enhancement of distribution networks through …auptde.org/article_files/enhancement of distribution...
Post on 08-Mar-2018
232 Views
Preview:
TRANSCRIPT
Enhancement of Distribution Networks through
utilization of Smart Grid BSc, MSc, MIEEE, MIET Khaled Al Wannan
Dubai electricity & Water Authority (DEWA)
Email: khaled.alwannan@dewa.gov.ae
Abstract-As Today's grids confront serious
environmental, financial, technical and operational
challenges, numerous researches have concluded that
today's grids must be modernized using state-of-the-art
technologies to significantly improve the reliability,
efficiency, security and quality of power supply.
Additionally, these new grids take in account the
concerns about the environment by relying more on
environmentally friendly energy at the distribution
system. Moreover, this proposed grid must be more
consumer-interactive, allowing the customer to control
and monitor the amount of power consumption through
smart meters. This grid is named future grid, grid wise,
intelligent grid or Smart Grid and the latter term is
more commonly used. Although the Smart Grid is
expected to be beneficial not only to the utility but also
to the customers and the ecosystem, it is complex and
vulnerable, due to the fact that the modernization of
current grids affects the electrical power system at all,
including generation, transmission and distribution
systems as well as customers’ loads. This Paper
describes and examines Smart Grid technologies and
their benefits and challenges from the perspectives of
both Distribution Network Operator (DNO) and
customer, focusing on the distribution system
technologies. These technologies are Advanced Metering
Infrastructure (AMI), including smart meters with bi-
directional real-time communication, distribution
automation, distribution energy resources, involving
renewable distribution generation and storage devices,
Plug-in Electric Vehicles. In addition, this paper
highlights the progress of Dubai Electricity and Water
Authority (DEWA) towards the idea of Smart Grid.
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the demand on power electricity has
dramatically grown due to a substantial increase in
urban sprawl and different human activities, resulting
in overloaded grids, leading to a lower reliability,
stability and quality of power supply. Also, present
grids face serious environmental (e.g. global
warming), financial (e.g. constructing new
transmission lines) and operational challenges (e.g.
matching load demand with power generation).
Consequently, numerous researches such as Electrical
Power Research Institute (EPRI), Intelligrid, Grid
Wise and many others funded by governments and
private utilities [1], [2] have been launched in order to
overcome the aforementioned problems. These
researches have concluded that today's grids must be
modernized using state-of-the-art technologies to
significantly improve the reliability, efficiency,
security, and quality of the delivered power.
Additionally, new grids consider the environment by
using wider renewable generation, especially at the
distribution system to significantly reduce the carbon
footprint [3], [4]-[6]. Moreover, this proposed grid
must be more consumer-interactive [1], [3], [5], [7],
allowing the customer to control and monitor the
amount of power consumption through the modern
technologies [1], [8], [9]. This grid is named future
grid, grid wise, intelligent grid, or Smart Grid [3], [5],
and the latter term is more commonly used.
Although the Smart Grid is expected to be beneficial
not only to the utility but also to the customers and
the ecosystem, it is complex and vulnerable [7], due
to the fact that the modernisation of current grids
affects the electrical power system at all, including
generation, transmission, distribution systems, and
loads [4], [10] as well as the grid's regulations and
standards [1], [6]. Some of these challenges are very
similar to those of conventional grids [7].
II. SMART GRID VS TODAY’S GRID
Fig.1 [10] illustrates today's power system
infrastructure, in which the power flow is mainly a
unidirectional from the centralised power plants to the
commercial, industrial, and residential loads via high
voltage transmission system. Also, the current grid is
predominantly characterised with one-way
information flow. Nevertheless, Fig.2 depicts [10]
Smart Grid infrastructure, which is characterised by
bi-directional power flow and two-way real-time
communication, storage devices, Advanced Metering
Infrastructure (AMI), allowing new functionalities
and technologies to emerge such as Efficient Demand
Response (DR), Accommodation of large number of
Renewable Energy Resources (RER), especially at the
distribution system and Plug-in Electric Vehicles
(PEVs). Consequently, Smart Grid will greatly
enhance reliability, security, efficiency and quality of
power supply, and also give an added value to both
environment and society [11].
Fig. 1. Infrastructure of today’s grid [10]
Fig. 2. Infrastructure of Smart Grid with its main technologies [10]
Table I highlights the difference between the
characteristics of conventional grid and Smart Grid
[11]. from table I, Smart Grid can be defined as a
“modernization of the electricity delivery system so it
monitors, protects and automatically optimizes the
operation of its interconnected elements – from the
central and distributed generator through the high-
voltage network and distribution system, to industrial
users and building automation systems, to energy
storage installations and to end-use consumers
including their thermostats, electric vehicles,
appliances and other household devices” [11].
III. SMART GRID TECHNOLOGIES
As stated earlier, Smart Grid can be a reality through
modernisation of all power system ingredients using
several modern technologies. According to EPRI
[11], Smart Grid technologies can be generally
divided into two categories: Transmission System
technologies and distribution system technologies
including customer technologies (e.g. PEVs, Home
Area Network (HAN). In this context, it is important
to stress that Smart Grid benefits are not only highly
relied on the modern technologies, but also they are
significantly linked with the integration of these
modern technologies [5], [6]. For instance, efficient
AMI deployment allows successful implementation
of PEVs and RER.
TABLE I
SMART GRID VS CONVENTIONAL GRID
Conventional Grid Smart Grid
One-way power flow Two-way power flow
Unidirectional Communication
Bidirectional Communication
No/inefficient Demand
Response (passive customer)
Efficient Demand
Response (interactive customer)
Centralised power
generation
Accommodation of a wide range of Distributed
Renewable Generation
(DRG) and storage options
Fossil fuel based power
generation
More environmentally
friendly generation
Manual operation Automated operation
(Self-healing)
Prediction operation (e.g.
Matching of supply and demand based on forecast
and historical information
Real-time operation (e.g.
Matching of supply and demand based on Real-
time information)
Conventional household
appliances Smart appliances
A. Transmission System Technologies
There are many Smart Grid technologies at the
transmission systems such as High Voltage DC
(HVDC) Transmission and Flexible AC Transmission
Systems (FACTS) controllers. HVDC and FACTS
controllers are based on high power semiconductor
devices, which are normally coexist in the same
system, playing a pivotal role in controlling power
flow and maintaining system stability at the same
time [12], [13]. At present, All Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) countries are interconnected by
HVDC Technology, except Oman, which will be
interconnected soon. This interconnection gives many
benefits to GCC countries' power system [14], [15].
B. Distribution Technologies
1. Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI)
B.1.1. Structure of AMI
AMI is the key technology of Smart Grids’
technologies as its effective implementation leads to a
successful integration with other technologies such as
DRG and PEVs.
Fig.3 depicts [16] the structure of AMI where the
major components include smart meter, two-way real-
time robust communication systems and Home Area
Network (HAN) with in-home display. In this
structure the utility back office can send real-time
controlling signals to customer's appliances via smart
meters. These signals are sent to smart meters through
a wired or wireless communication technology (Fig.
4) and then the smart meter dispatch these signals to
the HAN to control energy consumption. This control
is automatically achieved by Smart Device Controller
(SDC), which acts as Home Energy Management
System (HEMS) that has been previously
programmed per customer preferences. HAN
interconnects all smart appliances including smart
chargers of PEVs and home DRG, which can be
controlled by HEMS through wired or wireless
communication (Fig. 4). Moreover, utility can directly
control all smart appliances or the high-power-
consumption appliances such as smart chargers, and
Fig. 3. Structure of AMI [16]
Fig. 4. Information flow in AMI system
air conditioners (A/C) through direct connection with
AMI [17].
Likewise, utility back office can collect real-time
abundant unprecedented information about the energy
consumption, validation customers participating in
demand response programs, DRG, smart charging of
PEVs, and update customer database accordingly
[18].
B.1.2. Benefits of AMI
These benefits are broadly categorised into eight
groups as thoroughly described below.
B.1.2.a. Metering services
Today’s meters, installed at customer side, are utilised
only to record consumption energy periodically for
billing purposes, where this data is manually collected
by regularly visiting the properties. However, Utility,
via AMI system, can remotely collect the real-time
consumption data and bill the customer accordingly
[19], resulting in efficient billing process (e.g.
accurate and real-time readings). Also, in
conventional grid, the connection and disconnection
of electricity are also done by visiting the properties,
whilst AMIs can be remotely used to disconnect or
connect the customers instantly through certain
software [1] [4], [19], [20]. AMI use will also
considerably reduce the undesirable disconnections
[21]. In addition to saving human resources (meter
readers), this will significantly decrease customer
complaints, thereby highly enhancing customer
satisfaction. In fact, customer satisfaction is a
strategic objective of any private and public utility
where the higher the satisfaction the higher the
revenues. Also, remote disconnection can be very
useful in emergency situations (e.g. fire, flood,
earthquake, etc.). This can be achieved via a call from
police or civil defend through a specific agreements.
B.1.2.b. Efficient Load Shedding Control
Load shedding schedules are applied at contingency
situations (e.g. high drop in the frequency due to
imbalance of supply and demand), which is mostly
performed by tripping the entire feeder [21], [22].
However, individual homes can be interrupted
through a certain agreement between the customer
and the utility in which the utility gives incentives to
participating customers. This preserve electricity
service to critical loads (e.g. hospitals) as well as VIP
loads.
B.1.2.c. Protection from electricity thefts
Today’s meters can be manipulated via breaking
seals, turning them upside down or replacing the
standard meter with nonstandard one [21], whereby
these thefts can be noticed either visually by the meter
readers when visiting the properties or can be
concluded via low consumption [21]. Nonetheless,
AMIs allow the utility to detect manipulation
remotely by sending an instant “manipulation” alarm
to the utility via a mean of communication [21], [23],
[24], [25]. Moreover, the use of nonstandard meters
can be detected easily as each smart meter has a
unique number registered at the utility in the customer
database [21], [23].
B.1.2.d. Automating Distribution system
B.1.2.d.1Outage Detection, Isolation and Restoration:
In traditional grid, the outages are mainly reported to
the utility call centre by the customers via phone calls
so that the operational team will locate and isolate the
fault and then redistribute the power to the interrupted
customers. This process is relatively slow as long
time is needed to locate the fault.
In contrast, Smart Grid will employ sensors for
outages detection and then the outages will be
reported back to the utility back office via some
strategically located AMIs in near real-time [20].
The outages will be monitored through the Outage
Management System (OMS), providing extremely
accurate information about the outages in terms of
their causes and locations, and then the fault is
remotely isolated [20], resulting in efficient operation
(e.g. quicker redistribution of power supply to the
interrupted customers) and rapid maintenance,
thereby increasing customer satisfaction.
In addition, this will significantly improve the
electrical power distribution reliability indices [23],
[21] such as System Average Interruption Duration
Index (SAIDI), Customer Average Interruption
Duration Index (CAIDI) and other indices, which are
thoroughly explained in IEEE Std 1366-2003 [26].
Enhancement of these indices highly attracts external
investments as power system reliability is one of the
critical indicators for the investors.
B.1.2.d.2. Planned outages Notifications
Today’s utilities issue a Notice of Interruption Supply
(NIS) to be handed to the customers prior to the
interruption, informing them with the details of the
interruption (such as duration of the outage), whereas
in Smart Grid this NIS can be sent to customer’s in-
home display via AMI system [21]. The acceptance of
the NIS message by the customer will send back an
acknowledgement message to the utility back office
(OMS) confirming receiving it and updating customer
database. This results in increasing customer
satisfaction while decreasing human, financial and
natural resources.
B.1.2.e. Successful implementation of other Smart
Grid technologies:
B.1.2.e.1.Controlling Distributed Generators (DG) by
utilities:
One of the technical challenges of the DG,
encountered by present grids, is islanding mode,
which is occurred when the Distributed Generator
(DG) is solely supplying distribution network partly
with power due to a particular fault [27]. This
condition causes many technical problems to utility
e.g. low fault current of distributed generator, which
may not be detected by existing protection scheme.
Moreover, islanding can put the safety of
maintenance staff at risk as they may think that the
circuit is dead, whilst actually it is alive because of
the islanding mode.
In Smart Grid, each DG will be connected to AMI
system and each DG will have a registered unique
number in customer database so that the utility can
verify each DG status in the distribution network
when islanding occurs and can shut down islanded
generators via AMI system [23]. Besides, utility can
inform customers with Islanded generators to
investigate the reason behind the islanding occurrence
[21]. As a consequence, this will dramatically reduce
catastrophic incidents to islanding and support utility
to comply with safety standards such as Occupational
Health and Safety (OHASA) 18001.
B.1.2.e.2. Smart-Charging of PEVS:
As today’s grid does not have the means to overcome
the expected technical challenges of PEVs
emergence, PEVs will cause huge stresses on power
distribution network.
In Smart Grid, utility, via AMI, can control smart
charging points and even interrupt charging when
system reliability is jeopardised. The interruption is
applied first on the customers who have an incentive
agreement with the utility. Also, AMI system can
allow “net metering” in customer premises of the sum
of the energy consumed from utility and energy
supplied to the utility by customer's DRG and PEVs
batteries discharging when Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G)
feature is available in the near future [21].
B.1.2.f. Asset Management optimisation:
B.1.2.f.1. Asset operations management
In present distribution system, many distribution
circuits run near their rated values, causing rapid
deterioration of the distribution equipments due to
overload. In fact, this situation could be worse with
the penetration of PEVs. In Smart Grid, however,
utility can monitor the devices in real-time through
AMI, so that actions can be taken to alleviate this
overload (e.g. direct load shedding) [21].
B.1.2.f.2. Maintenance optimisation
Maintenance refers to “Ensuring that physical assets
continue to do what their users want them to do”
[28]. There are many types of maintenance strategies
such as traditional preventive maintenance, hybrid of
predictive and preventive maintenance and Reliability
Centered Maintenance (RCM). In fact many utilities
including DEWA has migrated from traditional
preventive maintenance towards Reliability Centred
Maintenance (RCM) approach (latest maintenance
approach), defined as “a process used to determine
maintenance requirements of any physical asset in
its operating context” [28]. In other words, what the
user wants from the asset is directly linked with the
function of the asset i.e. operational duty (e.g. some
assets operate near their rating capability whereas
others run at half of their capability) and
environmental duty (e.g. some assets operate in harsh
environmental conditions). This approach aims to
optimise the time-directed maintenance and predictive
maintenance (Condition monitoring) by selecting the
most cost effective task with best maintenance task
frequency. This can redirect utility resources towards
the most critical equipments whose failures leads to
catastrophic consequences on system reliability,
safety and environment.
As AMI will provide abundant unprecedented real-
time information to the utility such as real-time
information about heavily loaded equipments, this
will significantly support RCM implementation and
establish a vital real-time database about operational
duty of the assets that can be utilised to study and
conclude the failure patterns in a specific distribution
system. Further benefits would include increased
system and equipment reliability, better asset
management decision (replacement vs.
refurbishment), safety improvement, prevention of
environment from any damage and others.
B.1.2.g. Power Quality Management:
AMI can monitor and report voltage, phase angle and
frequency of power supply back to the utility [21].
Also, AMI can detect the customers that pollute the
distribution networks with harmonics and penalise
them accordingly. Harmonics increase the stresses
and losses in the distribution equipments and harm
motors and other appliances [29]. The huge collected
real-time data from AMI regarding power quality
factors, including harmonics, leads to much easier
investigation of power quality issues [23]. A further
problem is the three phase imbalance, which can be
detected and investigated easily by collected data
from AMI. Three Phase imbalance rapidly degrades
the three phase motors as it creates negative sequence
current that opposes the positive sequence (i.e.,
oppose the normal motor rotation) [30].
B.1.2.h. Demand Response (DR):
This is an important characteristic of Smart Grid
resulting from adopting AMI. According to the U.S.
department of Energy, DR refers to “changes in
electric usage by end-use customers from their normal
consumption patterns in response to changes in the
price of electricity over time, or to incentive payments
designed to induce lower electricity use at times of
high wholesale market prices or when system
reliability is jeopardised” [31]. In other words,
utilities can give different types of incentives to push
customers to alter their present habits of energy use in
order to mitigate energy consumption in peak demand
or in situations where system reliability is in danger.
In fact, customers can alter their normal energy
consumption via two scenarios: decreasing their
demand at high network demand periods without
shifting it (e.g. turn off A/C); shifting the demand
from high to low network demand periods (e.g.
washing time) [32]. DR can be divided into two
categories as follows:
B.1.2.h.1. First generation of DR:
Demand response program is not a new concept as it
has been applied since 1980's by some U.S. utilities
by offering customers $10 during hot summer season
to allow utility fitting switches in A/C that can be
remotely switched off by sending Very High
Frequency (VHF) signal during peak demands [31].
The utilities have been concluded that these
programmes are inefficient due to frauds. In fact, the
deficiency of this program stems from the fact that the
communication system is unidirectional where the
utility cannot verify each customer who participates
in this program in real-time [31].
B.1.2.h.2. Second generation of DR (dynamic tariff
signals):
In contrast to first generation, AMI with bi-directional
communication offers the utility an unprecedented
feature of real-time validation of each participating
customer in the demand response program [31].
In other words, AMI enables the customers to flexibly
interact with utility, whereby utility can send dynamic
real-time energy tariffs to the customers depending
upon the peak demand (higher prices) and off-peak
demand (lower prices), allowing customers to have
choices of continuously check and control their
consumption at higher and lower prices [1], [8], [9],
[16],
Consequently, the customers can adapt their daily
habits and lifestyles to avoid the costliest power
consumption times, for example, the customers will
have the choice to turn-off the high-power-
consumption appliances (e.g. A/C) or changing
appliances cooling cycles (e.g. A/C, refrigerator)
during peak demand periods, thereby controlling and
reducing the cost of the electricity bill [1],[2],[7], [8],
[20]. In case of HAN, HEMS can automatically take
the decision regarding power consumption use [8].
Also, incentive agreement can be signed between
customer and utility, in which the utility can directly
control the power consumption (including
interruption) of individual customers. EPRI, however,
argues that the utility control of power consumption is
not a part of the demand response [21].
B.1.3. Deployment of AMI in Dubai
In response to DEWA vision of supporting
sustainability, DEWA has started adopting AMI in
order to obtain the AMI benefits stated earlier. A pilot
project began with mounting 200 smart meters
(electricity and water) between 2005 and 2007 to
thoroughly investigate the functionality of AMI
system. After the AMI benefits had been
demonstrated it was decided to start the project by
dividing it into three stages. Stage one (2010-2013)
aims to install up to 60,000 smart meters (electricity
and water). Stage two (2013-onwards) is to install
only smart meters with bi-directional communication
for all new connections. Stage 3 will coincide with
stage two, concerning the replacement of all
traditional meters by smart meters by the end of 2020.
The current communication medium, used in AMI
system, is based on PLC and GPRS while in stage
one other communication technologies will be
examined such as WiFi, Fibre Optics and others.
Lastly, the billing software is SAP-based.
2. Communication Technologies
Fig. 4 shows the AMI structure where the
bidirectional communication between the utility &
smart meters, smart meters & HEMS and HEMS &
smart appliances, represents the crucial part of AMI
system. There are several types of wired and wireless
communication technologies, where each type has its
pros and cons. Table II, reproduced from [23], [24],
[25], [33]-[36], illustrates the main communication
technologies used in AMI in terms of type,
application, major advantages and disadvantages.
B.2.1. Communication Requirements
Irrespective of the type of the communication
technology used in AMI system, it is important to
ensure that the communication technology meets the
following requirements including, but not limited to:
Security: Communication medium shall withstand
cyber attacks to avoid any attempt to fabricate billing
information and illegal access to customer database
[37], [38].
Availability: Communication medium shall be
always available to ensure bidirectional information
flow at all times and conditions between utility and
customer appliances and distribution automation [37].
The availability can be highly improved due to
adoption diverse communication technologies of
wired and wireless e.g. PLC and cellular
communication [34].
Quality of the signal: Signal quality depends upon
many factors such as distance, weather condition and
interference [23]. Therefore, a detailed study must be
carried out to address the above factors to choose best
communication medium that suit the location to
ensure best signal quality.
3. Distribution Automation (DA)
Fig. 5 shows DA functionality of Smart Grid that can
be accomplished by the integration of substation
automation, feeder automation and customer’s
appliances automation [2], [40]. The communication
protocol is based on IEC 61850 or IEC 60870-5-
101/104 where the former will supersede the latter in
the future [41]. Substation automation can be
achieved by Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA) system, whereas customer
automation can be accomplished by AMI including
HAN and HEMS. Feeder automation can be done via
remotely controlled switches (automated switches),
and remotely controlled voltage and VAR on feeders,
(which can also be achieved via strategically located
AMIs as previously explained [42]). Feeder
automation increases the efficiency of the electric
service via voltage and VAR control, and reduces
power outage duration (customer minutes lost)
through fault location [43].
Voltage and VAR control aims to keep
voltage and power factor within the acceptable
standardised limits.
B.3.1. Volt Control:
Voltage control can be achieved by installing sensors
at the end of the feeder to monitor voltage drop and
raise the voltage to a standard value using on-line tap
changer at primary power distribution substations
[44]. Distributed generators can lead to voltage rise,
which can be overcome by sensors at the connection
point to monitor and then reduce the voltage to the
standard value [45].
Fig. 5. Distribution automation in Smart Grid
B.3.2. VAR Control
VAR control is achieved by using sensors at the
capacitor banks to monitor and control the reactive
power remotely. VAR control is important to preserve
power factor near to the unity to decrease losses in the
network by remotely switching shunt capacitors
(leading reactive power) [44], [45].
B.3.3. Fault Detection, Isolation and Restoration (FDIR)
In traditional grid, the outages are mainly reported to
the utility call centre by the customers via phone
calls. Operational team will then locate and isolate the
fault and redistribute the power to the interrupted
customers. This process is relatively slow as the time
needed to locate the fault is usually long.
In contrast, Smart Grid will employ sensors for
outages detection and diagnosis and then the outages
will be reported back to the utility. The fault isolation
is achieved by remote switching, then the power
supply is redistributed to customers with minimum
customer minutes loss time [2], [44], [45]. Also, this
enhances reliability indices such as SAIDI and
CAIDI.
B.3.4. Automation projects in DEWA:
In 2011, DEWA incorporated an automation system
based on IEC 60870-5-104 for ten secondary
substations (i.e. 11/0.4kV and 6.6/0.4kV) as a pilot
project to examine its performance. These substations
underwent frequent failures (hazardous areas and
frequent thefts) and therefore they were selected in
order to alleviate the consequences of their failures.
Six substations are only monitored and the other four
substations, which are more critical, will be fully
automated, i.e. monitoring and controlling. The
following signals are obtained from the secondary
substations in this pilot project to be examined:
Overheating of Low Voltage Distribution Board
(LVDB) and transformer, overloading of LVDB and
transformer, smoke detection in LVDB, earth copper
theft, fuse trip/Circuit breaker of Ring Main Unit
(RMU) types, SF6 leakage from RMU, status of Earth
Fault Indictor (EFI). These signals are sent via GPRS
communication technology. The automation of the
secondary substations will lead to significant benefits
to DEWA, environment (e.g. monitoring RMU SF6
gas) and safety of DEWA staff and public (e.g.
detection of LVDB smoke). The reliability indices
can be highly improved along with customer minutes
loss (CML) as a result of automation of EFI status
signal that helps operational team to rapidly locate the
fault, isolate and then redistribute the power supply to
the interrupted customers. Also, this system can
prevent thefts of earth copper and increase DEWA
revenues. In the near future DEWA will start to
mount same system in 100 substations yearly, starting
with the most critical ones.
TABLE II
COMPARISON BETWEEN DIFFERENT COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES
Communication
Technology/protocol Type Applications Standard Suggested by Pros Cons
WiFI Wireless • HAN (HEMS) &
Smart Appliances
IEEE 802.11 [35], [36] • Simple support
IP addressing
• Cheap
• higher
bandwidth
comparing to
Zigbee
• Privacy and
security
ZigBee Wireless • HAN (HEMS) &
Smart Meters
• HAN (HEMS) &
Smart Appliances
IEEE
802.15.4
[25], [34],
[35],
• Simple
• Cheap
•Interference
with WiFi
signal
• low data rate
and limited
distance
Power Line
Communication (PLC)
Wired • HAN (HEMS) &
Smart Meters
IEEE 643-
2004 [104]
[23]-[25],
[34], [39]
• High data rate
(up to 3Mb/s)
• Low Cost
(using existing
power cables )
• Signal
attenuation
(limited
distance)
Cellular Network
Communication (GSM
or GPRS)
Wireless • Smart Meters &
Utility Back Office
[23], [24] [34] • efficient at
long distances
• Low cost
(using existed
communication
structure)
• powerful
security of data
transfer
• signal
unavailability
due to severe
weather
conditions
(e.g. storms)
4. Renewable Generation
Mass distributed generation of renewable energy,
such as wind and solar generation is one of the smart
grid technologies and characteristics that leads to
many benefits to environment (e.g. a significant
reduction of CO2 and other harmful gases emissions),
utility (e.g. reduction in the peak demand,
optimisation of assets use that leads to reduced
stresses on all HV equipments) and customers who
have Photovoltaics (PV) units (e.g. balancing
electricity bill). This paper highlights the solar
generation, which represents a promising technology
in Arab countries due to the high level of sun
radiation compared to the global levels, as depicted in
Fig.6 [46], [47].
There are two types of solar technologies; PV and
Concentrating Solar Thermal (CST) or also named
Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) [48]. Photovoltaics
converts sunlights directly into electricity regardless
of the sunlight temperature [49],[50], whereas CSP
depends on the temperature as CSP concentrates the
sunlight using mirrors to heat up a fluid (mainly
water) to drive a steam turbine, resulting in indirect
generation of electricity [48], [50]. Both Technologies
have quite different benefits over each other in terms
of the efficiency, cost, maturity, application,
environmental conditions, reception of sunlight and
operating temperature [48].
Fig. 6. Distribution of total sun’s energy received by earth over the
year [46], [47].
Based on the technology used in the PV modules, the
efficiency of PV ranges from 6 to 16% at 25°C (the
standard temperature) [48], [49], which is
considerably lower than the CSP efficiency that varies
from 16 to 30% [48], depending on the used
technology. Regarding the operating temperature, PV
technology, unlike CSP and opposite to an incorrect
common belief, is affected by a number of factors,
particularly the high temperatures (above 25°C), as
they lead to a sharp drop in PV efficiency [49]. In
spite of its lower efficiency, PV is more mature
technology with a total global installation of around
40 GW as per the end of 2010, a more than 69%
increase compared to 2009, when 97% of total solar
power was generated from PV [51], [52]. In marked
contrast, the global CSP installation grew steadily
from 950 MW to 1095 MW between 2009 and 2010
(i.e. just over 15% increase).
Besides, CSP technology is far costly comparing to
PV due to the extra components required to
concentrate sunlight along with the fluid medium
needed to drive the steam turbine and more
importantly it needs lots of space [48]. Also, CSP
exploits only the direct sunlight, while PV utilises
direct and reflected sunlight [49]. Thus, sky clarity is
required for effective CSP.
B.4.1. Photovoltaic (PV) Technology
Photovoltaic solar cells can be broadly divided into
two categories [49]; crystalline silicon solar cell and
thin film silicon solar cell, where the two types have
significant differences regarding the efficiency,
environmental condition and the operating
temperature. The Crystalline silicon efficiency,
ranging from 11-16 per cent, is double the efficiency
of thin film technology (6-8 per cent) at the normal
conditions (clear sky at 25°C temperature) [49].
Nevertheless, crystalline silicon is highly affected by
the high operating temperatures, resulting in a great
efficiency reduction in comparison to thin film [49].
Furthermore, unlike thin film, the environmental
conditions such as sky clearness highly mitigate the
performance of crystalline.
B.4.2. Application of Photovoltaic
Generally, there are two kinds of PV installation
systems, stand alone PV systems, which is also
referred to off grid systems, and grid connected PV
systems, which is also named grid tied systems [49],
[53], [54].
B.4.2.a. Standalone PV systems:
These systems are mainly used to supply electricity to
houses at rural areas, and also utilised for an
extensive array of applications in both urban and rural
areas such as water pumping [49], irrigation of grass
and plants in the roundabouts and road separators,
lighting of streets and walkways, remote
telecommunications equipments [49], [54] as well as
traffic warning signs [55], in addition to speed radars.
B.4.2.b. Grid connected PV systems:
These are the vast majority of both types of PV
systems, with around 95% [49] of the total
applications in 2010. PV offers many significant
benefits to the utility, customers, environment and
society. Grid connected PV systems are run in parallel
with the grid supply feeder, which, according to
International Energy Agency (IEA) and European
Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), can
normally be classified as follows [49], [56]:
o Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV)
BIPV refers to the rooftop-, ground- or facade-
mounted incorporated installations at the residential,
commercial and industrial properties.
Table III shows the installation types of BIPV with
their common nominal power range in Watt Peak
(Wp) [56], [57], calculated at 1000W/m2/Year at 25
oc
( according to IEEE 1374-1998 & IEEE Std 1262-
1995) [58], [59].
o Utility based Photovoltaics Farms (plants)
B.4.2.b.1 Structure of grid-tied PV Systems
Fig.7 [54] depicts the typical arrangement of grid-tied
PV system, where (1) and (2) denote the PV modules
and inverter, respectively. The purpose of the inverter
is not only to convert DC voltage to a standard AC
voltage at a standard frequency, but also to include a
protection DC unit to isolate the PV modules (it can
also be as a separate device) [49]. The energy
consumption meter, along with the PV system's
energy generation meter are represented by (4) and
(3), respectively. Instead, in Smart Grid, AMI with
one smart meter can perform the functions of
components (3) & (4) (net metering). This system
allows the customer to sell the surplus generated
electricity to the grid; on the other hand, when the
customer demand cannot be met by the PV supplied
electricity, the required electricity can be fed from the
grid. In other words, this is a bi-directional power
flow system, which can be incorporated with smart
meter with two way real-time communication system
to achieve a major characteristic of Smart Grid
technology.
TABLE III
PV INSTALLATION TYPES WITH RESPECT TO POWER
RANGE (WP)
Installation
Type
Sector
Residential
˂10kWp
Commercial
10kWp –
100kWp
Industrial
100kWp-
1000kWp
Utility
˃1000kWp
Roof top
or facade
mounted
✓ ✓ ✓
Ground-
Mounted
✓ ✓
Fig. 7. Structure of grid-connected PV application [54]
B.4.2.b.2. PV installations: Fast facts
Fig.8, 9, 10 , reproduced from European Photovoltaic
Industry Association (EPIA) [60], [61], illustrate the
cumulative installed grid-connected Photovoltaic in
(MW) for different countries for the period 2009 to
2011, in which, the countries showed a significant
difference in their PV generation. In 2011, Germany
was the world's leading producer of PV power at just
under 25GW, with Italy second at 12.5GW, followed
by Spain and USA at 4.2GW. However, in 2011, Italy
newly added the largest proportion of PV systems in
the globe at just over 9GW, which is 20 per cent more
than Germany that newly added almost 7.5GW in the
same year. The total cumulative PV installation
worldwide approximately trebled, from about 23 GW
in 2009 to more than 67GW in 2011. APEC refers to
Australia, South Korea, Thailand and Taiwan.
Table IV [62], [63], [64] shows the cumulative
installed grid-connected Photovoltaic in (MW) for
different Arabic countries between 2009 and 2010,
where NA indicates that is no available data. The
Arab's generation of PV technology is considerably
low comparing to other countries depicted in below
Pie charts. For instance, the cumulative PV
installation in European countries was around 16GW
in 2009 although the annual mean insolation in
Europe is relatively low (e.g. the yearly energy of sun
irradiation of the world's leading country of PV
installation, Germany, is only 1050kW/h namely, the
annual mean insolation is (1050/8760)*1000
=120W/m2 as shown in Fig. 6), where the annual
mean insolation is defined as the average amount of
power per unit area, received by the sun over the
entire year [49]. In marked contrast, the annual
average insolation in most of the Arab countries more
than doubled of Germany, ranging from 200W/m2 to
300W/m2 in most of the North African Countries,
whilst the total PV systems in Arab countries were
0.0336 GW (this number is not confirmed due to the
lack of data) in 2009, which is negligible.
Fig. 8. World’s cumulative PV installation (MW) in 2011 is 67350
Fig. 9. World’s cumulative PV Installation (MW) in 2010 is 39529
Fig. 10. World’s cumulative PV installation (MW) in 2009 is
22900
TABLE IV
ACCUMULATED PV INSTALLATION IN ARAB COUNTRIES
Arab's Country
Accumulated PV installation (MW)
2009
Accumulated PV installation (MW) 2010
Morocco 6 NA
Algeria 23 NA
Tunisia 1.4 NA
Egypt 3 NA
Jordan 0.2 NA
UAE 10 at Abu Dhabi 11MW (1MW added at
Masdar city)
Other Arab countries
NA NA
Total 33.6 NA
B.4.2.b.3. Future of PV/CSP
Arab countries have announced/launched several
ambitious projects to generate electricity using
PV/CSP technologies, which will be accomplished
during the next decade. In 2010, IEA reported that
Saudi Arabia will launch a project of 5GW of power
generation by PV, which is due to be completed in
2020's [65]. Morocco announced that a 2GW of
power generation using PV or CSP will be fully
installed in 2015 [52]. Saudi Arabia aims to export
PV electricity to other Gulf countries [65]; on the
other hand, Europe will import electricity from the
Morocco and other North African countries [56].
Egypt announced a comprehensive plan for 20%
renewable electricity, 2 % from CSP & PV; likewise,
Jordan announced 300MW of PV to be completed in
2015 and additional 300MW of PV in 2020 [52].
Also, in the United Arab Emirates, MASDAR and
Abu Dhabi Water and Electricity Authority
(ADWEA) revealed a project of 2.3 MW of PV
mounted on the rooftop of some government and
private buildings in Abu Dhabi [66], whilst Dubai
targets 5% of electricity generation using PV and CSP
technologies by 2030, which will be operated by
Dubai Electricity and Water Authority (DEWA).
Algeria has an objective to produce 170MW and
2.1MW from CSP and PV, respectively by 2015,
whereas Oman has recently set up a renewable energy
policy, involving PV systems [52].
B.4.2.b.4. Required Policies
Despite the fact that these projects are ambitious,
EPIA (2011) expects that the global cumulative PV
installed capacity will be between 0.13TW and
approximately 0.2TW in 2015 [60].
In fact, these figures show that the gap between Arab
countries and other developed countries is
substantially increasing due to many obstacles
encounter the PV technology in Arab countries. These
obstacles are stemmed from the lack or absence of
policies and strategies that support renewable energy
[56], [62] including solar energy. Although few Arab
countries have some sort of policies to support
renewable energy, they are limited and ineffective.
For example, most of the PV/CSP generation projects
that have been recently announced as aforementioned
are only focusing on the ground-mounted PV system
(utility scale), nevertheless, in order to significantly
increase the penetration of PV technology and
compete with other developed countries, the
customers must participate in electricity generation (a
characteristic of Smart Grid) through installing solar
cells on the rooftop of their properties. Actually, this
needs a strategic political decision to establish a
policy that oblige the owners of new building
including, houses, hospitals, schools, universities,
malls, government premises and others to install PV.
This policy must have clear acts, showing how much
power shall be generated by PV technology
comparing to the area of the new building and other
factors. Consequently, this will highly support the
(BIPV) leading to sharply increase the cumulative PV
capacity of Arab countries. Furthermore, Feed-in
Tariff (FiT) policies must be set up to enable the
customer to sell their excessive electricity to the grid
(a characteristic of Smart Grid). This tariff must be
high at the beginning to encourage customers to
invest in this technology. Besides, these policies will
attract the PV manufacturers to open factories in Arab
countries (emerging markets), resulting in a steep
reduction in the cost of the PV installation, and also
there will be a further inherent reduction in the cost,
arising from maturity of PV technology.
As the installation of PV cost will be reduced, the FiT
must also be reviewed and reduced. In other words,
depending on the country’s target of PV installation,
the FiT is reviewed, causing a decrease or increase in
the FiT (in case the target has or has not been
achieved) [56].
The governmental role shall not be ignored, as
legislative authorities have a crucial role to give
incentives and subsidies to the customers who want to
install and generate electricity from PV, especially for
residential customers. For instance, to support the
penetration of PV technology, governments shall
consider exemption the PV technology from taxes.
They can also encourage banks to give-out loans with
low interests.
In 2010, EPIA [56] pointed out that the best place to
install PV farms (utility scale) is desert due to their
low population and high solar radiation. This point
must be taken in consideration as the vast majority of
Arab lands are deserts, which can be described as the
“New Oil", particularly the Sahara desert in North
African which enjoys a high level of annual
insolation.
Besides, the Arabic media has an important role to
play in this “National Arabic Project” of utilising the
New Oil, with collaboration of Arab governments and
utilities to increase awareness among Arab
populations about the PV technology. Moreover, the
current advertising campaigns must give technical
information in friendly way showing how electricity
is generated from solar energy and illustrating some
facts about PV capacity in the world. The customer-
interaction in electricity generation and the
accommodation of more renewable distributed
generation will simultaneously support the smart grid
idea as both are major characteristics of smart grid.
More details on the PV-related policies in the
developed countries can be found in [56], [62].
B.4.2. Benefits of PV in Arab Countries:
PV has many benefits to the utility, customer,
environment and society. The customer can export its
surplus electricity to balance their electricity bill,
leading to a significant reduction at peak demand and
stresses in the overall electricity networks, in addition
to optimizing asset use. Also, PV technology declines
the losses as it is generated near the distribution loads
while the accommodation of wide range of PV at the
distribution level will considerably reduce CO2
emissions and other harmful gases. EPIA [56] said
that “30 full time equivalent Jobs are created for each
MW”. Also, other private companies are required to
install PV systems for household customers, ensuring
further employment vacancies. Furthermore, PV will
enhance electricity system security as the Middle East
area is unstable. An example of this is Jordan, which
has experienced a crisis in its electricity generation
since Egypt revolution in 2011. As Egypt has been
the only source for the gas needed to power the
generation plants and the frequent bombing the gas
pipelines, forced Jordan to operate the generation
plants by oil, which costs Jordan around $6.65 million
daily, and trebles the electricity tariff [67].
Therefore, non-oil producing Arab countries must
highly invest in PV/CSP technologies to secure their
electrical power system and continue economical
development without any cease may result from
increasing oil prices and other political situations in
the Middle East. On the other hand, oil producing
Arab countries must also significantly invest in the
solar technologies to contribute to a sustainable policy
that would save oil resources for more generations to
come. Surprisingly, Saudi Arabia burns more than 1.2
million barrels per day for electricity generation [68].
These investments can be achieved by overcome the
technical challenges of PV and benchmark with some
developed countries to establish policies, which will
result in high penetration of PV technology. Lastly,
PV can be recycled so it is friendly after scrapping it
and during the running operation [56].
B.4.3. PV in Dubai
Dubai has policies that support renewable generation
and environment including PV technology. This
section will highlight Dubai and DEWA PV/CSP
projects, for both standalone and grid-connected
applications. Taking standalone projects first, in line
with decree issued by His Highness Sheikh
Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum, UAE Vice
President, Prime Minster, DEWA and Dubai
Municipality have established the specifications and
regulations of “Green Building” at the end of 2010.
This policy will become compulsory by the end of
2013, aiming at reducing energy and water
consumption for new buildings in Dubai [69].
Section 5 Chapter4 (504) [69] is about renewable
energy e.g. clause 5.4.02 indicates that all new
buildings owners, exceeding a particular limit of
power density for outdoor lighting applications, are
obliged to supply the additional required electricity
from a renewable source such as PV systems.
In response to Dubai renewable policy, Dubai
municipality have incorporated PV technology for
small applications such as irrigation of plants and
grass in the roundabouts and road separators [70]. In
addition, new speed radars in Dubai are powered by
PV.
Moreover, in 2009, a sophisticated standalone PV
project was completed to power 1380 outdoor
lighting bulbs in Motor City Green Community
located in Dubai, which is the biggest in Middle East
and North Africa, with a cost of around $2.4 million
[71]. The bulbs used in this project were not the
common 100W lights but rather using Light Emitting
Diode (LED) with 15W rated power, which ease the
installation of PV modules as they only require an
area of a forth square meter. This kind of application
leads to greenhouse gas emission reduction,
electricity saving and almost zero running cost. Also,
this system needs no cables, trenching, back fill, and
others. Besides, it saves monthly electricity bill of
around $4850 in case 100W bulbs were used for 12
hours daily.
Regarding grid-tied PV systems, in response to Dubai
Integrated Energy Strategy 2030 that has been set up
for sustainable development in Dubai, H.H Sheikh
Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum announced in
the beginning of 2012 a huge project of 1GW (utility
scale) grid-connected solar systems, with a cost of
$3.27 billion, called "Mohammed Bin Rashid Al
Maktoum Solar Park". This project is situated in Seih
Al Dahal on Dubai-Al Ain Road. As per Dubai
Integrated Energy Strategy 2030, Dubai's targets 1%
and 5% of its total expected generation from solar
energy by 2020 and 2030, respectively, making the
overall renewable generation from solar energy to be
around 1GW in 2030. This project is a combination of
PV and CSP technologies with 200 MW of PV and
800MW of CSP, as depicted in Fig. 11. The Annual
mean insolation of the project location exploited by
PV and CSP technologies are just over 240W/m2 and
230W/m2, respectively.
This project will be carried out in phases, where the
first phase will be completed in the mid of 2013,
supplying 10MW (extendable to 200MW in the
future), using PV thin film technology with land
usage of 0.375-0.5625 km2. This project will be
managed and operated by DEWA. In this project, the
PV cells will be cleaned by a robot in the absence of
the sun.
Besides, In March 2012, the Dubai-based ABB
factory submitted to DEWA a study of mounting
grid-connected PV system of 30-80kWp (commercial
scale) on the rooftop of the factory. The study was
submitted for approval, as grid-connecting renewable
systems to the distribution network of DEWA is not
allowed as per clause 504.02 of "Grid building"
policy. If approved, the project will be the first BIPV
in Dubai, opening the doors for deploying more
similar systems.
Also, DEWA is reviewing best market practices for
(FiT) to establish regulations and specifications that
will significantly increase the penetration of PV at the
residential and commercial scale. The draft of FiT
policy was completed in April 2012, whilst it is
expected to be effective by 2013.
In addition to the rooftop-mounted PV systems, the
writer suggests that other installation types should be
adopted in Dubai, as shown in Fig. 12. These
installations suit Dubai building architectural style
and the emirate's modern highways.
Fig. 11. Prototype of “Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar
Park”, with a capacity of 1GW
Fig. 12. (a) PV facade in Manchester (a); (b) PV array along a highway in Germany [49]
5. Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs)
The most important customer's technology in the
"smart grid" is the e-car. According to EPRI [72], this
term includes Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
(PHEVs), and Plug-in Electric Vehicles (PEVs). In
addition to the battery, PHEVs has a combustion
engine to be used when the battery is fully depleted.
However, PEVs has only a battery that can be simply
recharged from any socket of external electricity
source (plugged-in to the grid) or from dedicated
Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE). This
technology must be well addressed as it may
significantly raise the peak demand, and increase the
stresses on the power distribution network, despite its
numerous benefits to the environment, customer, and
non-oil producing economics. Hence, numerous
researches have suggested several scenarios to avoid
the aggravation of the present peak demand.
B.5.1. Background of PEVs:
There are many commercially available PEVs with
various battery sizes and different Japanese and
American brands [72]. Most Batteries may vary
between 16kWh and 24Wh. Similar to the traditional
vehicles, PEVs travelling distance depends upon
many factors such as, ambient temperature, weight of
the car (number of the passengers), and driving style,
in addition to the battery size [73]. For example,
Nissan states that Nissan-Leaf can transport for
around 160km in the normal conditions [73]. The
battery can also be recharged in different times based
on the charging facility provided, as explained on the
forthcoming sections.
B.5.2. Structure of PEVs:
Fig. 13 depicts Nissan-LEAF, a PEV, with its
components. The Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE) set the standard for the plug-in connector,
called J1722 [72], [74]-[76] and PEV's single phase
and three phase receptacle.
B.5.3. Charging Structure
There are two kinds of PEVs charging; AC charging
and DC Charging, with different voltage levels as
presented in table V, reproduced from [72], [74], [75],
[77].
Fig. 13. A PEV with its major charging components
B.5.3.a. AC Charging:
The EVSE supplies AC current, converted into DC
current on-board, to recharge the battery. There are
many AC charging Levels as presented in table V,
where Level 1 is the North America standard voltage
that requires around 17 hours to fully recharge a
24kWh battery whereas level 2 (low) is around 2
times faster than level 1 with 8 hours. Moreover,
Level 2 (high) requires half of the time of level 2 at 4
hours to recharge 24kWh battery. As a consequence,
Level 2 would be the most suitable in-home charging
as Level 1 needs very long time that inhibits its
penetration even at North America area. The standard
SAE J1772 connector for AC is shown in Fig. 13 with
its on-board receptacles. Safety requirements for
PEVs charging are thoroughly explained in [72].
TABLE V
PEV’s CHARGING TYPES, LEVELS, AND LOCATIONS
B.5.3.b. DC Charging
Along with AC, some of the PEVs are incorporated
with DC charging that named "quick charging” [72]
as it needs less than half an hour to 80% battery
charging. 80% charging can be achieved in less than
30 minutes but the remaining 20% needs more time to
be achieved so DC charging refers to only 80%
charging because of the chemical features of the
battery [73].
In DC charging, AC current supplied by EVSE is
converted into DC off-board and directly charges the
battery. This Level is not available at homes but it
can be found at private or public stations. In contrast
to AC charging, DC charging has no international
standard for the connector, on-board receptacle, and
safety requirements [72], [74].
B.5.4. Ownership of charging structure:
The PEV battery can be recharged at home, “Electric
stations”, commercial places. According to
Dickerman, Harrison [74] and EPRI [72], a part of
home charging the owners of the charging structure
would be under one of the following:
Municipality owned: Similar to “paid parking”,
municipality can invest by mounting and managing
charging infrastructure in particular areas along with
paid Parking.
Employer owned: Employer can run some charging
infrastructure as an advantage benefit for the
employees. This could be only AC charging as the
PEV mainly stays at work for around 7-8 hours which
is mainly enough to fully recharging the PEV.
Commercially owned: Places such as hotels, malls
and restaurants can operate charging infrastructure of
AC Level 2 and DC to serve their customers.
Privately owned: This can be an individual or
corporate investment, similar to the petrol station to
serve public. This should be a DC charging only.
B.5.5. Benefits of PEVs:
PEVs adoption offers many benefits to the customer,
environment, society and utility.
Taking customers first, the electricity prices are
considerably less than gasoline prices for the same
distance.
With respect to environment, PEVs significantly
reduce burning fossil fuels (gasoline and diesel)
leading to significant carbon foot-print reduction.
Regarding society, PEV can reduce unemployment
rate as it create work opportunities such as installation
of EVSE [77]. In addition, PEVs considerably reduce
the bill of importing oil for non oil producing Arab
countries, whilst they sustain the oil resources for
next generation in oil producing Arab countries.
Turning to utility, despite the obvious technical and
operational problems of increasing penetration of
PEVs in the perspectives of DNO and generation,
PEVs themselves, in the future, may provide technical
solutions for these PEVs problems and moreover
support the integration of renewable energy resources
[76]-[78]. This is fulfilled by using PEVs as an
efficient distributed storage, allowing the customer to
sell electricity back (discharging battery) to the grid at
peak times, where this process is driven by the high
prices of energy at peak times. This facility is well
known as Vehicle-to-Grid, or simply (V2G), which is
not available in today’s first generation PEVs [72],
[76], [77]. In fact, V2G is a promising facility as it
may mitigate the overload on the distribution network
and moreover can be used as frequency regulation
[76], [78] (the battery of PEV is manufactured for fast
discharging [77]). Ipakchi and Albuyeh [77] report
that a successful experiment has been done by “PJM
interconnection” in the United States, to examine the
ability of 19kW battery of PEV for automatic
generation control (frequency regulation). Besides,
V2G can overcome some of the technical challenges
stemmed from adopting renewable generation
(especially volatility of renewable sources).
Through low price signal utility can encourage the
customers to charge their cars at periods where the
renewable energy sources are efficient (high sun
radiation, fast wind) [76]. On the other hand, when
the renewable sources are weak, the utility can
support the renewable generation by encouraging
customers to discharge their PEVs batteries via high
energy prices [76]. To sum up, V2G allows a mean to
overcome the maladies arisen from DRG and PEVs
themselves such as network losses, overloading of
distribution networks, peak-demand, and imbalance
of supply and demand and allow voltage/VAR
control. Despite the benefits of V2G, its implantation
encounters many challenges; one of them is the
availability of smart grid functionalities such as
structure of robust two-way communication [76],
another challenge is "an unproven business model and
economic justification (how much should be the price
to encourage discharging)" [76]. Further challenge is
technology limitation of batteries as they are not
designed for repeated charging and discharging [72]
B.5.6. PEVs at Arab countries:
According to Aljazeera.net [79], in 2010, Jordan
completed the first PV technology charging station
with 26kW capacity. This event coincided with
importing the first PEVs in Jordan. Moreover, Jordan
announces that 100,000 PEVs charging stations with
collaboration of some private and governmental
sectors will be built in the near future [13].
Also, the first charging PEVs station, based on PV
technology, has been recently completed in Dubai.
This station is owned and operated by a car rental
company, which operates a fleet of PEVs and PHEVs
cars for rental.
IV. SMART GRID CHALLANGES
Smart grid technology faces serious challenges,
stemming from the complexity of smart grid system
[7]. Some of these challenges will be discussed
below.
1. AMI Challenges:
In spite of its numerous unprecedented benefits, AMI
has many challenges, which are related to design,
maintenance and data management, as depicted in
Fig. 14, 15, 16 [23].
1.1. Design Challenges (Fig. 14):
Installation of smart meter system is extremely costly
and due to the global economic crises, replacing
traditional metering system with smart one is very
difficult to justify. Smart meters can also be liable to
physical damages so that each smart meter must be
properly housed [23], [80]. Also, the communication
technology must meet the aforementioned
communication requirements, where the most concern
is security.
1.1.a. Security concerns:
As HAN network could be based on IP to exchange
information between the customers and smart meters,
it represents the weakest point in the AMI system. As
a result, this system can be subject to many threats
with respect to the security [2], [7], [8]; these are:
Hacking: Hackers could manipulate their power
consumption readings because the AMIs employs bi-
directional communication, based on IP for HAN
network. Therefore, the AMI will be as vulnerable as
the public internet with respect to the threats of the
security issues 2], [8], [80]. Accordingly, the utility
may lose billions of dollars due to the frauds [2].
Moreover, smart grid's information might be hacked
via cyber-attacks [7], [8], resulting in catastrophic
problems such as major outages, failures in the smart
grid's assets, customers' appliances, and many others
[7].
Malwares: As the smart grid will use the internet
protocol for HAN network, it will be subject to
massive numbers of malwares. These malwares are
softwares designed to disrupt the operation in the
computerised systems, causing disruption in data
exchange between the customers and the utility [8].
In order to mitigate the security problems, many
researches are needed to evaluate security concerns of
AMIs in the laboratory as well as in the field [2].
Besides, plans shall be identified in case of failure via
the hackers or malwares [2].
1.2. Maintenance Challenges:
These challenges are clearly shown in Fig. 15.
1.3. Data management challenges (Fig. 16):
1.3.a. Customers' privacy
As aforementioned, the AMIs will provide the smart
grid with beneficial numerous information, utilized to
resolve many technical and operational maladies.
However, this information can impact the customers'
privacy as the utility will not only know the amount
of power consumption, but also the utility may
deduce the life style and the real-time activities
(sleeping, watching TV, etc) of the residential
customers in addition to the types of the appliances
that the customers have in their homes [2], [7].
Regarding the commercial and industrial customers,
the information may indicate to the operational status
of those customers (e.g. a sudden increase or decrease
of power consumption "may suggest changes in
business operations"), which could be exposed to the
competitive companies or industries [7].
Nonetheless, in order to mitigate this problem,
additional researches are required to address and
assess the privacy problem [2], [7], in addition to
identifying laws and legislations for who would
access to the collected information and what would be
the results in case of exposing the information (e.g.
imposing sanctions, etc) [23].
Fig. 14. Design Challenges of AMI system
. Fig. 15. Maintenance Challenges of AMI system
Fig. 16. Data Management Challenges of AMI system
1.3.b. Data Management Complexity:
A serious management difficulties might be faced as a
result of the unprecedentedly abundant information
that will be available for the smart grid via the AMIs
that may lead to some problems in system planning
and maintenance level due to the large numbers of
decision making [3], [6].
2. Technical challenges of PV:
In spite of the aforementioned benefits of PV
technology, there are many technical challenges,
which arise as a result of grid interconnection of PV
to the power distribution network.
Among these are voltage rise, voltage flicker,
intermittency of renewable generation, increase in
short circuit capacity, islanding and harmonics [81],
[82]. Harmonics are generated by inverters. IEEE Std
929-2000 specifies the Total Harmonic Distortion
(THD) of the inverter’s output current for PV systems
having a rating of 10KW to be less than 5% of the
fundamental frequency current at rated power [81].
Cleaning of PV cells, particularly for utility scale
application might be another challenge in dusty areas.
Cleaning is mainly done by a robot in the absence of
the sun. Many PV challenges can be overcome by
successful implementation of other smart grid
technologies. For example, voltage rise can be
overcome by Volt/VAR automation of the
distribution feeders, whilst islanding mode can be
detected by AMI system as explained earlier. Also,
V2G feature can alleviate the volatility of renewable
generation.
3. Impacts of PEVS on the Grid
3.1. Impact of PEVS in PEAK demand
Increasing the number of PEVs would affect the
power systems at all including generation,
transmission, and distribution, where the latter will
fall as victim of PEVs if the impacts of high
penetration of PEVs have not been well addressed.
Hence, many researches have been done to study the
effect of PEVs on the power system [72], [74], [77],
[83], and concluded that PEVs can radically increase
the load demand, creating worse technical and
operational problems comparing with today's grid
when the charging happens simultaneously with
today’s peak demand times. Therefore, In order to
alleviate this problem, the vehicles shall be charged
during the off-peak times.
EPRI [72] has thoroughly studied and examined the
impact of charging PEVs by residential customers
only as most of the charging will be done at homes. In
fact, EPRI has investigated three different modes,
"Uncontrolled Charging", "Managed Off-Peak
Charge Control", Set-time charge Control at 9pm”,
which are described below.
3.1.a. Uncontrolled Charging:
This mode assumes that the residential customers
begin charging their PEVs as soon as they reach their
homes. Fig. 17 illustrates the average time arrival of
the American driver (blue bar-chart), while the red
curve depicts the average cumulative drivers arrival in
the USA [72], [75].
Fig. 17 also shows that most residential drivers, just
over 12%, reach homes at 6pm and just fewer than
80% of the cumulative drivers are home at 9pm.
EPRI argues that the curve is fairly fine distributed,
and so the charging of PEVs. As a result, the PEVs
Fig. 17. Average time arrival and average cumulative time arrival
of the American drivers [72], [75]
charging inherently would not aggravate today’s peak
demand, which is assumed to be from 12-6 pm, valid
in almost in all countries, including the UAE.
3.1.b. Managed Off-Peak Charge Control
This is the most preferable mode from the point view
of generation system as in this situation the PEVs are
only allowed to starting charging only between 9pm-
3am, where the cars are phased at off-peak times.
This can be achieved by smart charging, and energy
price signals. Also, most PEVs are equipped with on
board facility that can programmed to start and end
charging so this allow the customers to plug in their
cars and set the best time they want and go to sleep.
3.1.c. Set-Time Charge Control at 9pm:
This represents the worst case scenario, according to
EPRI [1]. For instance, if the PEVs are allowed to be
charged after 9pm without any control manner, this
will dramatically boost the load from off-peak to peak
at 9pm as the cumulative percentage of the cars,
which have reached homes and ready to be charged,
are slightly less than 80%.
Most probably, these cars will be switched on at 9pm,
shifting the demand from off-peak to peak within a
very short time, leading to operational and technical
problems for the generation sector.
According to EPRI's investigation of the e-cars load
demand [1], Fig.18 illustrates the expected e-car fleet
of 520,000 vehicles load demand in USA in 2015 for
the aforementioned three modes. It clearly shows that
'set time charge at 9pm' would considerably raise the
demand to almost 2GW in comparison to slightly
more than 0.3GW and around 0.38GW for
“uncontrolled” and “managed off-peak” modes.
Furthermore, "managed off peak” is only distributed
during off-peak time. As a consequence, “managed
off-peak” is the best solution for addressing e-cars
peak demand for generation system.
Fig. 18. Impact of "Uncontrolled Charging", "Managed Off-Peak
Charge Control", Set-time charge Control at 9pm” on the demand
[72]
3.2. Impact of PEVs in the distribution System:
Fig. 19 illustrates the average load of the residential
customers in a particular country along with the
charging load of PEVs at off-peak times, in which the
charging type is AC level1 (120V, 15A) [77]. Despite
the use of the lowest charging level, it is clearly
shown that the normal load shape is affected, with
increasing of more than 50% of the average load in
the three seasons. Furthermore, higher level of
charging has a marked impact on the pattern of the
average residential load.
Accordingly, numerous detailed researches have
examined the impact of PEVs on the distribution
system; it was found that the impact is undoubtedly
significant, and therefore it must be well addressed.
EPRI [72] points out that the penetration of PEVs
results in planning and operation difficulties as PEVs
charging increases the stresses on the distribution
circuits i.e. Cables, distribution transformers, RMUs,
LVDBs, and others. Taylor etal. [75], Maitra etal. [9]
and Ipakchi & Albuyeh [77] evaluate the impact of
PEVs on the distribution circuits and reveal that PEVs
charging adversely affects thermal loading of the
distribution circuits, system voltage, as well as
voltage regulation. They add that PEVs charging
increases distribution network losses, voltage
unbalance and feeder overloading [75], [77], [84].
Also, harmonics shall be taken in account as lots of
them are generated by the charging inverters leading
to many other problems such as low power quality
and overloaded distribution circuits [77], [85].
Besides, the impact of thermal stresses (due to
harmonics) on the aging rate of the distribution
transformers have been addressed [72], [75], [86],
[87], [88].
Fig. 19. Impact of PEVs on the household load [77]
4. Overall cost of the Smart Grid:
There are two visions to design and construct the
Smart Grid [4], [5]. The first one is to construct Smart
Grid from the scratch without using the existing
system of today's grid, which would be complex but
easy and possible to do , whereas the second one is to
adjust today's grid into Smart Grid, which might need
decades as the structure of the Smart Grid is different
from today's grid [4], [5].
However, both visions are considerably costly, and
therefore huge funding is required to examine and
evaluate Smart Grid's technologies [13]. Actually, in
Europe, USA, and other developed countries the
governments along with some industries assign
billions of dollars for smart grid development, but
more is required in order for the smart grid to become
a reality [2]. In Arab countries, in 2012, DEWA
invited consultant companies to submit their
perspectives towards the idea of Smart Grid
implementation in Dubai. In 2012, Jordan revealed
that $1 million is dedicated for studying Smart Grid
idea. EPRI published an extensive technical report in
2011, estimating the costs of the Smart Grid
technology, which can be greatly beneficial for
governments and utilities in order to estimate the
benefits of smart grid in relation to its cost [11]. It
points out that distribution system technologies in
USA require between 232 and 339.5 billion to
achieve full smart grid functionality [11]. In fact,
these numbers exclude customers’ technologies
needed for smart grid functionality such as HAN
network.
5. Required Standards
Leading engineering institutions along with
governments shall work together to identify the
standards of smart grid such as [6]:
Home- to- Grid
Industrial-to-Grid
Commercial site-to-Grid
Plug-in Grid-to- Vehicles
Plug-in Vehicles to grid (V2G)
Security and Cyber Security
Wired/Wireless Communication
Customer's privacy
In 2011, IEEE published a comprehensive standard
on Smart Grid interoperability of energy technology
and information technology operation with electrical
power system numbered IEEE Std 2030-201 [90].
IV. CONCLUSION
In conclusion, today's grid is dumb, overstressed and
faces serious financial, environmental and operational
challenges; therefore it must be modernized into a
smart one that uses two-way real-time communication
system and modern technologies to overcome the
challenges of today’s grid, resulting in a higher
reliability, stability and quality of power supply at a
lower cost. The smart Grid has many characteristics
such as:
Self-healing
It is accomplished by having automation system for
the substations, feeders and customer’s smart
appliances along with the real-time information
provided from the AMI system, used to detect, isolate
and redistribute power supply in case of outages.
Consumer friendly
Customers can control and manage their energy
consumption, depending on the real-time dynamic
tariff, which is sent by AMI system. The reaction to
the tariff signals can be manual or automatic in case
of HAN and HEMS.
Accommodate a wide range of DRG and storage
options:
Smart Grid can encounter the maladies of DRG such
as islanding and intermittency through AMI system
and storage devices i.e. batteries of PEVs.
Allow electricity markets to emerge and grow:
Smart Grid will enable new services (e.g. real-time
pricing), and markets (e.g. PV and PEVs including
EVSEs).
Asset management Optimisation:
Smart Grid will be able to have abundant
unprecedented information through AMI, which can
be used to optimise asset operations management and
also the maintenance policies, such as RCM.
Have high reliability and power quality:
Smart Grid’s power quality and reliability will be
compiled with customer’s needs, through AMI
system and Smart Grid automation systems.
Withstand Cyber and physical attacks:
Smart grid shall be designed to fend of hackers and
any planned physical attacks by the network operators
themselves or customers.
However, the Smart Grid also confronts challenges
that may inhibit its implementation. In fact, some of
these challenges can aggravate the problems of
today's grid such as great PEVs emergence. Plenty
challenges can be overcome through the integration of
all smart Grid technologies. For example, efficient
AMI deployment allows successful implementation
of PEVs and DRG, and also V2G can help face the
volatility of renewable generation.
The smart grid concept can be a reality in the near
future, provided that the leading engineering
organisations along with the governments would
develop the vision of the Smart Grid. Is it going to be
built from the scratch or by modifying the current
grid?.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and deepest
sense of appreciation towards my Senior Manager of Asset
Management, Mr. Matar Al Mehairi, for his undying
support and assistance throughout the progress of this
research paper. I have been most fortunate to work under
his supervision.
I would also like to thank Mohammed Al Suwaidi (VP of
Distribution Maintenance), and by extension, Rashid bin
Humaidan (EVP, Power Distribution) and Saeed Al Tayer
(Managing Director & CEO) for affording me the
opportunity to work at DEWA. It has truly been a
rewarding experience.
I wish to also give a special thanks to Sharif Albatayneh
(Assistant Manager of R&A), my friend Jihad Kamal for
editing the English of this paper and my fellow colleagues
within the Asset management department for their
contribution. I thank my beloved family for all of their
support they have lent to me especially during difficult
times. Finally, I thank Almighty God for giving me the
opportunity, patience and strength to complete this task.
REFERENCES
[1] Xu Wei; Zhou Yu-hui; Zhu Jie-lin; , "Energy-efficient distribution in Smart Grid," Sustainable Power Generation and
Supply, 2009. SUPERGEN '09. International Conference on , vol.,
no., pp.1-6, 6-7 April 2009. [2] McDaniel, P.; McLaughlin, S.; , "Security and Privacy
Challenges in the Smart Grid," Security & Privacy, IEEE , vol.7,
no.3, pp.75-77, May-June 2009.
[3] Momoh, J.A.; , "Smart Grid design for efficient and flexible
power networks operation and control," Power Systems Conference
and Exposition, 2009. PSCE '09. IEEE/PES , vol., no., pp.1-8, 15-18 March 2009.
[4] Brown, R.E.; , "Impact of Smart Grid on distribution system
design," Power and Energy Society General Meeting - Conversion and Delivery of Electrical Energy in the 21st Century, 2008 IEEE ,
vol., no., pp.1-4, 20-24 July 2008.
[5] Hassan, R.; Radman, G.; , "Survey on Smart Grid," IEEE SoutheastCon 2010 (SoutheastCon), Proceedings of the , vol., no.,
pp.210-213, 18-21 March 2010.
[6] DeBlasio, R.; Tom, C.; , "Standards for the Smart Grid," Energy 2030 Conference, 2008. ENERGY 2008. IEEE , vol., no., pp.1-7,
17-18 Nov. 2008.
[7] Khurana, H.; Hadley, M.; Ning Lu; Frincke, D.A.; , "Smart-Grid Security Issues," Security & Privacy, IEEE , vol.8, no.1,
pp.81-85, Jan.-Feb. 2010.
[8] Iyer, G.; Agrawal, P.; , "Smart power grids," System Theory
(SSST), 2010 42nd Southeastern Symposium on , vol., no., pp.152-
155, 7-9 March 2010.
[9] Moslehi, K.; Kumar, R.; , "Smart Grid - a reliability perspective," Innovative Smart Grid Technologies (ISGT), 2010 ,
vol., no., pp.1-8, 19-21 Jan. 2010.
[10] Rahimi, F.; Ipakchi, A.; , "Demand Response as a Market Resource Under the Smart Grid Paradigm," Smart Grid, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.1, no.1, pp.82-88, June 2010
[11] Estimating the Costs and Benefits of the Smart Grid: A Preliminary Estimate of the
Investment Requirements and the Resultant Benefits of a Fully
Functioning Smart Grid. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011.1022519. [12] N.G. Hingorani and L Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS –
Concepts and
Technology of Flexible AC Transmission Systems, IEEE Press, New York, 2000.
[13] Ashmole, P.H., "Introduction to `FACTS'," Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS) - The Key to Increased Utilisation of Power Systems, IEE
Colloquium on
(Digest No.1994/005) , vol., no., pp.1/1-1/2, 12 Jan 1994. [14] Al-Mohaisen, A.; Sud, S.; , "Update on the Gulf Cooperation
Council (GCC) electricity grid system interconnection," Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2006. IEEE , vol., no., pp.6
[15] Al-Mohaisen, A.; Chausse, L.; Sud, S.; , "Progress Report on
the GCC Electricity Grid System Interconnection in the Middle East," Power Engineering Society General Meeting, 2007. IEEE ,
vol., no., pp.1-7, 24-28 June 2007
[16] Lui, T.J.; Stirling, W.; Marcy, H.O.; , "Get Smart," Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.8, no.3, pp.66-78, May-June 2010
[17] Kim, T.T.; Poor, H.V.; , "Scheduling Power Consumption
With Price Uncertainty," Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on , vol.2, no.3, pp.519-527, Sept. 2011
[18] Wang, P.; Huang, J.Y.; Ding, Y.; Loh, P.; Goel, L.; , "Demand
Side Load Management of Smart Grids using intelligent trading/Metering/ Billing System," Power and Energy Society
General Meeting, 2010 IEEE , vol., no., pp.1-6, 25-29 July 2010
[19] Deconinck, G.; Delvaux, B.; De Craemer, K.; Zhifeng Qiu; Belmans, R.; , "Smart meters from the angles of consumer
protection and public service obligations," Intelligent System
Application to Power Systems (ISAP), 2011 16th International Conference on , vol., no., pp.1-6, 25-28 Sept. 2011
[20] Saint, B.; , "Rural distribution system planning using Smart
Grid Technologies," Rural Electric Power Conference, 2009. REPC '09. IEEE , vol., no., pp.B3-B3-8, 26-29 April 2009.
[21] Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) System Security
Requirements, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA <2009> <Product ID>. [22] Pengwei Du; Ning Lu; , "Appliance Commitment for
Household Load Scheduling," Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on ,
vol.2, no.2, pp.411-419, June 2011 [23] Depuru, S.S.S.R.; Lingfeng Wang; Devabhaktuni, V.; Gudi,
N.; , "Smart meters for power grid — Challenges, issues,
advantages and status," Power Systems Conference and Exposition (PSCE), 2011 IEEE/PES , vol., no., pp.1-7, 20-23 March 2011
[24] Popa, M.; , "Data collecting from smart meters in an Advanced
Metering Infrastructure," Intelligent Engineering Systems (INES),
2011 15th IEEE International Conference on , vol., no., pp.137-142, 23-25 June 2011
[25] Benzi, F.; Anglani, N.; Bassi, E.; Frosini, L.; , "Electricity
Smart Meters Interfacing the Households," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.58, no.10, pp.4487-4494, Oct. 2011
[26] “IEEE Guide for Electric Power Distribution Reliability
Indices," IEEE Std 1366-2003 (Revision of IEEE Std 1366-1998) , vol., no., pp.0_1, 2004
[27] Tran Khanh Viet, D.; Agbossou, K.; Doumbia, M.L.; ,
"Islanding detection for utility interconnection of multiple distributed generators," Electrical and Computer Engineering,
2008. CCECE 2008. Canadian Conference on , vol., no.,
pp.000557-000560, 4-7 May 2008 [28] Moubray J., Reliability Centered Maintenance , Industrial
Press Inc.,2nd edition. 1997
[29] Suslov, K.V.; Solonina, N.N.; Smirnov, A.S.; , "Smart meters
for distributed filtering of high harmonics in Smart Grid," Power
Engineering, Energy and Electrical Drives (POWERENG), 2011
International Conference on , vol., no., pp.1-5, 11-13 May 2011 [30] Pasdar, A.; Mirzakuchaki, S.; , "Three phase power line
balancing based on smart energy meters," EUROCON 2009,
EUROCON '09. IEEE , vol., no., pp.1876-1878, 18-23 May 2009 [31] Hamilton, K.; Gulhar, N.; , "Taking Demand Response to the
Next Level," Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.8, no.3,
pp.60-65, May-June 2010 [32] Saele, H.; Grande, O.S.; , "Demand Response From
Household Customers: Experiences From a Pilot Study in
Norway," Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on , vol.2, no.1, pp.102-109, March 2011
[33] Bennett, C.; Highfill, D.; , "Networking AMI Smart Meters,"
Energy 2030 Conference, 2008. ENERGY 2008. IEEE , vol., no., pp.1-8, 17-18 Nov. 2008
[34] Gungor, V.C.; Sahin, D.; Kocak, T.; Ergut, S.; Buccella, C.;
Cecati, C.; Hancke, G.P.; , "Smart Grid Technologies: Communication Technologies and Standards," Industrial
Informatics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.7, no.4, pp.529-539, Nov.
2011 [35] Peizhong Yi; Iwayemi, A.; Chi Zhou; , "Developing ZigBee
Deployment Guideline Under WiFi Interference for Smart Grid Applications," Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on , vol.2, no.1,
pp.110-120, March 2011
[36] Erol-Kantarci, M.; Mouftah, H.T.; , "Wireless Sensor Networks for Cost-Efficient Residential Energy Management in the
Smart Grid," Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on , vol.2, no.2,
pp.314-325, June 2011 [37] Sauter, T.; Lobashov, M.; , "End-to-End Communication
Architecture for Smart Grids," Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.58, no.4, pp.1218-1228, April 2011 [38] Husheng Li; Lifeng Lai; Weiyi Zhang; , "Communication
Requirement for Reliable and Secure State Estimation and Control
in Smart Grid," Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on , vol.2, no.3, pp.476-486, Sept. 2011
[39] Park, B.S.; Hyun, D.H.; Cho, S.K.; , "Implementation of AMR
system using power line communication," Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exhibition 2002: Asia Pacific.
IEEE/PES , vol.1, no., pp. 18- 21 vol.1, 6-10 Oct. 2002
[40] Thomas, M.S.; Arora, S.; Chandna, V.K.; , "Distribution automation leading to a smarter grid," Innovative Smart Grid
Technologies - India (ISGT India), 2011 IEEE PES , vol., no.,
pp.211-216, 1-3 Dec. 2011 [41] Hua Leng; Hongyan Zhou; Zhong Chen; Junhui Zhao;
Caisheng Wang; , "Application of IEC60870-5-104 protocol in
Smart Distribution Grid and its test method," North American Power Symposium (NAPS), 2011 , vol., no., pp.1-4, 4-6 Aug. 2011
[42] Gill, H. M.; , "Smart Grid distribution automation for public
power," Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition, 2010 IEEE PES , vol., no., pp.1-4, 19-22 April 2010
[43] Zavoda, F.; , "Advanced distribution automation (ADA)
applications and power quality in Smart Grids," Electricity
Distribution (CICED), 2010 China International Conference on ,
vol., no., pp.1-7, 13-16 Sept. 2010
[44] Mamo, X.; Mallet, S.; Coste, T.; Grenard, S.; , "Distribution automation: The cornerstone for smart grid development strategy,"
Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 2009. PES '09. IEEE ,
vol., no., pp.1-6, 26-30 July 2009 [45] Mohagheghi, S.; Tournier, J.-C.; Stoupis, J.; Guise, L.; Coste,
T.; Andersen, C.A.; Dall, J.; , "Applications of IEC 61850 in
distribution automation," Power Systems Conference and Exposition (PSCE), 2011 IEEE/PES , vol., no., pp.1-9, 20-23
March 2011
[46] Breyer, C.; Gerlach, A.; Beckel, O.; Schmid, J.; , "Value of solar PV electricity in MENA region," Energy Conference and
Exhibition (EnergyCon), 2010 IEEE International , vol., no.,
pp.558-563, 18-22 Dec. 2010 [47] Ch. Breyer and J. Schmid, Population Density and Area
weighted Solar Irradiation: global Overview on Solar Resource
Conditions for fixed tilted, 1-axis and 2-axes PV Systems,
Proceedings 25th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference/
WCPEC-5, Valencia 2010, September 6 – 10
[48] “Program on Technology Innovation: Integrated Generation Technology Options,” EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1022782
[49] P. A. Lynn, Electricity from Sunlight: An Introduction to
Photovoltaics, John Wiley & SONS, Ltd., 2010 [50] Kroposki, B.; Margolis, R.; Ton, D.; , "Harnessing the sun,"
Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.7, no.3, pp.22-33, May-
June 2009 [51] “Concentrating Photovoltaics: An Emerging Competitor for
the Utility Energy Market,” EPRI, November 2010
[52] “RENEWABLES 2011: GLOBAL STATUS REPORT,” REN21, 2011[online].
Available:
http://www.ren21.net/Portals/97/documents/GSR/REN21_GSR2011.pdf
[53] Alboteanu, L.; , "Energy efficiency of stand alone photovoltaic
systems used in electrical drive for positioning ramps of anti hail missile," Electrical and Electronics Engineering (ISEEE), 2010 3rd
International Symposium on , vol., no., pp.303-307, 16-18 Sept.
2010 [54] “Photovoltaic Energy: Electricity From The Sun,” European
Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), April 2010 [55] J. Wood, Local Energy Distributed generation of heat and
power, The Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET),
London, UK, 2008 [56] “Solar Generation 6: Solar Photovoltaic Electricity
Empowering The World,” European Photovoltaic Industry
Association (EPIA), February 2011 [57] “Solar Photovoltaics: Competing in the Energy Sectors- On
The Road To Competitiveness,” European Photovoltaic Industry
Association (EPIA), September 2011 [58] "IEEE Guide for Terrestrial Photovoltaic Power System
Safety," IEEE Std 1374-1998 , vol., no., pp.i,
[59] "IEEE Recommended Practice for Qualification of Photovoltaic (PV) Modules," IEEE Std 1262-1995, vol., no., pp.i,
1996
[60] “Global Market Outlook For photovoltaics until 2015,” European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), May 2011
[61] “Market Report,” European Photovoltaic Industry Association
(EPIA), January 2012 [62] “Unlocking The Sunbelt : Potential Of Photovoltaics,”
European Photovoltaic Industry Association (EPIA), March 2011
[63] "Renewable Energy World,”, June 2009 [online]. Available:
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/06/m
asdar-connects-10-mw-pv-to-grid [64] "Europe Sun Fields,”, [online].
Available:
http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/rea/news/article/2009/06/masdar-connects-10-mw-pv-to-grid
[65] “Trends In Photovoltaic Applications Survey report of selected
IEA countries between 1992 and 2010,” International Energy Agency, Photovoltaic Power Systems (IEA PVPS), 2011
[66] "Government Buildings Get Solar Panels,”, October 2011
[online].
Available: http://www.abudhabi.ae/egovPoolPortal_WAR/appmanager/ADeG
P/Citizen?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=p_citizen_en_homepage_hiden
av&did=308804&lang=en [67] Taylor Luck;," Electricity prices rise amidst Egyptian gas
‘crisis’”, Jordan Times, January 2012 [online].
Available: http://jordantimes.com/electricity-prices-rise-amidst-egyptian-gas-crisis
[68] S. Husain;," Growing Saudi consumption for its own crude
cause for concern’”, Arab news.com, July 2011 [online]. Available: http://arabnews.com/economy/article476846.ece
[69] “Green Building: Regulations & Specifications - Highlights,”
Dubai Electricity & Water Authority (DEWA), Dubai, UAE, December 2011
[70] H. Abu Nea’ma, “بلدية دبي تروي مزروعات الدوارات بالطاقة الشمسية”,
Dubai, UAE, PP. 3 ,(February, 25, 2012) جريدة االمارات اليوم
[71] V. Todorova," Solar Power Project Fails to Catch on”, The
National, September 2011 [online].
Available:http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae news/environment/solar-power-project-fails-to-catch-on#
[72] “Transportation Electrification: A Technology Overview,”
EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2011. 1021334 [73] Nick Chambers, "Nissan LEAF’”, October 2010 [online].
Available: http://www.plugincars.com/nissan-leaf/review
[74] Dickerman, L.; Harrison, J.; , "A New Car, a New Grid," Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.8, no.2, pp.55-61, March-
April 2010
[75] Taylor, J.; Maitra, A.; Alexander, M.; Brooks, D.; Duvall, M.; , "Evaluation of the impact of plug-in electric vehicle loading on
distribution system operations," Power & Energy Society General
Meeting, 2009. PES '09. IEEE , vol., no., pp.1-6, 26-30 July 2009 [76] Wencong Su; Eichi, H.; Wente Zeng; Mo-Yuen Chow; , "A
Survey on the Electrification of Transportation in a Smart Grid
Environment," Industrial Informatics, IEEE Transactions on , vol.8, no.1, pp.1-10, Feb. 2012
[77 Ipakchi, A.; Albuyeh, F.; , "Grid of the future," Power and
Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.7, no.2, pp.52-62, March-April 2009 [78] Ota, Y.; Taniguchi, H.; Nakajima, T.; Liyanage, K.M.; Baba,
J.; Yokoyama, A.; , "Autonomous Distributed V2G (Vehicle-to-Grid) Satisfying Scheduled Charging," Smart Grid, IEEE
Transactions on , vol.3, no.1, pp.559-564, March 2012
[79] M. Najar, “ تعمل على الكهرباء باألردن سيارات ”, Aljazeera.net, October 2011 [online].
Available: http://www.aljazeera.net/news/pages/a671cfe7-a231-
4218-b39c-7f5bb651f313 [80] Chen, T.M.; Sanchez-Aarnoutse, J.C.; Buford, J.; , "Petri Net
Modeling of Cyber-Physical Attacks on Smart Grid," Smart Grid,
IEEE Transactions on , vol.2, no.4, pp.741-749, Dec. 2011 [81] "IEEE Recommended Practice for Utility Interface of
Photovoltaic (PV) Systems," IEEE Std 929-2000 , vol., no., pp.i,
2000 [82] S. Chowdhury; S.P. Chowdhury; P. Crossley, Microgrids and
Active Distribution Networks, The Institution of Engineering and
Technology (IET), London, UK, 2009 [83] Pieltain Fern ndez, L. G mez San Rom n, T. Cossent, R.
Domingo, C.M. Fr as, P. , "Assessment of the Impact of Plug-in
Electric Vehicles on Distribution Networks," Power Systems, IEEE Transactions on , vol.26, no.1, pp.206-213, Feb. 2011
[84] Maitra, Arindam; Kook, Kyung Soo; Taylor, Jason; Giumento,
Angelo; , "Grid impacts of plug-in electric vehicles on Hydro Quebec's distribution system," Transmission and Distribution
Conference and Exposition, 2010 IEEE PES , vol., no., pp.1-7, 19-
22 April 2010 [85] De Nigris, M.; Gianinoni, I.; Grillo, S.; Massucco, S.;
Silvestro, F.; , "Impact evaluation of plug-in electric vehicles
(PEV) on electric distribution networks," Harmonics and Quality of Power (ICHQP), 2010 14th International Conference on , vol., no.,
pp.1-6, 26-29 Sept. 2010
[86] Qiuming Gong; Midlam-Mohler, S.; Marano, V.; Rizzoni, G.; , "Study of PEV Charging on Residential Distribution Transformer
Life," Smart Grid, IEEE Transactions on , vol.3, no.1, pp.404-412,
March 2012
[87] Amoroso, F.A.; Cappuccino, G.; , "Potentiality of variable-rate PEVs charging strategies for smart grids," PowerTech, 2011 IEEE
Trondheim , vol., no., pp.1-6, 19-23 June 2011
[88] Brooks, A.; Lu, E.; Reicher, D.; Spirakis, C.; Weihl, B.; , "Demand Dispatch," Power and Energy Magazine, IEEE , vol.8,
no.3, pp.20-29, May-June 2010
[89] Adam Lane, "Jordan set to explore smart grid upgrades”, April 2012 [online].
Available: http://www.utilities-me.com/article-1901-jordan-set-to-
explore-smart-grid-upgrades/ [90] "IEEE Guide for Smart Grid Interoperability of Energy
Technology and Information Technology Operation with the
Electric Power System (EPS), End-Use Applications, and Loads," IEEE Std 2030-2011 , vol., no., pp.1-126, Sept. 10 2011
BIOGRAPHIES
top related