optical waveguide theory - georgia institute of...
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OPTICAL WAVEGUIDE THEORYWhat we need to know about fibers …
- Types of optical fibers
- Modes in an optical fiber
- How fibers guide light
- Numerical aperture
- Polarization in Fibers
- Attenuation and Dispersion in fibers
Important to understand …
- Optical fibers have been developed for telecommunications and not for analytical chemistry or sensing!
- Approx. 80% of commercially available fibers serve telecommunications markets; 15% light delivery (e.g. lasers, LEDs); 5% waveguide based sensing and others.
- Advantage: demands on the properties of optical fibers from telecommunications usually much higher and stringent compared to analytical applications!
- Consequently: if we can use telecommunications technology for optical sensing we get more than we need (e.g. low-OH silica fibers, diode lasers, etc.)!
Telecom example and analytical demands:
I need a fiber that will conduct NIR light.
Ideally, the fiber/fibers will conduct light in the UV/Vis, MIR and FIR as well!
I have to keep a tight pulse pattern.
For ultrafast laser spectroscopy (e.g. fs lasers) – YES; for optical sensing (e.g. evanescent field) – I DON’T CARE!
It must couple into from an LED.
Yes, but sometimes also from a broadband light source!
What do I do?
Hope that telecom is interested in the entire analytically relevant spectral range, because for analytics/opt. sensing alone new fibers will not be
developed!
HENCE: multimode AND single mode fibers of interest in sensing!
There is always a history …
Optical fiber materials
0 5
SiO2 (0.35-1.40)
Low OH SiO2 (0.4-2.5)
Sapphire (0.5-3)Fluoride ZBLAN (0.4-5)
Chalcogenide (1-11)
Tellurium halides (TeX) (3-13)
Silver halides (AgX) (4-18)
Hollow waveguides (3-17)
Transmission [µm]
10 2015
Material
500-1500 @ 10.6 µm
500 @ 11 µm
1000 @ 9 µm
400 @ 6 µm
15 @ 2.5 µm
5000 @ 2.9 µm
12 @ 0.82 µm
0.4 @ 1.32 µm
Attenuation
[dB/km]
Optical fiber materials
0 5
SiO2 (0.35-1.40)
Low OH SiO2 (0.4-2.5)
Sapphire (0.5-3)Fluoride ZBLAN (0.4-5)
Chalcogenide (1-11)
Tellurium halides (TeX) (3-13)
Silver halides (AgX) (4-18)
Hollow waveguides (3-17)
Transmission [µm]
10 2015
Material
What is an Optical Fiber?
An optical fiber is a waveguide for light
Generally consists of :
core inner part where wave propagates
cladding outer part used to keep wave in core
buffer protective coating
jacket outer protective shield
can have a connector
too
Types of Fibersst
ep-in
dex
mul
timod
e n2
n2
n1
n2
n2
n1
n2
n2
n1
step
-inde
xsi
ngle
mod
eG
RIN
The V-number of a fiber
NAaoλ
π= 2V
•Also known as the ‘V-parameter’ or ‘fiber parameter’
•The V-number governs the number of modes transported in the fiber
•In single-mode fiber: V<2.405Hence: no modal dispersion, only a single light mode transported
•Ideal for long-range optical networks (telcom) or if combined with a single-mode light source in optical sensing (e.g. laser diode)
a = fiber core diameterλo = incident wavelength
NA = numerical aperture (Note: we will come back to that later!)
)( 22
21 nnNA −=
Fibers carry modes of light
2V~M modesofNumber
BUT:
What is a light mode?
More specifically:
Step-index fiber: Graded-index fiber:(GRIN)2
2VM =4
2VM ≈
Modes of light (1)Let’s use the wave model and a simple example:- A plane wave moving in x-direction can be written as
y(x,t) = Asin(2πx/λ - 2πt/T),
with wavelength λ and period T (the inverse of the frequency).- We can also write
y(x,t) = Asin(kx - ωt),
where k = 2π/λ is the wavevector, and ω = 2π/T is the angularfrequency.- A wave, which is the sum of two waves, may be written as
y = y1 + y2.
Modes of light (2)- If two waves oscillate at the same frequency they are ‘in phase’; at a point theamplitudes will add (constructive interference).- It they are ‘out of phase’ the amplitudes will subtract (destructive interference).- Now we consider a wave reflected at two end points where the vibration is set to zero.- EXAMPLE: a violin string attached at both ends to the instrument.- The total wave at any point of the string is the sum of two counter-propagating waves y = y1 + y2.- NOW:
y1 = Asin(kx - ωt), a wave moving to the right andy2 = Asin(kx + ωt), a wave moving to the left, resulting in the sum
y = A{sin(kx - ωt) + sin(kx + ωt)} = 2Asin(kx) cos(ωt)
- This wave has nodes at which y = 0 (resulting from destructive interference) and anti-nodes at which the amplitude is a maximum (2A) resulting from constructive interference.
Modes of light (3)
Now we can answer the question ‘What is a light mode?’
• A solution to the wave equation!
- All vibrations of the string can be expressed as a sum of allowed modes.- Mathematically, the modes are solutions of a wave equation and satisfy specified boundary conditions.- In this case the boundary conditions are that y = 0 at the two ends ofthe string.- For the string, one end is at x = 0 and the other at x = a.-The condition y = 0 at x = 0 is automatically satisfied in the previous expression for y, since sin 0 = 0.- BUT: the condition y = 0 at x = a is only satisfied for certain ‘allowed values’ of k, i.e. values of k such that sin(ka) = 0.-Fulfilled only when ka = nπ, or equivalently when k = nπ/a, with n being a positive integer.CONCLUSION: Only certain modes of vibration are allowed with values determined by the boundary conditions.
Controlling the # of Modes
From the V-number, we see that we can reduce the number of modes in a fiber by reducing:
(1) NA(difficult, because material properties need to be tuned)
(2) diameter(much easier!)
This is exactly the case in single mode fibers.
NAaoλ
π= 2V
Example of # of Modes @ 850nm
Silica step-index fiber has nf = 1.452, nc = 1.442 (NA = 0.205)
2.4 E692 E322 E31.4 E32# step-index modes
1.2 E646 E311 E37161# GRIN modes
2.5 20050 1000400diameter (microns)
SELFOC graded index fiber with same NA
Wait a minute …
• If all you want to do is conduct light, then a simple glass rod would be sufficient …
• So … why use fiber optics ?????
If you want to preserve characteristics of the light then you need fiber optics or other optical wave guides.
Examples: temporal profile, polarization, …
Fiber is more flexible and generally more adaptable to a given problem.
The General Principle
The classical understanding of waveguiding in fiber optics comes from our longtime friend, Snell’s Law!
• Step index fibers: Total Internal Reflection
• GRIN fibers: layered changes in n
Total Internal Reflection
n i sin θ i. n t sin θ t.n i sin θ i. n t θ t
n i sin θ c. n t sin 90( ).n i sin θ c. n t
n i sin θ c. n t 1( ).n i sin θ c. n t
sin θ cn tn i
n tn i
nt
ni
θi
really weakevanescent wave
Light guiding by total internal reflection
Step Index Fiber
( ) tii
tc n
nn ≡=θsin
nt
ni
θiθi
θi
cladding
core
escapes core (freedom!)
stuck in core(did not graduate)
escapes core (freedom!)
Evanescent field
E
IR beam
IR beam
x
dp
Waveguide
Polymer layern1
n2
n1
n > n1 2
Θ
n2
d
nnn
p =
−
λ
π θ2 12 2
1
2
sin
PENETRATION DEPTH
E E ez
dp= ⋅−
0
EVANESCENT FIELDINTENSITY
Graded Index Fibernc
nc
nf
nva
ries
quad
ratic
ally
like a “restoring” force !
NA of a Fiber
maxθ
( )maxsin θ= outsidenNA
The NA defines a cone of acceptance for light that will be guided by the fiber
NA of a Step Index Fiber
90-θtθt
θmax
nf
nc
must be > critical angle
( )maxsin θ= outsidenNA
22cfstep nnNA −=
ni
i
cfstep n
nnNA
22 −=
Since for air ni = 1
NA of a GRIN Fiber
2DnNA f α=
Condition below assures a ray will have enough fiber to bend back towards the center axis:
α is a parameter describing how n changes in the GRIN fiber; D = dispersion coefficient
NA in air
NA and # of Modes
smallNA
largeNA
propagated ray
killed ray
Types of fiber ends
beam patterns can be:
spherical
cylindrical
bundles
90 degree
Angle Preservation (1)
In an ideal fiber, the angle of incidence will equal the exit angle.
Rough surfaces, bending, and other real-world imperfections will case a change in the exit cone.
example: critical bend radius
Angle Preservation 2)
θ2θ
θ
2θα
βα
−≈β 1
f
i
nn
θ
2θ
Critical Bend radius
source: RPI website
Fiber Tapers
θ1
θ2
( ) ( )2211 sinsin θ=θ dd
d1 d2
way to change the acceptance angles (NA) of a fiber
sometimes used to collimate light
does not necessarily “get you more light” since NA changes
Polarization and Fibers
cladding
core
meridional ray: stays in the same plane
skewed ray: rotates in many planes about center
entrance exit
Polarization
If the ray rotates during propagation, then the polarization state will change
linear polarized beam translates into elliptical beam
Sr
Sr
Er
Er
Br
Br
What to do?
•In some applications, polarization is not needed:
example: spectroscopy, sensing
•In others it is critical:
example: polarization sensitive optical communication
•Solution: must remove the circular symmetry of the fiber
change n profile so that polarizations are not coupledeffect comparable to birefringence
Attenuation & Dispersion
Attenuation
−=
in
out
PPA log10
Fibers are made of “glass”
- commonly high-quality fused silica (SiO2)- some trace impurities (usually controlled)
Losses due to:
- Rayleigh scattering (~ λ-4)- absorption (“low-OH” in UV versus “high-OH” in IR)- mechanical stress- coatings
Attenuation Profiles
absorption and scattering in fiber
in the IR: “low-OH” fiberts
page 297RayleighScattering
IR absorption
89% transmission
Attenuation Profiles
The window at 1.5 µm is the reason for telcom happening at that frequency!
Dispersion: The Basics
Light propagates at a finite speed
fastest ray
slowest ray
slowest ray: one entering at highest angle (“high order” mode)fastest ray: one traveling down middle (“axial mode”)
there will be a difference in time for these two rays
Step index fiber
usually the biggest dispersion problem in step index multi-mode fibers
• Abrupt index change from core to cladding• Fractional reflective index change
• Modal dispersion: Input impulse spreadsto pulse width σ τ
where L=fiber length, c1=speed of light in core
02.0001.01
21 −=−=∆n
nn
∆≈12c
Lτσ
Step index fiber
GRIN fiber
• Gradual index decrease from n1 (on axis) to n2(core/cladding boundary)
• Optimal index profile approximated by parabola• Fractional reflective index change:• Modal dispersion: (Factor of ∆/2 smaller
than step-index fibre, butusually not met because profile not perfect)
1<<∆
2
14∆≈
cL
τσ
Modal dispersion in GRIN Fibers
Types of Dispersion in Fibers
modal - time delay from path length differences- usually the biggest culprit in step-index
material - n(λ) : different times to cross fiber-(note: smallest effect ~ 1.3 µm)
waveguide - changes in field distribution -(important for SM)
non-linear - n can become intensity-dependent
NOTE: GRIN fibers tend to have less modal dispersion
Effect of Modal Dispersion
time time time
modal example: step index ~ 24 ns km -1GRIN ~ 122 ps km-1
initial pulse farther down farther still
Effect of Modal Dispersion
Review
1. Optical fibers carry modes of light
2. Step-index, GRIN, single mode & multimode
3. NA is related to acceptance cone and n’s.
4. How Step-index and GRIN fibers propagate light.
5. Factors that change light propagation in fibers:
a. mechanical aspects (bending, tapers, etc)
b. attenuation
c. dispersion
Other ResourcesOriel (www.oriel.com)
Melles Griot (www.mellesgriot.com)
Polymicro Technologies
Useful Textbooks
“Optics,” by Hecht
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