paper for wits interdisciplinary seminar in the humanities · paper for wits interdisciplinary...

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PsyschedelicBirth:Bodies,Boundaries,andthePerceptionofPaininthe1970s

WendyKline,PurdueUniversity

PaperforWitsInterdisciplinarySeminarintheHumanitiesSeptember17,2018

On6March1973,Antonio,athirty-two-year-oldpsychiatristattemptedto

describetheunfathomablepainhehadjustexperienced.1“Outofnowherethemost

intensepainimaginablestartedpenetratingmyhandslikealazerbeamoranail,”he

wrote.Hecouldfeelthe“terrible,agonizingweight”ofthenailtearingintohisflesh.

Theintensepaininturntriggeredearliermemoriesofpain.Thefirstwasthe

severingofhisumbilicalcordatbirth;thesecond,hiscircumcisionasamedical

student.Andthen,anotherpainstarted,oneevenmoretorturous.Theskinatthe

edgeofhisfingernailsstartedpeelingoff,littlebylittle.Theonlythingthatkepthim

fromcollapsing,ironically,wasthesheerintensityofthepain;itdidnotallowroom

foranythingelse.“ItfeltasifIwassufferingthepainofallmankind,”hereflected.2

Antonio’sexperiencewouldnotbesurprisingtoliteraryscholarElaine

Scarry,whoarguedin1985thatduringintensemomentsofpain,the“contentsof

consciousness”are“obliterated.”3InTheBodyinPain,shepositsadirectconnection

betweenlevelsofpainandanindividual’ssenseofself.“Itistheintensepainthat

destroysaperson’sselfandworld,adestructionexperiencedspatiallyaseitherthe

contractionoftheuniversedowntotheimmediatevicinityofthebodyorasthe

bodyswellingtofilltheentireuniverse,”sheexplains.4Painforcestheindividualto

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completelydissociatefromthecorporealbody,somethingthatScarryandother

academicsperceivedtobeatraumaticexperience.

Anotherstoryofalteredconsciousness,however,challengesthenotionthat

suchdissociationwasinherentlytraumatic.OnAugust2,1973,afterhoursofpain,a

younghippiebythenameofEllenfoundherselftransformed.Itbeganwithmusic,

assheaskedherhusbandPhiltoplaythepiano,thinkingitmighthelpsootheher.

“WhileIamnotanactualpianoplayer,”Philrecalled,“somequietmusicdidseemto

haveacalminginfluence.”5AndEllenbegantoreleasetheintensepain.“Onceit

startedhappening,”shewrote,“Iforgotallaboutthatotherstuffandexperienceda

wholeotherlevelofconsciousnessthatseemedeternalandtimeless.”Shelater

rememberedthat“thesenseofreliefandrelaxationmadeitseemlikeIwasmelting.

Iremembermymouthhangingopen,drooling,andfeelingverywarmand

psychedelicandlight-headed.Layingthere,IfeltOnewitheveryoneinthe

Universe.”6

Withinmonthsofeachother,AntonioandEllenperceivedintense

experiencesofpaininverydifferentways.Bothappearedtobeinalteredstatesof

consciousness,eitherbecauseoftheirpain,orinspiteoftheirpain.Whatwas

happening,andwhy?

Inordertoexplorethesignificanceoftheirexperiences,wehavetoputthem

inhistoricalcontext.Antoniohadswallowed400microgramsofLSDaspartofa

professionalstudyandtrainingprogramattheMarylandPsychiatricResearch

Institute,oneofapproximately116clinicalLSDstudiesfundedbytheNational

InstituteofMentalHealthintheU.S.7Inthisparticularstudy,conductedatthe

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SpringGroveStateHospitalbetween1970and1975,108mentalhealth

professionalsvolunteeredtotakebetweenoneandthreehighleveldosesofLSD

andrecordtheirshortandlong-termreactionstothedrug.Theaverageageofthe

volunteerswasbetween39and41,andtwo-thirdsofthemwereeitherM.D.sor

Ph.D.s.Eighty-sixofthesubjectsweremale;onlytwenty-twowerefemale–aresult

ofthedecisionamongthepsychedelicresearchstafftoexcludewomenof

childbearingage“intheremotepossibilitythattheremaybesomedanger.”8This

decisionmayhavebeenaresponsetoLSDstudiesconductedinthelate1960son

pregnantratsandhamsterstotestforfetalabnormalities.9A1968reportdelivered

attheFederationofAmericanSocietiesforExperimentalBiologysuggestedthat

LSD’seffects“canbepasseddownthroughgenerations”butemphasizedthatthe

datacouldnotbeappliedtohumans.”10Likemanyscientistsengagedinpsychedelic

researchinthelate1960s,however,theydidn’twanttotakeanyunnecessaryrisks.

AsLSDbecamearecreationaldrugofthecounterculture,scientistsrightly

suspectedthattheirresearchwasinjeopardyandproceededwithcaution.

ThustheMPRIprofessionalstudyfocusedpredominantlyonmen,though

thisgenderimbalancewasnotdiscussedinthefindings.Theresultswerepositive

thoughsomewhatinconclusiveastolong-termeffects.Two-thirdsofthesubjects

experiencedpsychedelic“peak”experiences.Antoniowasoneofthem.Hiswasan

imaginedpain,inducedbyadrugthatalteredhisstateofconsciousnessonthat

memorableMarchday.

Ellen,ontheotherhand,hadnottakenanydrugsduringherAugustepisode.

Ninemonthspregnant,herpainstemmedfromcontractionssheexperiencedwhile

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inlabor.Thoughshefelt“verywarmandpsychedelicandlightheaded,”herjourney

intoanalteredstateprovidedherwithanaturalsenseofpainrelief.Shewasoneof

sevenhundredhippieswholivedinbuses,tents,andafewhousesonathousand

acresofpropertyjustoutsideofSummertown,Tennessee,inanintentional

communityknownas“TheFarm.”By1973,TheFarmwasalreadywellknown,and

aremarkablefifteenthousandvisitorstraipsedthroughthepropertythatyear

alone,sometogawk,othersseekingfood,shelter,oraplacetogivebirth.Duetothe

presenceofself-trainedmidwivesandabeliefinthespiritualandtransformative

natureofbirth(whendoneoutsideofthehospital),childbirthonTheFarmbecame

itsownkindofpsychedelicexperience.11

Otherthantheiralteredstatesofconsciousness,Antonio’sandEllen’s

experiencesappeartosharenothingincommon.Antoniowaspartofa

predominantlymalescientificstudyconductedinalaboratorysetting,whileEllen

wasoneofagrowingnumberofwomenseekinganalternativetohospitalbirth.

Together,however,theirstoriessuggestsomethingdeeperaboutthequesttoinfuse

twoprofessions--psychiatryandmidwifery--withgreaterspiritualmeaningata

timeofgreatsocialupheaval.12LSDresearchersandhippiehomebirthmidwives,

marginalizedbyboththemainstreamandlaterhistorians,pushedtheboundaries

betweenscienceandspiritualism,betweenpainandpleasure.

GENDERANDPAIN

YettherewassomethingfundamentallydifferentinthewayAntonioand

Ellenexperiencedandinterpretedpain,eveninanalteredstateofconsciousness.

Culturalassumptionsaboutgenderhelptoexplainthisdifference.Studiessuggest

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thatwomenbothexperienceandtendtoreportmorepainthanmen.Yettheyare

“morelikelytobelesswelltreated.”13Thiswasagreaterprobleminthe1960s,

whengenderdifferenceswereevenmorepronounced.Priortothewomen’shealth

movementandthefeministdemandforagencyandvalidityinthedoctor’soffice,

thesubjectivityofexperiencedpainseemedtosupporttheassumptionthatwomen

wereindeedtheweakersex.Ifwomenweremorefragileandemotional,thenof

courseitwas“allintheirhead.”14Withoutthepresenceofobjectivebiological

indicatorsofpain—theonlytypeofevidencevaluedinmodernmedicine—then

subjective,experientialreportswereirrelevant.

Butbytheearly1970s,somescholarsbegantochallengethismedicalmodel,

andthepresumeddistinctionbetweenbodyandmind.15AssociologistGillian

Bendalowargues,therewas“aneedtobroadenoutthedefinitionofpainfromthe

Cartesianpropositionwhichinevitablyactstodivorcementalfromphysicalstates

andtendstoattributesinglesymptomstosinglecauses.”16Opponentstothe

Cartesianmodelsuggestedthatpsychological,cultural,andemotionalfactors,could

anddidalterpainperception.SociologistIrvingZola—nostrangertofeminism,as

hewasmarriedtonotedwomen’shealthactivistJudyNorsigian—arguedthatpain

was“asmuchaculturalconstructasascientificone.”17Anesthesiologistand

medicalethicistHenryK.Beecherintroducedthenotionofaplaceboeffect,

observingthatundercertaincircumstances,placeboscouldeffectivelyrelieve

pain.18Asaresult,historianKeithWailoonotes,paintheorymoved“deliberately,

relentlessly,towardappreciatingthepowerofthesubjective,themind,psychology,

andperceptioninpainanditscontrol.”19

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Theimplicationsofthisshiftwereenormous.Experiencingpain—whether

throughtheintensecontractionsoflabororthepotentiallyperilousjourneyofthe

psychedelictrip—tookonnewmeaningandvalue.Paincouldbetransformative;a

process,aspiritualjourney,apathtowardenlightenment.Yetnotallpainwas

createdequal;somevoicescontinuedtospeaklouderthanothers.

AstheauthorsoftheIntroductionofthisspecialissuenote,childbirth

becameakeyfocalpointinthedebateofpain.Itwasclearlygendered;onlywomen

givebirth.Butnaturalchildbirthadvocates,evenbeforethe1970s,stressedthe

extenttowhichpainstemmedlessfromthebiologyofbirthandmorefromfear.

OneofthefirstadvocateswasDr.GrantlyDick-Read,whopublishedhisfirstbook,

NaturalChildbirth,in1933.Inthatandhislater1944publication,Childbirth

WithoutFear,hepositedthatpaininchildbirthwasnotphysiological,butwas

insteadrootedinfear.Thesolutionwasnotanesthesiabutpreparationand

education.Over95percentofwomen,heargued,arecapableofexperiencing

childbirthwithoutunbearablepain.20

SETANDSETTING

Themosteffectivewaytoreducepaininchildbirthwithoutanesthesiawas

tocontroltheenvironmentinwhichlabortookplace.Creatingasettingtoreassure

laboringwomenthattheyweresafeandgettingtheminarelaxedmindsetwould

thereforeminimizepain.Childbirthcouldbepainless,evenwithouttheuseof

drugs.

Atestamenttotheunusualparallelsbetweenpsychedelicsandchildbirth,the

“setandsetting”principleemergednotfrombirthreformers,butfromLSD

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research.ItwasintroducedbyTimothyLearyintheearly1960stoexplainwhat

madethepsychedelicdrugsdifferentfromothertypesofmedicine.Theactual

effectofpsychedelicdrugssuchasLSDdependedontwothings,Learyexplained.

First,itwascontingentuponthesetofthepersonhavingtheexperience–“his

personality,preparation,intentionandexpectation.”Second,itreliedonthesetting

–physical,social,andcultural(wheretheexperiencetookplace,withwhom,andin

whattypeofenvironment).21Anindividual’sperceptionofpainandpleasure,and

theabilitytoexperiencespiritualtransformationandalteredconsciousness,was

entirelycontingentuponsetandsetting,accordingtopsychedelicresearchers.22

Thus,ifwereturntothestoriesofAntonioandEllen,wecanbegintoseethe

extenttowhicheachbelievedthattheyhadchosenamechanismtowardspiritual

enlightenmentthroughpain.Whilethevehicletowardstransformationdiffered,the

processwassurprisinglysimilar.Andtheywerenotalone.Throughtheirstories,

andthoseofotherhippiehomebirthers(primarilyfemale)andpsychedelic

psychiatrists(primarilymale),weareabletotrackhowtwodifferenttypesof

alternativepractitionerssoughttoreshapeandredefinetheirprofessions.Three

themesareapparentinthesestories:thefluidityofboundaries,out-of-body

experiences,andcosmicunity.Theyappearintwoverydifferentcontexts:ahippie

communeandapsychiatrichospital.

THEFARMANDSPIRITUALMIDWIFERY

WhileTheFarmwaslocatedinTennessee,itsfounderswerefirmlygrounded

inCalifornia’scounterculture.MostwerefollowersofStephenGaskin,whohad

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beenteachingcreativewritingandsemanticsatSanFranciscoStateCollegeinthe

1960s.Bytheendofthedecade,hebeganofferingacoursethroughthe

ExperimentalCollegecalled“MondayNightClass,”aseriesoflecturescovering

everythingfrommeditationtodiscussionsaboutpolitics,religion,andpsychedelics.

Thecoursereflectedtheexperimentationandsyncretismofthecountercultural

1960s.“Whenwefirstgottheclasstogetherwewerelikearesearchinstrument,

andwereadeverythingwecouldonreligion,magic,superstition,ecology,

extrasensoryperception,fairytales,collectiveunconscious,folkways,andmathand

physics,”Gaskinrecalled.“Andwebeganfindingthingsoutaswewentalongabout

thenatureofthemind.”23By1969,thisclasshadgrowntoseveralthousandpeople,

manyofwhombegantoseeGaskinastheirspiritualteacher.“Theideawasto

comparenoteswithothertrippersabouttrippingandthewholepsychicand

psychedelicworld,”wroteGaskin,bythenheavilycaughtupintheSanFrancisco

counterculturalscene.

PsychiatricresearchonLSDandotherpsychoactivesubstanceshadbeenon

theincreaseoverthepastdecade,asscientificstudiessuggestedtheirtherapeutic

potential.24GaskinandhisMondayNightfollowersalsobelievedinthetherapeutic

potentialofpsychedelics,butinadifferentcontext.AccordingtoGaskin,

psychedelicsservedasacatalysttoexpandhumanconsciousnessandattaingreater

spiritualawareness.Thus,drugs(initiallyLSD,butthennaturalsubstancespeyote

andpsilocybin)werearegularpartofMondaynightclass,aswellasSunday

MorningServices(standingmeditations)heldbeforesunriseinSutroPark.

Accordingtoonefollower,“SundayServicewasconsideredanidealplacetotrip—a

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peacefuloasisintime,wheretheenergywasdependablyhigh,thevibesgood,andof

course,therewasStephen—trippingguideextraordinaire.”25

In1970,Gaskinwasinvitedtodeliveraseriesoflecturesatschoolsand

churchesacrossthecountry,andovertwohundredofhisfollowersdecidedtojoin

himinschoolbusesforthisso-called“AstralContinentalCongress,”acallfora

spiritualandsocialrevolution.TheCaravan,asitcametobecalled,generatedmore

andmoremediaattentionasitscollectionofschoolbuseswoundtheirwaythrough

forty-twostatesspreadingtheinchoatemessagesofpeace,spiritual,andsocial

revolutiontostudentsandchurchgoers.

PerhapsthemostremarkableaspectoftheCaravanwastheelevenbirths

thattookplaceonbusesenroute.Thefirstbirthhappenedinaparkinglotat

NorthwesternUniversity,whileStephenwaslecturinginsideanauditorium.Bythe

endofthetrip,acoregroupofwomen,undertheleadershipofInaMayGaskin,had

becomethedesignatedmidwives,teachingthemselvesalongtheway.

Attheendofthetour,Gaskinandhisfollowersdecidedtopurchaselandin

Tennesseeandcreateacommuneonathousandacres.Oncesettled,InaMayGaskin

andafewotherwomenestablishedamoreformalpracticeofmidwifery,consulting

thelocaldoctorwhoregularlydeliveredthenearbyAmishbabiesathome.Asthe

populationgrew(upto1500in1982,withabout14,000visitorsperyear),sodid

thenumberofbirths.Over2500babieshavebeenbornonTheFarmbythese

midwives,whosefavorablestatistics(includinga1.8%cesareansectionrate)have

caughttheattentionofconsumersandbirthpractitionersaroundtheworld.26

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ManymorebirthshavebeenaffectedbyInaMay’shomebirthingphilosophy

thanthosebornonTheFarm,however.Herbook,SpiritualMidwifery,aguideto

birthingforconsumersandbirthpractitionerspublishedonTheFarm,hassoldover

halfamillioncopies,hasbeentranslatedintosixlanguages,andisstillinprint.

Ellen’sstorywasoneofoverseventybirthstoriesinthebookthatintroduced

ordinaryreaderstotheconceptofout-of-hospitalbirth.Fromtheveryfirstedition

ofthebookin1975toitsmostrecentprintingin2004,thesestorieshaveinspired

manyreaderstorethinkhowandwheretheirchildrenshouldbeborn.

Incontrasttothestandarddescriptionsoftheagonyofchildbirth,birth

storiespublishedinSpiritualMidwiferyweremorelikelytofocusontheecstasy.

Theyalsoutilizedthesamehippievocabularyusedtodescribedrugexperiences.“I

laiddownonthebedandbegantorushandeverythinggotpsychedelic,”described

MaryofherlaboronTheFarm.“Ibeganhavingbeautiful,rushingcontractionsthat

startedlow,builtuptoapeak,andthenleftmefloatingabouttwofeetoffthebed,”

shecontinued.Ashercontractionsintensified,theybecamemorepleasurable.“It

feltlikeIwasmakinglovetotherushesandIcouldwigglemybodyandpushinto

themanditwasreallyfine.”WhetherornotMary’sexperienceaccurately

representedatypicalbirthonTheFarm,itbecamethestandardtoaimfor,andwas

highlightedinthebookas“agooddescriptionofhowtohandletheenergyofthe

rushesofchildbirth.”27Itwasanintenselyphysicalandemotionalexperience,and

therebyanopportunityforspiritualgrowth.Withtherightpsychictools,Farm

hippiesbelieved,energycouldbechanneledintopleasureratherthanpain.

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Repeatedreferencestopsychedelicstatesduringlaborunderscoredthe

connections--whetherliteralormetaphorical—thatFarmbirthersperceived

betweenthetwo.“IfelthigherthanIeverhadinmylife.Itwassuchaheavy

spiritualexperience,andsomuchfun.InbetweenrushesI’dlaughathowtelepathic

itwas,”wrotemidwifeCarolNelson28Inthepropersetting,physicalboundaries

betweentheself/bodyandtheexternalworldcouldmeltaway.“Iwassomewhere

ontheastralplane,feelingalltheforcesoftheUniverse,itfeltlike,poundingmy

body,”anotherwroteofherlabor,addingthat“Iflashedonwildstallions,thunder

andlightning,andtheocean.Ifeltlikemybrainandupperbodywereseparatefrom

therestofme,andwerelookingdownontheaction.”29

ManystoriesfeaturedinSpiritualMidwiferymadereferencestocommunal

out-of-bodyexperiencesthatappearedtoprovidepainrelief.“MaryLouisecame

overandputherattentiontotallytome.SheandIswappedbodies,”wroteSheila.

“Itwasfarout.IfeltmyselfleaveandenterMaryLouise’sandshecameoverand

didafewcontractionsforme,”shecontinued,believingthatthisprocessrenewed

herstrength.Italsotransportedhertoanotherdimension.Thensheadded:

“Ifoundmyselfinabeautifulplacewithagreenfieldandahouse.Itwasa

placeI’dneverseenbefore.Icouldstilltellmybodywascontracting,butI

wasdetachedfromit.ItoldMaryLouisewhathappenedandshesaidshe’d

beendoingthatcontractionandhadbeenabletofeelitall.”30

Recentstudiespointtoevidencethatvalidatesout-of-bodyexperiences

(OBEs)asa“knownandrecognizablephenomenon”ratherthanillusory.

Interestingly,currentscholarsattributetheexistenceofout-of-bodyexperiences

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duringchildbirthasanindicationoftrauma,ratherthanasacopingmechanismor

anexpressionofjoy.Scholarsperceivedescriptionsofwomenfloatingoutoftheir

bodies,observingthebirthfromabove,asaformofdissociationordisembodiment,

signifyingcurrentorpasttrauma.31

ThiswasnotwhatwasbeingdescribedinSpiritualMidwifery.Inthiscontext,

birthwastrulyacommunalexperience–notjustwitnessedbyothers,butfeltby

othersaswell.Thisispartofwhatmadeittransformative.“Wekeptpassingthe

energybetweenus,andMaryLouisekneltnearmylegsandCarolandEdwardwere

oneithersideofme,”wroteanotherwomaninlabor.“I’drushandtheenergy

wouldmoveuptheirspinesandthey’darchtheirbacksandstraightenasthey’d

rush.”32Birth,inthissetting,provideda“contacthigh”foritsparticipantsthatcould

guidethemalltowardsgreaterspiritualawareness.“Maureen’sbirthwasavery

psychedelicexperienceforJosephandme,”wrotemidwifeMaryLouise.“She

seemedtobefillinguswithherconsciousness.”33Birthprovided,inthewordsof

psychologistAbrahamMaslow,apeakexperience–those“powerfulmomentsof

clarity,joy,orreligiousecstasy”thathewroteaboutinhisinfluential1964volume,

Religions,Values,andPeakExperiences.34Maslowdescribedpeakexperiencesas

“rare,exciting,oceanic,deeplymoving,exhilarating,elevatingexperiencesthat

generateanadvancedformofperceivingreality,andareevenmysticandmagicalin

theireffectupontheexperimenter.”35

Psychedelicbirthalsostrengthenedthematernalinfantbond,accordingto

itsadvocates.“Icouldn’tbelievethestrongbondIfeltformynewbabyandthe

overwhelmingmaternalinstinct,”wroteonenewmother.Shedescribedthefirst

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momentswithhernewbornsonas“paradise;”shewas“mindblown”byhisbeauty

andherloveforhim.Herdescriptiontakesonadecidedlypsychedelictone.“The

treesandtheearlymorninglightjustflashedandreverbedlikeastrobe-light,and

forseveraldaysIwouldhaveaflashbackateverydawnandsunset.Iwasecstatic

fortwoweeks,”shewrote.36

Perhapsthemostprofoundaspectofthebirthexperiencedescribedwithin

thepagesofSpiritualMidwiferywasitsabilitytoinstillasenseofcosmicunity.

PsychiatristStanGrofdescribedbasiccharacteristicsofthecosmicunityexperience

as

“transcendenceofthesubject-objectdichotomy,exceptionallystrong

positiveaffect(peace,tranquility,serenity,bliss),aspecialfeelingof

sacredness,transcendenceoftimeandspace,experienceofpurebeing,and

arichnessofinsightsofcosmicrelevance.”37

ThoughhewasreferringtotheexperienceofLSDsubjects,cosmicunity–or

“oceanicecstasy,”asGrofsometimescalledit,wasaprevalentdescriptorinSpiritual

Midwiferybirthstories.“Wewereridingtherusheslikeasurferridesthewaves,”

wroteEdwardofhiswife’slabor.“TheenergywouldswellupandJanet’seyes

wouldgrowdeeperuntilitseemedlikeIcouldlookthroughthemlikepeepholes,

andseethevastnessofthecosmosoutbeyondherpupils;endlessspace.”38Ellen

“experiencedawholeotherlevelofconsciousnessthatseemedeternalandtimeless”

duringherlabor.“Layingthere,IfeltOnewitheveryoneintheUniverse,”she

wrote.39Anotherexperiencedasenseofcosmicunityafterherdaughterwasborn,

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writing:“HereyesopenedrightawayanditlookedliketheUniversebeingunfolded

beforemyeyes.”40

Inthecounterculturalcontext,then,childbirthbecameacommunityevent,a

sourceofspiritualawakeningandtranscendence,andevenapsychedelic

experience.IttookrootinNorthernCaliforniaasanaturalextensionofStephen

Gaskin’steachings.AsthepracticetraveledfromthehillsofSanFranciscotothe

busesontheCaravanandontoSummertown,Tennessee,itgainednewmeaning

andsignificance.Whatstartedasanexperimentinalternativebirthingbecamean

establishedprofession,ablendingofspiritualtheories,trialanderror,andmedical

advice.

Itwasfarfrommainstream,thoughmediacoverageandthepublicationof

SpiritualMidwiferydidputalternativemidwiferyonthemap.Morewasneeded,

however,tocounteracttheclaimsthatwhatwashappeningonTheFarmwasrisky

andselfish,privilegingthedesiresofthemotheroverthesafetyofthechild.To

understandhowalternativebirthcontinuedtogaincredence,weneedtoturntothe

emergingtheoriesofpsychiatry.

PSYCHEDELICPSYCHIATRYATSPRINGGROVESTATEHOSPITAL

StanislavGrofwasamedicalstudentworkinginthepsychiatrydepartment

atCharlesUniversityinPraguewhenapackagearrivedonemorningin1956.The

boxwasfromSandozPharmaceuticalLaboratoriesinBasel,Switzerland.Itwasnot

thatunusualforpharmaceuticalcompaniestodistributetheirdrugsinthehopes

thatresearcherswouldconductstudiesonthem.Whatwasspecialaboutthis

packagewasitschemicalcontents:LSD-25.Sandozsuggestedinaletterinthebox

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thatLSD“mightbeusedasakindofunconventionaltrainingtoolthatwould

providepsychiatrists,psychologists,students,andnursestheopportunitytospend

afewhoursintheworldoftheirpatients.”41Sandozhadbegunshipping

investigationalsamplesunderthetradenameDelysidtopsychiatristsin1949for

experimentaluse,arguingitcouldbeusedtotreatschizophreniaandanxiety,as

wellas“toinducemodelpsychosesofshortdurationinnormalsubjects,thus

facilitatingstudiesonthepathogenesisofmentaldisease.”42

Grofwasintrigued.OnNovember13,1956,--St.Stanislav’sday—he

swallowed150microgramsofLSDasoneoftheearliestCzechvolunteersforsucha

study.“Whathappenedtomewasenormous,andseemedlikethebeginningofa

newlife,”hesaidlater.43Withinafewhoursofingestingthedrug,hisentire

conceptionaboutthehumanpsycheandtheroleofpsychoanalysiswasturned

upsidedown.“Icouldn’tbelievehowmuchIlearnedaboutmypsycheinthosefew

hours,”herecalled.Hewas“hitbyaradiancethatseemedcomparabletothe

epicenterofanuclearexplosion.”Theexplosion“catapulted”himoutofhisbody.

“Ataninconceivablespeedmyconsciousnessexpandedtocosmicdimensions”44

Thetimingwasfortuitous,forGrofwasinthemidstofanexistentialcrisis.

LikemanypsychiatristsinEuropeandtheU.S.inthe1950s,hewasinspiredby

Freudiananalysis.Psychoanalytictheory,hebelieved,offered“seeminglybrilliant

explanationsforavarietyofmysteriousproblems–thesymbolismofdreams,

neuroticsymptoms,thepsychopathologyofeverydaylife,insightsintoreligion,

sociopoliticalmovements,art,andmanyothers.”45

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Theproblemwasthedisconnectbetweentheoryandpractice.Theresultsof

psychoanalysiswereextremelylimited,hebelieved,andtookmassiveamountsof

timeandmoney.“Ihadgreatdifficultycomingtotermswiththissituation,”Grof

reflected.“Tobecomeapsychoanalyst,onehadtostudymedicine.Andinmedicine,

ifwereallyunderstandaproblem,weareusuallyabletodosomethingpretty

dramaticaboutit.”

Heneededevidence.AccordingtopsychiatristJeffreyLieberman,past

presidentoftheAmericanPsychiatricAssociationandauthorofShrinks:TheUntold

StoryofPsychiatry,thishasbeentheAchillesheeloftheprofessionfromthestart.

Didmentalillnessliewithinthemind,orwithinthebrain?“Oncologistscantouch

rubberytumors,pulmonologistscanpeerthroughamicroscopeatstringsof

pneumoniabacteria,andcardiologistshavelittletroubleidentifyingtheyellowish

placquesofartery-clottingcholesterol,”hewrote.“Psychiatry,ontheotherhand,

hasstruggledharderthananyothermedicalspecialtytoprovidetangibleevidence

thatthemaladiesunderitschargeevenexist,”hecontinued.46Psychiatrysuffered

thesamechallengesthatpaindid;howwasitpossibletoproveitwasreal,givenits

subjectivityandthelackoftangibleevidence?

Grofagreed.Overthenextfifteenyearshewouldpersonallyconductover

2,000psychedelicsessions,atfirstinPrague,andthenattheMarylandPsychiatric

ResearchInstituteinCatonsville,MD.HisobservationsconvincedhimthatFreud’s

studyofhumanpersonalitywasonlythetipoftheiceberg.LSDhadchanged

everything,demonstratingtheinadequacyoftheexistingtheoreticalframeworksto

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explainhumanpersonality.Grofproposedwhathecalled“anewCartographyofthe

humanpsyche.”

Thekeycamefromthatlittlebox.LSDwasadifferentkindofdrug.Itwas

notcausingsomething,perse.Everyonereacteddifferently,andtheexperience

couldbedifferenteverytime,foreveryperson.Instead,heargued,LSDwasa

catalystforpsychologicalprocesses(anargumentalsomadebyStephenGaskin).It

wasnot“producingartificialexperiencesbyinteractingwiththebrain.Rather,by

increasingtheenergeticlevelinthepsyche,thepillswerebringinginto

consciousnessthecontentsfromthedepthoftheunconscious.”Thisoffered

enormouspotentialtomentalhealthprofessionalstodevelopnewtherapeutic

techniques(suchasGestalttherapy,encountergroups,psychedelictherapy,and

whatGrofwouldcall“transpersonalexperiences”).

Thus,atthesametimethatGaskinandhisfollowerswereapplying

psychedelicexperiencestonewwaysoflivingandbirthinginTennessee,Grofset

outtorecreatetheseexperiencesinalaboratorysetting.Thoughtheyhadsimilar

ideasaboutthepotentialofpsychedelicdrugs,Grofandhiscolleaguesatthe

MarylandPsychiatricResearchInstitutewentoutoftheirwaytoappearanything

butcountercultural.LSDtripstookplaceinacontrolledenvironment(aroom

insideofthehospital),observedbytwoprofessionals-apsychiatristandan

assistant.Thesubjectworeaneyemaskandlistenedtomusicintendedtoenhance

andguidethesession,whichwasthenrecordedandanalyzed.DidLSDhelpthe

terminalcancerpatientcomingtotermswithdeath?Thealcoholicwhocouldn’t

18

stopdrinking?Thedepressedpatientcontemplatingsuicide?Theanswer,Grofand

otherpsychedelicresearchersbelieved,inallofthesecases,wasyes.

Thetherapeuticimplicationsofthisdrugdiscoverywererevolutionary,

accordingtoitsadvocates.Onedidn’tneedtobeanalcoholicorsuicidalordying

fromcancertobenefitfrompsychedelictherapy.Everyonestoodtobenefit,by

achievingahigherstateofconsciousness(asthehippiesaspired),orexperiencing

“self-actualization”(aspsychologistAbrahamMaslowpromoted).Newconferences

andpublicationsinthelate1960slaidthefoundationfora“newinterdisciplinary

approachtothestudyofconsciousness.”47Theseideassolidifiedintoanewformof

psychologyknownas“transpersonalpsychology,”markedbytheintroductionofthe

newJournalofTranspersonalPsychologylaunchedbyMaslowin1969.48

MakingtheInvisibleVisible:TheMPRIstudy

Simplyput,LSDputpsychiatrybackintheplayingfield.“Ifweacceptthe

basicpremise,thatpsychedelicdrugsmakeitpossibletostudythecontentand

dynamicsoftheunconsciousprocessesthataredifficulttoreachwithlesspowerful

techniques,”Grofproposedatananthropologyconferencein1972,“theheuristic

valueofthesesubstancesbecomesimmediatelyobvious.”Psychedelicdrugs

“exteriorize[d]otherwiseinvisiblephenomenaandprocesses,”andinthehandsof

researchers,theycarried“unusualpotentialasresearchtoolsforexplorationofthe

humanmind.”Andhere,hebelieved,ishowitwouldsavepsychiatry:“Itdoesnot

seeminappropriatetocomparetheirpotentialsignificanceforpsychiatryand

psychologytothatofthemicroscopeformedicineorthetelescopeforastronomy.”49

19

LSDprovidedthe“tangibleevidence”(inthewordsofLieberman)thatpsychiatrists

hadbeenlackingsincethebirthoftheirprofession.

From1970to1975,GrofandhiscolleaguesattheMarylandPsychiatric

ResearchInstituteconductedanLSDProfessionalStudyandTrainingProgram.

Antoniowasoneof86menoutofthe108participants.Thoughthegender

imbalancewasostensiblytoprotectwomenofchildbearingagefrompassingonany

possiblegeneticdefectsresultingLSDuse,italsohadimplicationsforthestudy’s

findings,thoughtheseremainedunarticulatedatthetime.50AsSarahShortall

argues,thewaysinwhich“gendermediatedanddifferentiatedthedrugexperience”

inthe1960and‘70swaslargelyignored.Whilebothscientistsandhippieswho

believedinthetherapeuticbenefitsofLSDarguedthatthedrug“transcendedall

humanboundaries”suchasraceandgender(inthewordsofAllenGinsberg),there

remaineda“distinctlywhite,male,middle-classbias”withinboththe

counterculturaldiscourseandthescientificstudies.51

Theexperienceofthe(predominantlymale)subjectsprovedinvaluableto

Groffortheirarticulationofthepsychedelicexperienceinacontrolledenvironment

(thesewere,remember,highlyeducatedhealthprofessionalswhohadavested

interestinthemainstreamingofpsychedelicdrugsfortherapeuticintervention).

TheircolorfuldescriptionsappearedtofollowacoherentstructurethatledGrofto

developanewpsychologicalschematic.

Nearlyallsubjectsexperiencedafluiditybetweentheirbodiesandtheir

environment.“ThefirstthingInoticed,”wrotesubject7,athirty-nineyear-old

male,“wasadissolvingofsomeofmybodyboundariesasIexperiencedmyhands,

20

whenplacedontopofoneanother,meltintoeachother.”52Subject6,atwenty-

four-year-oldmale,wrotethat“itwaslikeIwasslippingthroughthespaces

betweencells,thespacesbetweenmusclefiberoutintotheuniverse.AtonepointI

rememberfeelinglikeagreatweightwaspressingonmyphysicalbodyand

crushingmeandIwasleakingoutofmybody.”53Subject15,athirty-year-oldmale,

remarkedthat“mybody,meanwhile,wasmoistandfeltmalleable,asthoughits

boundarieswereonlyarbitrary.”54

Moredramaticwasthedescriptionof“peak”experiencesunderLSD

(reportedbytwo-thirdsofallsubjects).“Ipushedandpushedandthenitwashere,”

wrotesubject10,afemale.“Clearlightallaboutandpureenergy..notelectrical

energybutsomeotherkindofenergy...energyofwhichItoowascomposed.”55

Subject15wrote,

“Iwasconsciousofbeingstretchedoutandfeelingelongatedsuddenlyand

instantaneouslyasilentwailcamefromverydeepinsidealmostbelowme

andrushedthroughmesostrongly,sorapidly,thatIbecameacylinderbut

astheanguishpouredthroughitbroughtwithitatremendoussurgeof

energythatshotmeskywardbutcarriedmewithit.Myanguishbecame

myenergythatbecamemyjoy.”56

Inthisaccount,painwasanecessarysteptowardsspiritualtransformation.There

wouldbenojoywithoutpain.Emotionalpain,intheformofanguish,providedthe

catalystinsubject15’snarrative.Believingthatpainwasaninevitablepartof

transformationundoubtedlyprovidedassuranceandabilitytoembraceemotional

discomfortasbothinevitableandpositive.

21

WhatGrofrealizedfromhisownobservationsandhisanalysisofthese

writtenreports,isthestrikingsimilaritybetweentheseaccountsandthoseof

childbirth.“Thegeneralideacamefast–butthedetailswereaddedovertheyears,”

heexplained.“Searchingforasimple,logical,andnaturalconceptualizationofthis

fact,Iwasstruckbytheastoundingparallelsbetweenthesepatternsandtheclinical

stagesofdelivery.”Whataccountedforthesimilarities,hewondered?“Igradually

realized..onecommondenominator:asignificantcontributionfromthetraumaof

birth.”57

Antonio,subject18inthestudy,providedGrofwithacoherentand

convincingaccountoftherelationshipbetweenbirthtraumaandpeakLSD

experiences.Hereceivedhisfirstdosage(300mcg;afairlylargedose)on

November21,1972.Threemonthslater,hewasgivenanevenhigherdoseof400

mcg.“Ibeganaverystrongdefinitefeelingofbeinginabirthsituationandfeeling

thatinordertogothroughwithit,”hedescribedafterhisfirstsession.“Icouldnot

usemyselfbutthatIhadtorelyonStanasthemidwife.Hewouldhelpmethrough

thisexperienceofbirth,”concludedAntonio.58

StanGrofservingasamidwife:ThisdescriptionmusthavestruckGrofasa

usefulandpowerfulmetaphor.Byguidingthesubjectthroughthememoryofbirth

traumainagentlersetting,Grofcouldhelphimreintegratethepainfulexperience

andbegintoheal.59Grofbegantorealizethat,likeaspiritualmidwife,hecould

empowerhispatienttoturnpainandfearintosomethingblissfulandmeaningful

andproductive.

22

Antoniocontinuedtoarticulatethesignificanceofbirthtohuman

developmentexperiencedinhispsychedelictrip:

“ThenIbegintofeelmybirthasbeingsomethingimportant..wantingitto

besomethingspecial,butinsteadIamperceivingmyselfbeingrebornlike

intoamachineorintoaspacecapsule.Ifeelacoldnessaboutthebirthin

termsofthemechanicalmachinequalityofitinrelationshiptoglorious

noblebirththatIwouldexpect.”60

Thiswas,ofcourse,theveryassessmentofbirthreformerswholabeledhospital

birthascoldandmechanical.

Ratherthanfocusonlyontheexperienceforthelaboringmother,Antonio

alsounderscoredtheimportanceforthechild.Asamentalhealthprovider

interestedinhumanbehavior,heexperiencedarevelationregardingtheimpactof

birthandbonding,writing:

“Isuddenlyfeltthetremendousimportanceforthechildtohaveproper

loveandmaternalcareafterbirth....Ifthechildweretobedeprivedof

propercare,thefeelingoflossanddespairhemighthaveexperiencedin

thewombatbirthwouldhavebeenreinforcedthroughouthislife.He

wouldgrowtofeelinsecurewithfeelingsofdoubtandasenseofdeepguilt

andunworthinessabouthimselfandhewouldn’tknowwhy.”61

Ensuringapositivebirthexperiencethatenabledaninfanttobondwiththemother,

Antoniosuggested,wascrucialforhumandevelopment.

BacktoBirth:Grof’sBasicPerinatalMatricies(BPM)

23

Grofwassoldonthisnotion.“Istartedseeingthattherewasthisdeep

perinatalpoolofdifficultemotionsandphysicalfeelingsinthehumanunconscious,

whichisthesourceofvariousformsofpsychopathology...roots[ofdisorders]can

betracedtothetraumaofbirthanddifficultiesofprenatallife,”hewrote.62He

createdatemplateoffour“basicperinatalmatrices”relatedtothedevelopmentof

thefetusandtheexperienceofbirth.Thesefourmatricescorrespondedroughlyto

thedevelopmentofthefetus,followedbystagesoflabor.Eachmatrix,Grofargued,

hadanenormousimpactonthehumanpsyche.“Thinkingintermsofthebirth,”he

explained,“providesnewanduniqueinsightsintothedynamicarchitectureof

variousformsofpsychopathologyandoffersrevolutionarytherapeutic

possibilities.”63However,morewasatstakethansimplyrecoveryofunconscious

traumasinbirth.Undertherightconditions,heargued,theseprocessescouldlead

to“orgiasticfeelingsofcosmicproportions,spiritualliberationandenlightenment”

alongwith“mysticalunionwiththecreativeprincipleintheuniverse.”64

ThesimilarityinlanguageanddescriptionsbetweenLSDpeakexperiencesin

thelaboratoryandspiritualbirthonTheFarmcannotbeoverlooked.Theyappear

tobedescribingalmostexactlythesamething,despitethegenderdifference.Allthe

birthstoriesweretoldbywomen,whilethepsychedelictripsweredescribed

predominantlybymen.Whilemanyoftheirdescriptionsofbirthtraumastemmed

fromtheperspectiveoftheinfantexitingthebirthcanal,theactuallanguageoften

alsomimickedthoseofthelaboringwomen.Itmightseemsurprisingtoseethese

unexpectedentanglementsbetweenpsychedelicpsychiatryandspiritualmidwifery.

24

Yetbothgroups(psychedelicpsychiatristsandspiritualmidwives)benefitedfrom

thisideologicaloverlap.

Forthemidwives,Grof’sfindingsaddedtotheirbeliefthatanout-of-hospital

birthwasbeneficialtothebaby,andnotjustempoweringtothemother.Frequently

accusedofbeingirresponsibleandselfishbychoosingtostayoutofthehospital,

theywelcomedevidencethatimpliedpsychologicalbenefitstothebaby.They

believedthatwhattheyweredoingwasnotonlyspiritualandcounterculturalbut

scientific,andtheydrewuponthetheoriesofscientists–includingpsychedelic

researchers--tobuttresstheirclaims.Theendresult,intheformofabooksuchas

SpiritualMidwifery,wasagrowingacceptanceandmainstreamingofout-of-hospital

birth.

Forthepsychiatrists,theconnectionbetweenpsychedelic“peak

experiences”andspiritualbirth,includingperceptionsofpain,furtherlegitimized

theirclaimsthatpsychedelicdrugsofferedinsightsintohumanbehaviorand

consciousness.Likemidwives,psychedelicpsychiatristswerewaryofbeinglabeled

asirresponsibleorhedonistic.BymarketingLSDasatherapeuticresearchtoolthat

couldhealwoundsfromtraumaticbirth,theypositionedtheircraftascuttingedge.

Bothgroups–themidwivesandthepsychedelicresearchers–borrowedfromeach

other’sbeliefsystemsandtheoriestolegitimizetheirownclaimsaboutthe

significanceofawakeningtheunconscious.Bydoingso,theyexpandedthe

parametersoftheirprofessions,suggestingthepossibilityofnewapproachestothe

psychologyofthemindandthepsychologyofbirth.

25

1Nothisrealname.2Subject18,box1,MSP170,MarylandPsychiatricResaerchCenterLSDProfessionalTrainingProgramStudyFiles,KarnesArchivesandSpecialCollections,PurdueUniversityLibraries,WestLafayette,IN.3ElaineScarry,TheBodyinPain:TheMakingandUnmakingoftheWorld(OxfordUniversityPress,1985),p.304Scarry,p.355emailcorrespondencewithauthor,December2,2017.6QuotedinInaMayGaskinSpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEdition(Summertown:TheBookPublishingCompany,1977),p.137.7KatherineR.Bonson,“RegulationofhumanresearchwithLSDintheUnitedStates(1949-1987),Psychopharmacology(October262017).8“PsychedelicResearchStaffMeeting,”January27,1969,page1,folder2,box11,MSP70,CharlesSavagepapers,PurdueUniversityLibraries,WestLafayette,Indiana.9TheodoreBarber,LSD,Marihuana,Yoga,andHypnosis(Routledge2017),p.50.10“RatsDeformedbyLSDExperiments,”TheGuardian,16April1968,clippinginDB26file,RDLaingpapers,UniversityofGlasgowSpecialCollections.YetaccordingtoKatherineR.Bonson,memberoftheControlledSubstanceStaff,CenterforDrugEvaluationandResearchattheFoodandDrugAdministration,“therearenocredibledatasupportingtheallegationthatLSDaltersgeneticmaterial.”SeeBonson,“RegulationofhumanresearchwithLSDintheUnitedStates(1949-1987),Psychopharmacology(October262017).11FormoreonTheFarm,seeWendyKline,“TheLittleManualThatStartedaRevolution:HowHippieMidwiferyBecameMainstream,”inDavidKaiserandW.PatrickMcCray,eds.,GroovyScience:Knowledge,InnovationandAmericanCounterculture(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,2016),pp.172-204.12 For more on the quest for greater spiritual meaning and authenticity in the 1970s, see LucasRichertandMatthewDeCloedt,“Supplebodieshealthyminds:yoga,psychedelicsandAmericanmentalhealth,”Med.HumanitiesEpub,March30,2018 13Hoffmann,D.E.andTarzian,A.J.,“TheGirlWhoCriedPain:ABiasAgainstWomenintheTreatmentofPain,”JournalofLaw,Medicine&Ethics,Vol.29,pp.13-27,2001.p.2214SeeWendyKline,BodiesofKnowledge:Sexuality,ReproductionandWomen’sHealthintheSecondWave(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010).15JoannaBourke,TheStoryofPain:FromPrayerstoPainkillers(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2017)p.300.16Bendelow,G.(1993),PainPerceptions,EmotionsandGender.SociologyofHealth&Illness,15:273–294,p.275.17Wailoo,Pain,p.6618seeFabrizioBenedetti,“BeecherasClinicalInvestigator:PainandthePlaceboEffect,”PerspectivesinBiologyandMedicine,2016,Vol.59(1),p.3719Wailoo,Pain,p.67.

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20GrantlyDick-Read,TheNaturalChildbirthPrimer(NewYork:HarperandRow,1955),p.1.FormoreonDick-Readandnaturalchildbirth,seePaulaMichaels,Lamaze:AnInternationalHistory(OxfordUniversityPress,2014).21IdoHartogsohn,“APsychedelicTechnology:HowSetandSettingShapedtheAmericanPsychedelicExperience1950-1970,”inBenSessa,editor,BreakingConvention:PsychedelicPharmacologyforthe21stCentury,2017,p.14222FormoreonLSDstudiesthattrackedtheimportanceofsetandsetting,seeErikaDyck,PsychedelicPsychiatry:LSDFromClinictoCampus(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2008),pp.67-68.23StephenGaskin,TheCaravan,rev.ed.(1972;Summertown,TN:BookPublishingCo.,2007),127.24Thereisavastandexpandingliteratureonthehistoryofpsychedelicpsychiatry.SeeinparticularErikaDyck,PsychedelicPsychiatry:LSDfromClinictoCampus(JohnsHopkins2008),MatthewOram,“TheTrialsofPsychedelicMedicine:LSDPsychotherapy,ClinicalScience,andPharmaceuticalRegulationintheUnitedStates,”PhDdiss.,UniversityofSydney,2014;DouglasOsto,AlteredStates:BuddhismandPsychedelicSpiritualityinAmerica(ColumbiaUP2016)NicholasLagnlitz,Neuropsychedelia:TheRevivalofHallucinogenResearchsincetheDecadeoftheBrain(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2012);DonLattin,ChangingOurMinds:PsychedelicSacramentsandtheNewPsychotherapy(NewYork:SynergeticPress,2018);Lattin,TheHarvardPsychedelicClub:HowTimothyLeary,RamDass,HustonSmith,andAndrewWeilKilledtheFiftiesandUsheredinaNewAgeforAmerica(NewYork:Harper,2011);MartinA.LeemandBruceShlain,AcidDreams:TheCompleteSocialHistoryofLSD:TheCIA,TheSixties,andBeyond(NewYork:GrovePress,1985);LucasRichertandMatthewDeCloedt,“Supplebodieshealthyminds:yoga,psychedelicsandAmericanmentalhealth,”Med.HumanitiesEpub,March30,2018;SarahShortall,“PsychedelicDrugsandtheProblemofExperience,”PastandPresent(2014),Supplement9,pp.187-206;MichaelPollan,HowtoChangeYourMind:WhattheNewScienceofPsychedelicsTeachesUsaboutConsciousness,Dying,Addiction,Depression,andTranscendence(NewYork:Penguin,2018).

25MelvynStiriss,VoluntaryPeasants:LaborofLove(HotButtonPress,Warwick,NY2012)location679(kindle).26http://www.thefarmmidwives.org/preliminary_statistics.html.LastviewedMay30,2013.27Thisedition(original)doesn’thavepagenumbers28SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEdition,p.70.29SpiritualMidwiferyRevisedEdition,p.141.30SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEdition,p.6331LyndaBateman,CatrionaJones,andJulieJomeen,“ANarrativeSynthesisofWomen’sOut-of-BodyExperiencesDuringChildbirth,”JournalofMidwiferyandWomen’sHealth,Vol62,no.4,July/August2017,p443.32SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEditionp.15433SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEditionp.6234WalterTruettAnderson,TheUpstartSpring:EsalenandtheHumanPotentialMovement:TheFirstTwentyYears(iuniverse,2004),p.66

27

35AbrahamMaslow,Religions,Values,andPeakExperiences,1964,p.245(check).FormoreonMaslow,seeNadineWeidman,“BetweentheCountercultureandtheCorporation:AbrahamMaslowandHumanisticPsychologyinthe1960s,”inKaiserandMcCray,eds.,GroovyScience,pp109-141.36SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEditionp.14237StanGrof,“VarietiesofTranspersonalExperiences:ObservationsfromLSDPsychotherapy,”JournalofTranspersonalPsychology,VolumeIV,No.1,1972,p.51.38SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEditionp.15339SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEditionp.13340SpiritualMidwifery:RevisedEditionp.7741Grof,interview,“TheGreatAwakening,”inRogerWalshandCharlesGrob,eds.,HigherWisdom:EminentEldersExploretheContinuingImpactofPsychedelics(NewYork:SUNYPress,2005),p.12242QuotedinBronson,“RegulationofhumanresearchwithLSDintheUnitedStates.”43Grof,“TheGreatAwakening,”p.12344GrofinterviewedinKeithThompson,“SearchfortheSelf,”YogaJournal,July/August1990,p.57.45Grof,“TheGreatAwakening,”p.12046JeffreyA.Lieberman,Shrinks:TheUntoldStoryofPsychiatry(BackBayBooks,2016),106.47Grof,“VarietiesofTranspersonalExperiences,”JournalofTranspersonalPsychology,1972,p.4748MartinHalliwell,TherapeuticRevolutions:Medicine,Psychiatry,andAmericanCulture,1945-1970(RutgersUniversityPress2014),p.26149Grof,“Implicationsofpsychedelicresearchforanthropology:observationsfromLSDpsychotherapy”atconference“Ritual:ReconciliationinChange”July21-29,1973,PaperpreparedinadvanceforparticipantsinBurgWartensteinSymposiumNo.59,p.8,box1folder3,MSP1,StanislavGrofpapers,PurdueUniversityLibraries,WestLafayette,Indiana.Emphasisadded.50FormoreontheMarylandPsychiatricResearchInstitutestudies,seeMatthewOram,“TheTrialsofPsychedelicMedicine,”PhDdiss.,Univ.ofSydney.51SarahShortall,“PsychedelicDrugsandtheProblemofExperience,”PastandPresent(2014),SupplementB,177-206,p.201.SeealsoDouglasOsto,AlteredStates:BuddhismandPsychedelicSpiritualityinAmerica(ColumbiaUP2016)52Subject7,box1,MSP17053Subject6,box1,MSP17054Subject15,box1,MSP17055Subject10,box1,MSP17056Subject15,box1,MSP17057Grof,“TheGreatAwakening,”p.13358subject18,box1,MSP17059Indevelopingthistheory,Grofwasundoubtedlyinfluencedbyotherpsychiatristswhohadfocusedonbirthtrauma,namelyOttoRank,andtosomeextentSigmundFreud.Othersbegantofocusonbirthandprimaltherapyinthepostwarera/1970s,suchasJanov,butdisagreedaboutwhattypeoftherapeuticeffectswouldbesuccessful.60subject18,box1,MSP17061subject18,box1,MSP170

28

62Grof,“TheGreatAwakening,”p.13363Grof,TheAdventureofSelf-Discovery:DimensionsofConsciousnessandNewPerspectivesinPsychotherapyandInnerExploration(NewYork:SUNYpress,1988),p.9.64GrofquotedinJeffreyKripal,Esalen:AmericaandtheReligionofNoReligon(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008)p.258.