organic chemistry : polymers
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CHEMISTRY FORM 6
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
CHAPTER 9 :
POLYMER
9.0 Introduction
� Homopolymers – polymers that are made from the same type of repeating unit.
� Copolymers – polymers that are made from 2 or more types of monomer
Polymers
Natural polymer Synthetic polymer
Polymers that are obtained naturally
from animals or plants
Polymers which are synthesised
chemically by human.
Example : proteins, natural rubber,
starch, cellulose, cotton, wool, starch
Example : polyethene, polypropene,
Teflon, polyvinylchloride.
Linear copolymer Branched-chain copolymer Cross-linked copolymer
• Polymers which are
arranged in a straight
line.
• There are 3 linear
copolymers
• Polymers which contain
side chain of polymer in
the parent chain.
• Polymers which are
joined together by
adding alien substance
in between them.
9.2 Polymerisation
� Polymerisation – process where monomer are joined together to form long chain of polymer
� There are generally 2 type of polymerisation take place
� condensation polymerisation • additional polymerisation
� Following table compare and contrast between condensation polymerisation and additional polymerisation
Additional polymerisation Condensation polymerisation
Formed when unsaturated organic
molecules joined together using π-
electrons to form covalent bond of long
polymeric chain.
Formed when 2 molecules, each with 2
same functioning group (may be different)
at the end of the molecule, joined up via
condensation reaction
No side product is formedSmall molecule is form as side product
(H2O,HCl)
Empirical formula of the monomer is the
same as the empirical formula of polymer
formed
Empirical formula of the monomer is
different from the empirical formula of
polymer formed
9.2 Polymerisation
� Polymerisation – process where monomer are joined together to form long chain of polymer
� Type of polymerisation
A) Condensation polymerisation
� Polymerisation which will eliminate small molecules such as water, ammonia, methanol or HCl
� Polymerisation must have 2 different functioning groups at its end of each monomer
� Condensation polymerisation of polyamide :
� Formation of polyamide is done by reacting dicarboxylic acid with diamine
� Example : Formation of nylon-6,6 (a type of polyamide)
� Nylon is a common polyamide use in industrial as synthetic fiber. The term 6,6 indicating the 6 C in dioic acid and 6 C in diamine
� Nylons have peptide linkage as functional groups which are also found in polypeptide and proteins
� High tensile strength & high melting point (2650C) of nylon are due to hydrogen bond between peptide
Nylon 6,10
� Nylon 6,10 is formed by condensation of hexan-1,6-diamine with decan-1,10-dioic acid.
� Similar to Nylon 6,6 water is produce as side product.
� Nylon 6,10 is used to make synthetic bristles
A2) Condensation Polymerisation – Formation of Polyester.
� For the reaction of polymerisation, reacting dicarboxylic acid and dihydric alcohol are used as the starting material to form polyester.
dicarboxylic acid dihydric alcohol
polyester
� Example of polyester : Terylene
� Terylene is also known as PET (PolyEthene Terephthalate)
� In industrial, a more reactive chemical (dimethyl benzene-1,4-dicarboxylate) is used. Methanol is produced as side product of the reaction.
9.3 Polymerisation
� Polymerisation – process where monomer are joined together to form long chain of polymer
� Type of polymerisation
A) Addition polymerisation
� Addition polymerisation are formed when monomers with double bond, are joined by using covalent bond to form large molecule (polymer)
� Homopolymers – polymers that are made from the same type of monomer.
� Example of polymers which undergoes additional polymerisation.
Monomer Polymer Description
Ethene Polyethene
(PE)
• Low density polyethene (LDPE)
• Condition : 200oC and 1200 atm under oxygen.
• Contain branched chains which decrease the
density (less pack). This cause LDPE to have low
density and soften in boiling water and is easily
deformed.
• High density polyethene (HDPE)
• Condition : 60oC and 1 atm + Ziegler-Natta catalyst.
• Produce fewer branches which allow the polymer to
pack closer to each other. As a result, HDPE has
higher melting point, density, tensile strength and
harder than LDPE.
Propene Polypropene
(PP)
• PP Condition : 60oC and 1 atm + Ziegler-Natta
catalyst.
• The presence of methyl group increase the strength
& hardness of PP. Hence PP has high melting point
(1760C) and relatively high density
Phenylethen
ePolystyrene
(PS)
• In laboratory, PS is prepared by adding phenylethene and
benzoyl peroxide (as catalyst) in a test tube. Test tube is
then placed in a beaker containing boiling water (water
bath)
• The polymer formed looks like glass.
Chloroethen
ePolyvinylchlorid
e (PVC)
• PVC is a hard polymer due to the polar C–Cl. This give
rise to permanent dipole–dipole forces which are stronger.
• A plasticiser is an additive added to PVC to make it more
flexible and softer. It formed between the chain enable
them to slide over each other easily.
Tetrafluoroet
heneTeflon
• Teflon has a melting point (327 °C) that is unusually high for an addition polymer. The reaction is highly exothermic
as water helps to dissipate the heat that is produced.
• Teflon is highly resistant to chemical attack and has a low
coefficient of friction. Teflon is used in greaseless
bearings, in liners for pots & pans, and many special
situations that require a substance that is resistant to
corrosive chemicals
9.3.1 Effect of Ziegler-Natta catalysts on the stereochemistry of polymerisation
� Karl Ziegler (a German chemist) and Giulio Natta (an Italian chemist) announced independently in 1953 the discovery of catalysts that permit stereochemical control of polymerization reactions called as Ziegler–Natta catalyst.
� The Ziegler-Natta catalysts are prepared from transition metal halides and a reducing agent ⇒⇒⇒⇒ the catalysts used are prepared from titanium tetrachloride (TiCl4) and trialkylaluminum (R3Al).
� Ziegler-Natta catalysts are generally employed as suspended solids ⇒polymerization probably occurs at metal atoms on the surfaces of the particles.
1) The mechanism for the polymerization is an ionic mechanism.
2) There is evidence that polymerization occurs through an insertion of the alkene monomer between the metal and the growing polymer chain.
� The polymer formed using Ziegler-Natta catalyst may exist in 3 configurations, depending on the condition of the reaction used
1. Atactic Polymers
� The stereochemistry at the stereocenters is random, the polymer is said to be atactic (a = without + Greek: taktikos, order).
� In atactic polypropylene the methyl groups are randomly disposed on either side of the stretched carbon chain ⇒ (R-S) designations along the chain is random.
� Polypropylene produced by radical polymerization at high pressure is atactic.
� Atactic polymer is noncrystalline ⇒ it has a low softening point and has poor mechanical properties
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
CH 3
2. Syndiotactic Polymers
� Figure 11.2 Syndiotactic polypropylene.
� The stereochemistry at the stereocenters alternates regularly from one side of the stretched chain to the other is said to be syndiotactic(syndio: two together) ⇒ (R-S) designations along the chain would alternate (R), (S), (R), (S), (R), (S) and so on.
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
H
CH3
3. Isotactic Polymers
Figure 11.3 Isotactic polypropylene.
� The stereochemistry at the stereocenters is all on one side of the stretched chain is said to be isotactic.
� The configuration of the stereocenters are either all (R) or all (S) depending on which end of the chain is assigned higher preference.
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
CH 3
H
H
H
CH 3
H
7.3 Coordination polymerisation – by Ziegler-Natta catalyst
7.4 Addition polymerisation Mechanism
� There are 3 types of addition polymerisation mechanism where
A) Free radical polymerisation B) Cationic polymerisation C) Anionic polymerisation
A) Free radical polymerisation
� Using an initiator as the radical source, the polymerisation begin with breaking the covalent bond in peroxide from the organic peroxide compound (example : benzoyl peroxide)
� Step 1 : Initiation
Step 2 : Propagation
Step 3 : Termination
B) Cationic polymerisation
� Using Bronsted–Lowry acid such as sulphuric acid and chloric (VII) acid (HClO4) and Lewis acid such as boron trifluoride, BF3 or aluminium trichloride, AlCl3 as catalyst (initiator) by donating proton.
Step 1 : Initiation step – formation of carbocation
Step 2 : Propagation step : reaction of carbocation
C) Anionic Polymerisation
� Anionic polymerisation occurs via carbanion intermediates. The initiator of anionic polymerisation is usually a nucleophile (Lewis Base) such as
√ Lithium amide (Li+NH2-) in liquid ammonia
√ Butyllithium (CH3CH2CH2CH2Li)
� A good monomer for anionic polymerisation should contain at least one electron withdrawing group to decrease the electron density of the C in C=C. Examples of monomer with strong electrophile
Chloroethene
(vinyl chloride)
Propenenitrile
(acrylonitrile)
Phenylethene
(styrene)
Methyl 2-
methylpropenoate
(methyl methacrylate)
� Example : anionic polymerisation mechanism of propenenitrile using butyllithium
� Step 1 : Initiation step – Formation of carbanion using butyllithium
� Step 2 : Propagation of monomer using carbanion
� Addition polymerisation by ionic mechanisms have the advantagebecause these reaction are far less affected by the presence of impurities than free radical reactions.
7.5 Classification of Polymer
� Plastic – Solid polymers which are capable of being remoulded because of heating, these polymers soften
� Plastic can be classified into two main categories
Fibers Plastics Resins Elastomers
Polymers that can
be drawn out as
threads and then
spun and woven
into fabrics.
Solid polymers
which are capable
of being remoulded
because of heating,
these polymers
soften
Solid or semi-solid
which are incapable
of being remoulded
because they do
not soften on
heating
Polymers that can
be stretch and the
revert to the original
shape and size
when released
Thermoplastic Thermosetting plastics
Thermoplastic can be moulded and
remoulded.
They are made from linear polymer
Example : polyethene ; polypropene ;
PVC
When heated, the distance between the
chain increase significantly and the
polymer soften and becomes more
flexible. On cooling, the process is
reversed.
Thermosetting are hard and cannot be
remelted
They are made from cross-linked
polymer
Example : bakelite ; epoxy & urea-
methanal resin
They are not softened easily because
the individual polymer chains are linked
by strong covalent bonds. They do not
decompose easily and cannot be
remoulded on cooling
9.7 Natural rubber
� Monomer of natural rubber is 2-methylbutan-1,3-diene with the structural formula :
� Unlike protein and starch, natural rubber are linked together by addition polymerisation.
� The equation can be written as :
� Properties of natural rubber
Properties Description
Elasticity
- Elasticity is the ability of substance to stretch when pulled and
return to original shape when forces are lifted
- Natural rubber has a low elasticity as it cannot revert when forces
are released
Resistance
to
oxidation
- Natural rubber are easily oxidise by air (O2) and even ozone (O3).
Ozone causes rubber to harden and crack, decreasing the life of
tyres.
- This is due to double bond in the rubber, thus can be react easily
by oxygen and ozone.
- This can be prevent by adding sulphur
Effect of
heat
- Rubber is not a very stable compound.
- At low temperature, rubber is hard and brittle
- At high temperature, rubber become soft and sticky
Effect of
solvent
- Rubber is water repellant. It is impermeable to water, as it does
not allow water to pass through.
- Since it is not easily dissolve in water, it easily dissolve in organic
solvent such as benzene, petrol and alcohol.
� The properties of the natural rubber can be improve by adding sulphur into the rubber via the 2 reaction below
� Heating natural rubber with sulphur to about 140oC using zinc as catalyst
� Mixing a solution of disulphur dichloride, S2Cl2, in methylbenzene with natural rubber
� Sulphur added to rubber will cross linked via disulphide linkage (-S-S-) between rubber polymeric chain and form vulcanised rubber.
� Disulphide linkage formed between rubber polymers will prevent the rubber chain to slipped from each other hence increase the elasticity of rubber.
� Furthermore, as disulphide linkage formed between rubber polymers make used of the π-electron in rubber, this will caused lesser C=C inside the chain, hence increase the resistant toward oxidation, and also toward heat.
� The vulcanized elastomer produced in greatest quantity is styrenebutadiene rubber (SBR). SBR is commercially prepared from styrene and butadiene via a free-radical polymerization process. It is called a copolymer, because it is made from two different monomers
styrene (butane-1,3-diene) styrenebutadiene rubber
� The tyre produced by vulcanising SBR produce the highest quality rubber, which is suitable to make high grade tyre for automobile vehicles
7.6 Problems arise in using polymers
� Polymers might bring a lot of conveniences in our daily life. However, at the same time, it causes some problems too.
� The main problem dealing polymers is the method of their disposal. Polymers, especially poly(alkanes) decompose very slowly in environment as they are non-biodegradable (cannot be decompose by bacteria) and are resistance to most chemicals.
� There are generally 3 options on disposal of polymers
1. Recycling polymers – By sorting them according to their type of polymers, they can be recycle accordingly. However, the disadvantage is the cost of recycling. The amount of energy used to collect and reprocess materials, can be greater than the amount of energy used to make new products from new materials.
2.Combustion of polymers – since poly(alkanes) are hydrocarbon, they are good fuels. Burning waste poly(alkanes) would both deal with problems of disposing and also reduce the amount of main hydrocarbon to use as fuels. However, the disadvantage of burning is the toxin fumes produced, which is harmful to human body and the pollution problems caused to the environment.
3. Pyrolysis – by burning poly(alkanes) under high temperature, it will be broken down into smaller useful molecules. It is similar to the cracking of alkanes, where a mixture of hydrocarbons is produced, containing alkane, alkene and arenes. Alkenes extracted can be recycle and make more polymers.
9.9 Recycling polymers
� There are many logistical problems that limit the effectiveness of polymer recycling, most significantly the collection and sorting of used polymer products. Different kinds of polymers must be recycled in different ways.
� For example, when recycling PET, a small amount of a different polymer present in the batch will interfere with the recycling process. As such, polymer recycling requires that polymer products be sorted by hand.
� To facilitate the sorting process, most polymer products are labeled with recycling codes that indicate their composition. These codes (1–7) indicate the type of polymer used and are arranged in order of ease with which the polymer can be recycled (1 being the easiest and 7 being the most difficult).
� Table below indicates the seven recycling codes, the polymers that correspond with each code, and several uses for the recycled products.
� In many cases, the recycled polymer can be contaminated with adhesives and other materials that may have survived the washing stage. Therefore, recycled polymers cannot be used for food packaging.
� Frequently, however, plastics are simply thrown away rather than recycled, and much work has therefore been carried out on developing biodegradable polymers, which can be broken down rapidly by soil microorganisms.
� Among the most common biodegradable polymers are polyglycolicacid (PGA), polylactic acid (PLA), and polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB). All are polyesters and are therefore susceptible to hydrolysis of their ester links.
Chlorine gas (in CCl4)
Pumice at 500oC
Additional polymerisation
PVC undergoes hydrolysis when exposed with concentrated sodium hydroxide [1]
Polyethene is stable against concentrated sodium hydroxide as it contain saturated hydrocarbon
[1] POLYPHENYLETHENE is stable against NaOH [1]
Additional polymerisation
The presence of C=C caused molecule to be less elastic [1]
alkane
Chemically inert since it contain only saturated hydrocarbon
Resistant to water since it is made of hydrophobic hydrocarbon
Alkanes react with oxygen (combustion) Not possible in muscle (1)
also react with halogens/in U.V. light muscle is internal and no halogens (1)
Additional polymerisation
Condensation polymerisation
Hydrogen bonding
CARBOXYLIC ACID OR ACYL CHLORIDE
Ester bond
Dilute HCl under reflux
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