of self-identity within TPB analyses when controlling for past behaviour.
With respect to the current research, further investigation is needed to establish whether the
understanding function is tapping self-identity as opposed to self-actualisation (as noted previously) or,
indeed, another construct beyond these two possibilities.
Alternatively, it is also reasonable to suggest that the items comprising the understanding
function may simply represent behavioural beliefs (i.e., advantages of volunteering) which, if
identified through elicitation studies pertaining to the current and other volunteering contexts and were
subsequently tested within the scope of the full TPB model (i.e., direct and indirect components), may
produce a different result to that found by the present study. Impending investigations may also find
that the positive influence of the understanding function on the TPB is context specific and may be
limited to skilled types of volunteering. As the predictive importance of the understanding function
within the current research deviates from the findings of prior studies (e.g., Greenslade & White, 2005,
identified the social function as the only significant predictor of volunteering), it is possible that
different VFI functions will extend the TBP in different volunteering settings (e.g., skilled vs.
unskilled, episodic vs. ongoing) and populations. This prospect warrants further examination.
This report has overviewed the findings from a novel study investigating the predictive benefit
aligned with combining the VFI functions with the TPB. Although advancing the volunteering
literature, several limitations of the research are acknowledged. First, the enquiry examined the value
of combining the two models within the realms of a specific type of volunteering (i.e., episodic, skilled
volunteering by older adults who were retired and approaching retirement). Repeating the research
across a broad range of types of formal volunteering and in relation to different age cohorts will verify
the findings as well as further the understanding of the complementary capacity of the two
frameworks. If the added predictive capacity of the understanding function to the TPB is found to be
robust across other populations and volunteering contexts it may represent an effective target (in
addition to attitudes, subjective norms and PBC) for volunteer recruitment campaigns. For older
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 5
volunteers, it may be an effective target for those both approaching and within retirement given that
the level of importance of the variable did not differ significantly as a function of retirement status.
The study’s focus on willingness to volunteer (utilising a single item measure), as opposed to
a more conventional multi-item measure of intention to volunteer, may also have yielded different
results. Replicating the study using a multi-item measure of volunteering intention (often used in TPB
research), will substantiate the current findings. Additionally, as the research did not examine the
predictive relationship between behavioural willingness and actual volunteering behaviour, no
conclusions can be drawn regarding the resultant model’s prediction of actual engagement in
volunteering. The overarching aim of the study, whereby the research was investigating the feasibility
of establishing a volunteering service of this nature in the future, did not allow for this analysis. The
simultaneous measurement of the standard constructs, the VFI functions and willingness to volunteer,
and the potential issue of common method variance (Lindell & Whitney, 2001) is also recognised.
Repeating the study with a temporal delay between the measurement of the predictor and criterion
variables will be important. Last, in keeping with TPB conventions, wherein additional variables
should only be added to the model based on their relevance to many different types of behaviour
(Ajzen, 2011), the research does not claim to offer an extension to the TPB beyond the volunteering
context.
The TPB and the VFI have, until now, been examined within volunteering research as
independent and sometimes competing models rather than complementary frameworks. The current
study offered an initial examination of the potential gain associated with combining the functional
domains of the VFI with the TPB. The positive results support the ongoing study of this concept and
illustrate the depth of development still to be pursued in regards to the theoretical understanding of
volunteerism.
COMPLEMENTARY THEORIES 6
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