policy brief on female labor force participation in ... labor force participation in pakistan is...

• Despiteincreasesinrecentyears,femalelaborforceparticipationinPakistan,at25%,iswellbelowratesforcountrieswithsimilarincomelevels.Evenamongwomenwithhighlevelsofeducation,laborforceparticipationlags:onlyaround25%ofwomenwithauniversitydegreeinPakistanareworking.

• Thislowfemalelaborforceparticipationrepresentsamajorlossofpotentialproductivity.Italsohasimportantimplicationsforwomen’sempowerment,asworkingwomenaremorelikelytoplayaroleinhouseholddecisionmakingcomparedwithnonworkingwomeninthesamevillagesoreveninthesamefamilies.

• ThestudyfoundthatmanywomeninPakistanwouldliketowork;therearemultiplereasonswhytheydonot.Oneofthekeyreasons—onwhichpolicycouldhaveaneffect—isthatwomenfacerestrictionsontheirphysicalmobilityoutsidethehome.

• Severalinterconnectedfactorsrestrictwomen’smobilityoutsidethehome,amongthem(i)social,cultural,andreligiousnorms;(ii)safetyandcrime;and(iii)thequalityofavailabletransportservices.

Policy Brief on female laBor force ParticiPation in Pakistan1

introduction

InPakistan,womenworkprimarilyinthehomeoronthefarm.Theirparticipationinworkoutsidetheseareas,particularlyinformalemployment,isextremelylow.ItispossiblethatsomeformsofworkbyPakistaniwomenmaybeundercountedinsurveys,asalargeproportionofsurveyrespondentsmaybeworkinginagricultureordoinginformalworkathome,whichisnotcountedandreportedaswork.However,thestudyanalysisofthe2007PakistanTimeUseSurveysuggeststhatthisisnotamajordriverofthepatterns.2ThesurveyevidenceclearlyindicatesthataverylowproportionofPakistaniwomenworkoutsidethehome,wherebest-paidworkopportunitiesabound.

female laBor force ParticiPation trend

FemalelaborforceparticipationinPakistanisstillwellbelowlevelsinothercountrieswithsimilarincomes(Figure1),despitegrowingbymorethanhalfoverthepast2decades.Evenamongwomenwithahighlevelofeducation,laborforceparticipationislow—onlyabout25%ofPakistaniwomenwhohaveauniversitydegreeworkoutsidethehome.

Women’slowlaborforceparticipationresultsinasignificantpotentiallossofproductivity.Tobesure,femalelaborforceparticipationinPakistanhasgrownalongsidegrossdomesticproduct(GDP)overtime(Figure2),witheconomicgrowthbringinginopportunitiesandworkingwomencontributingtooverallproduction.

1 Thisbrief,preparedbySakikoTanakaandMaricorMuzones,summarizestheFemale Labor Force Participation in Asia: Pakistan Country Study,preparedbyProfessorEricaFieldandPostdoctoralAssociateKateVybornyfromDukeUniversityundertheAsianDevelopmentBank’sResearchandDevelopmentTechnicalAssistance8620onEconomicAnalysisforGenderandDevelopment.

2 ThePakistanTimeUseSurvey2007(samplesize19,000households)isrepresentativeofallfourmajorprovincesinPakistan.Thesurveyincludesquestionstomeasuretheimpactofwomen’slaborforceparticipationontheirwell-beingsuchashoursofmarketwork,workathome,andrest.

ADBBRIEFSno. 70

OCTOBER 2016

key messaGes

ISBN978-92-9257-625-7(Print)ISBN978-92-9257-626-4(e-ISBN)ISSN2071-7202(Print)ISSN2218-2675(e-ISBN)PublicationStockNo.ABF168495-2

2

ADBBRIEFSNO.70

morelikelyabletoinsistonworking).Butthefactthattheeffectpersistsevenwhencomparingwomeninthesamehouseholdsuggeststhatworkhasanempoweringeffect.Ray(2000)observesthatinhouseholdssurveyedinanationallyrepresentative1991sample,children’soverallshareofhouseholdearningswasonlyslightlylessthanthatofwomen.Hearguesthatbecauseofculturalorreligiousrestrictionsagainstwomenworkingoutsidethehome,householdsinPakistanrelymoreonchildlabor,especiallythatofboys—afindingthatsuggeststhatincreasingfemalelaborforceparticipationmightdecreasechildlabor.

Moreimportantly,womeninPakistandonottakeuppaidemploymentbecauseofmobilityrestrictionsresultingfrombothculturalandsocialnormsandsecurityconcerns.

Almost40%ofwomenwhoarenotworkingreportthatthemainreasonforthisisthatmalefamilymembersdonotpermitthemtoworkoutsidethehome.Another15%saythatitisbecausetheythemselvesdonotwanttoworkoutsidethehome.Amongwomenwhosaythattheywouldbewillingtowork,aboutathirdsaythattheywouldbewillingtoworkonlywithintheirownhome.Particularlytellingisthat,ofthosewhodowork,30%workintheirownhome.Eventhosewomenwhodoleavehometoworkdonottravelasfartotheirworkplaceasmendo.

Veryfewwomenindicatethattheyare“available”towork(Figure3),andalmostnonereportactivelyseekingwork.Yet,Figure4showsthat40%ofwomenwhoarenotemployedreportthattheydidnothaveenoughtodointhepreviousday.Thesepatternsaresimilaramongnonemployedwomeninurbanandruralareas.

Paidworkmayalsobringotherimportantbenefits,particularlyinincreasingwomen’sdecision-makingpowerinthehousehold.Basedonanalysisofnationaldata,Fatima(2014)findsthatwomenwhoworkaremorelikelythanothersinthesamevillagetohaveasayinwhethertousecontraception(controllingforvillagefixedeffects),andmorelikelythanotherwomeninthesamehouseholdtohaveasayinhouseholdexpenditures(controllingforhouseholdfixedeffects).Itispossiblethatcausationrunsintheoppositedirection(thatwomenwhohaveastrongerpositioninthehouseholdare

Figure 1: Female Labor Force Participation and GNI per Capita Worldwide

Figure 2: Income and Female Labor Force Participation

Figure 3: Availability for Work

PRC=People’sRepublicofChina,LFPR=laborforceparticipationrate,GNI=grossnationalincome.Note:Labordataforages15+excludestheMiddleEast.Source:forGNI:WorldBank;forLFPR:InternationalLabourOrganization(2013).

FLFP=femalelaborforceparticipation,GDP=grossdomesticproduct.Sources:InternationalLabourOrganization(2014);WorldBank(2014).

Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.LabourForceSurvey2009-10.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labour-force-survey-2009-10

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Policy Brief on Female Labor Force Participation in Pakistan

3

Figure5showsthatresponsesdiffersignificantlywhenwomenareaskedaslightlydifferentquestion:“Wouldyouworkifyoucouldfindasuitablejob?”Approximatelyaquarterofthewomenanswered“yes.”Ifallofthesewomenworked,thiswouldconceivablydoublefemalelaborforceparticipationinPakistan.Similarproportionsofwomenanswer“yes”tothisquestioninbothruralandurbanareas,eveninthemostsociallyconservativeprovinces,whereactualfemalelaborforceparticipationisverylow(Figure6).Sothequestionremains,whatmakesa“suitable”job?

WaGe

Onepotentialexplanationforlowfemalelaborforceparticipationisthatthejobsavailabletowomenpaylowwages.Womenearnlessthanmen,andthisdifferencehasbeenpersistent(Figure7).3

Wagediscriminationisapossibleexplanationforthispatternbutisdifficulttodistinguishempiricallyfromdifferencesinskillsandexperience.Occupationalsegregationofwomenincombinationwithlowdemandintheoccupationsconsideredsuitableforwomenisanother.Cheemaetal.(2012)findthatalargepercentageoffirmshirenowomenatall,makingitconsistentwithstronggendernormsonthetypeofworktakenupandalsowithspecificcostsperceivedbyemployersforhavingwomenintheworkplace,suchasthecostofensuringtheirsecurity.Marketreturnstoeducationappeartobehighlyconvexforwomen.Basedonthedescriptivepatterns(Figure8),returnstoeducationthroughincreasedwagesareextremelylowfortheprimaryandmiddlelevelsofeducationandhigherforupperlevelsofeducation.Onlyattheverylaststagesofsecondaryandtertiaryeducationdowomen’swagesshowasignificantincrease.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatwomen’slaborforceparticipationisstillverylow,evenathighereducationallevelswherethereturnsaregreaterandwherewomenappeartobeabletoaccesshigher-levelwhitecollarjobs.During2000–2007,stillonly25%ofwomenwithanadvanceddegreeuseditinthelaborforce.

3 Notethatallwagesarecalculatedonanhourlybasisusingtherespondent’sreportedworkhoursinthelastweek,sotheyadjustfordifferencesinworkhours.

Figure 4: Perception of Activity the Previous Day Figure 6: Willingness to Work—Ever-Married Women

Figure 5: Willingness to Work—Ever-Married Women

Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.TimeUseSurvey2007.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/time-use-survey-2007

Source:NationalInstituteofPopulationStudies.2008.Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2006–07.Islamabad.https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR200/FR200.pdf

Source:NationalInstituteofPopulationStudies.2008.Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 2006–07.Islamabad.https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR200/FR200.pdf

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ADB BRIEFS NO. 70

4

norms and exPosure

Gendernormsclearlyhavesomeroletoplayinrestrictingwomen’slaborforceparticipationinPakistan,eitherbykeepingwomenathomeentirely,orbyconfiningtheirlaborforceparticipationonlytocertainacceptableoccupations.Menareseenastheprimarybreadwinners,andmostpeopleagreethatifjobsarescarce,employersshouldfavormen;thisistrueforwomenalmostasmuchasformen.Itholdsacross(self-identified)socioeconomicclasses.Educationmightbeexpectedtochangethisview,butinfactmoreeducatedrespondentsareonlyslightlylesslikelytoagreewiththisstatement.

Butbeyondasimplepreferenceformen’saccesstoworkopportunities,women’sworkisgenerallyactivelystigmatizedinPakistan.Womenwhogooutsidethehometoworkarenotconsidered“respectable”inmanysocialcontexts(WorldBank2006).Sincethisstigmaaffectsthewholefamily,otherdecisionmakersinthefamily—suchasthewoman’shusbandorin-laws—mayrestrictawoman’sdecisionofwhethertoworkoutsidethehome.Figure9showsthatinthevastmajorityofcases,womenreportthattheydonotevenplayaroleindecidingtoseekpaidemployment.AsFigure10shows,thedegreeofcontrolthatawomanretainsoverthedecisiontoseekemploymentisstronglycorrelatedtowhethersheparticipatesinthelaborforce.

Figure 7: Trend in Wage Gap

Figure 8: Gender Wage Gap by Education

Figure 9: Who Decides Whether a Woman Will Work?

Figure 10: Who Decides Whether a Woman Will Work? (Conditional on Women’s Participation in

the Labor Force)

PR=Pakistanirupee.Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.LabourForceSurvey2009-10.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labour-force-survey-2009-10

PR=Pakistanirupee.Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.LabourForceSurvey2009-10.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/labour-force-survey-2009-10

Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.PakistanSocialandLivingStandardsMeasurementSurvey2005–06National/Provincial.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/pakistan-social-and-living-standards-measurement-survey-pslm-2005-06-national-provincial

Source: PakistanBureauofStatistics.PakistanSocialandLivingStandardsMeasurementSurvey2005–06National/Provincial.http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/pakistan-social-and-living-standards-measurement-survey-pslm-2005-06-national-provincial/

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Policy Brief on Female Labor Force Participation in Pakistan

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moBility

ThesamefactorsthatmakesomeworkplacesinPakistansafeor“appropriate”forwomenalsoaffectwomen’smobility.Asnoted,andastheexistingliteratureandsurveydataindicate,women’slimitedmobilityoutsidethehomebecauseofculturalnormsandsecurityconcernsgreatlyaffectsfemalelaborforceparticipation.Eveniftheworkenvironmentitselfisconsideredsafeandacceptable,travelingtoworkmaycreatealevelofexposurethatviolatesnorms(Ali2012,WorldBank2006).Forexample,inasmall(nonrepresentative)surveyofwomeninKarachiwhotravelregularly,85%ofworkingwomensaidtheyhadbeenharassedonpublictransportinthepastyear(ADB2014).Mostoftheharassmentwasperpetratedbymalepassengers,butaboutaquarterofwomenalsoreportedbeingharassedbyvehicledriversorconductors.Inaddition,socialtaboospreventwomenfromridingbicyclesormotorcyclesbythemselves,makingthemdependentonmalerelativestousethesemodesoftransport.

Thislimitsboththeabilityofurbanwomentoleavethehomeaswellastheabilityofruralwomentomoveoutsideoftheirvillageorevensubvillagesettlementforwork.Thesamefactorslimittheabilityofyoungerwomentoattendfurthereducationorvocationaltraining,whichcouldleadtobetterworkopportunities.

Ejaz(2007)findsthatfemalelaborforceparticipationispositivelyassociatedwithvehicleownershipinthehousehold,despitethefactthatotherhouseholddurablesarenegativelyassociated.ThismaysimplycapturetheU-shapedrelationshipbetweenwealthandfemalelaborforceparticipation,butitmayalsoreflectamobilityeffect—womenwhosefamiliesowncarscantraveltoworkmoreeasilywithoutencounteringharassmentorstigma.SeveralrecentstudiesonsocialandeconomicissuesinPakistanneverthelessshedlightonthisissuealthoughtheydonotspecificallyfocusonwomen’slaborforceparticipation.4

Figure11showsthatevenwomenwhosaytheyarecurrentlyavailableforworkarefarmorerestrictedintheirworklocationthanmen.Aboutathirdofthesewomensaytheyareonlyavailabletoworkwithinthehome,whichseverelyrestrictstheopportunitiestheycouldtakeup.Oftheremainingwomen,mostareavailableonlywithintheirownvillageortown.Inrecentyears,women’savailabilityoutsidethehomehasincreased;theiravailabilityisalsomuchgreaterformoreeducatedwomen(Figure12).

Figure13showsthatdistrictswithhigherlevelsofwomen’smobilityhavemuchhigherfemalelaborforceparticipation.Thecategoriesonthex-axisarebasedonthedistrict-levelaverageofotherwomen

4 JacobyandMansuri(2011),intheirstudyofcasteandclaneffectsoneducationinPakistan,findthatparentsaremuchlesslikelytosendtheirgirlstoschooliftheschoolislocatedacrosscasteboundarieswithinavillage;Cheemaetal.(2012)findthatmanyhouseholdswerewillingtonominatefemalemembersforvocationaltraining,buttransporttothevenueofthetraininghasbeenanimportantconstraintwheretherisksforsafetyandlossofreputationinvolvedinphysicallytravelingtothelocationisabindingconstraint.

(excludingtherespondent’sownobservation)whotraveledoutsidethehomeanywhereforanypurposeinthepreviousday.Awomanismorelikelytoworkindistrictswhereotherwomentravelmore.

Onemightexpectthatwomeninurbanareaswouldbemorelikelytowanttoworkoutsidethehome,andtobemoremobile.Infact,thisisnotthecaseinPakistan.Womeninurbanareasaresomewhatlesslikelytoindicatethattheyareavailableforwork.Inaddition,iftheyareavailable,theyindicatesomewhatlesswillingnesstoworkoutsidethehome(Figure14).Unwillingnesstotakecertaintypesofworkislikelydueinparttothenewchallengesthaturbanizationcancreateforwomen’smobility—travelingtoworkcanmeangreateranonymity,publicexposure,andcrowdingwithstrangers.

Figure 11: Locations Available for Work (Conditional on Availability)

Figure 12: Locations Available for Work (Conditional on Availability): Women

Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.Variousyearsfrom1990to2007.PakistanLabourForceSurveys.Islamabad.

Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.Variousyearsfrom1990to2010.PakistanLabourForceSurveys.Islamabad.

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ADB BRIEFS NO. 70

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Policy recommendations

Thestudysuggestsanumberofkeypolicyareasthatmayaffectfemalelaborforceparticipationeitherdirectlyorindirectlythroughincreasingwomen’sphysicalmobility.Interventionsintheseareasneedtoberigorouslytestedasmanyarenotstudiedadequately.Tosufficientlyinformthebestpolicies,programdesigns,andspendingallocationsforenhancingPakistan’sfemalelaborforceparticipation,asetofstudiesneedstobeconductedtoquantifytheirbenefitsandcosts.TheinterventionsmayeitherattempttochangetheexistingnormsinPakistanoreasekeyconstraintsbyworkingaroundthoseexistingnorms.Policyinterventionsthatdothelattercouldincreasefemalelaborforceparticipationintheshortterm,andbydoingso,coulddevelopthepotentialtochangethenormsinthelongtermthroughsocialexposure.Policychangescouldincreasefemalelaborforceparticipationinthefollowingareas:

• changing norms

Evidencefromothercountriessuggeststhatexposuretovisiblerolemodelsofwomenworkingorinleadershiprolescanchangenorms,suchasFogliandVeldkamp(2011).Twopolicyinterventionsinparticularmaybeconsideredtotargetnormsdirectly:(i)initiativesthatbringwomenintopublicleadershippositionssuchastheongoingRuralSupportProgrammesNetwork,inwhichtheAsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)andotherinstitutionaldonorsassisteffortstoinvolvePakistaniwomeninlocalcivilsocietyleadership.RigorousresearchcurrentlybeingundertakenbyGhazalaMansuriandcollaboratorsseekstotesttheimpactofsucheffortsonwomen’sempowermentandsocialnorms;and(ii)mediainterventionstopromoteamorepositiveimageofwomen’swork,andthentestedandevaluated.Thespreadofmediahasbeenshowntohavepositiveeffectsonwomen’sempowerment.Inparticular,JensenandOster(2009)findthattheintroductionofcabletelevisionacrossnewareasofruralIndianotonlylessenedtheacceptabilityofdomesticviolenceandsonpreference,butalsoincreasedwomen’sautonomy.

• making more Workplaces ‘suitable’

SexualharassmentintheworkplaceiswidespreadinPakistan.InKarachi,whichisgenerallythoughttobethecitywithsocialnormsmostfavorabletowomen’swork,96%ofthefemalerespondentsinastudyof10privateand10publicinstitutionsreportedthateithertheyortheircolleagueshadfacedsexualharassmentintheworkplace(Sadruddin2013).ExistingjobopportunitiescanthereforebemademoreacceptableforwomeninPakistanbyimprovingtheworkplaceenvironment.In2010,Pakistanpassedanewlawagainstsexualharassmentintheworkplace.Sadruddin’sstudyshowedthatonly2%ofrespondentswereawareofthislaw.Publiclistingsalsoindicatethatveryfewworkplaces,whetherpublicandprivate,havesofarcompliedwiththesetwobasicrequirementsofthelaw—discussingthepolicyinamanagementmeeting,andpostinginformationaboutthelawintheworkplace.

Usingthislegislationasabasis,theInternationalLabourOrganizationandotheragenciesareimplementingprogramstoimproveworkplaceenvironment.Evaluatingtheimpactoftheseprogramsontherecruitmentandretentionofqualifiedfemaleworkerswillbeveryuseful.

• increasing demand for female Workers in sectors with attractive Jobs

Anumberofpromisingkeypolicyleverscouldincreasefemalelaborforceparticipationevenwithoutamajorchangeinnormsrestrictingthekindofworkappropriateforwomen.Onthedemandside,policiescanbetargetedtoincreaselabordemandinparticulartypesofjobsinwhichwomenaremorelikelytowork.Alsolikelytohaveastrongereffectonfemalelaborforceparticipationistoexpand

Figure 13: District-Level Female Mobility and Employment

Figure 14: Locations Available to Women for Work (Conditional on Availability)

Note:X-axisshowspercentageofothersurveyedwomeninthedistrict(excludingownobservation)whotraveledforanypurposeonthereferenceday.Source:PakistanTimeUseSurvey2007.

Source:PakistanBureauofStatistics.Variousyearsfrom1990to2010.PakistanLabourForceSurveys.Islamabad.

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Policy Brief on Female Labor Force Participation in Pakistan

7

demandinparticulartypesofmanufacturing(suchastextileandapparel)andwhite-collarjobs(suchasinprofessionalservices),giventherestrictionsonacceptableworkplaceenvironmentsforwomenandthefactthatthereishigherlaborparticipationofwomenwiththehighestlevelsofeducation.Allofthesepolicyinitiativesrequireawiderangeofinterventionsacrossdifferentpolicyareas,suchasimprovingthereliabilityofelectricitysupply,butafulldiscussionofthemisbeyondthescopeofthispaper.

• education: Preparing Women for Jobs they are Willing to take up

Inthecontextofthesocialnormsdiscussedearlier,white-collarworkisconsideredmoreacceptableforwomeninPakistan.Sinceeducationincreasestheiraccesstothesejobs,secondaryandtertiaryeducationwouldbeparticularlyimportantforincreasingwomen’slaborforceparticipation.Itisthereforenotsurprisingthatmuchoftheexistingresearchoneducationhasfocusedprimarilyonprimaryandmiddlelevelsofeducation,withlittleresearchandpolicyattentiongiventowomen’saccesstohigherlevelsofeducation.

Lowerlevelsofeducationarealsoimportantandshouldcontinuetobeanareaoffocus.Educationhasmanypurposesbeyondpreparingpeopleforthelabormarket,andattainmentandqualityarealsorequiredattheprimaryandmiddlelevelsforyoungwomentoprogresstohigherlevels.Inaddition,educationatanylevelmaychangethenormsrestrictingwomen’sworkandmobility.

Thequalityandrelevanceofvocationaltrainingforwomenshouldalsoberigorouslyassessed,consideringthehighdegreeofoccupationalsegregationinPakistanandthelowfemalelaborforceparticipationlevelsatmiddlelevelsofeducation.Anumberofthecross-sectionalstudieshavemaderecommendationstoexpandvocationaltrainingforwomen,butthereseemstobelittlesupportforthisbasedontheirempiricalfindings.

• security and criminal Justice

Interventionsfocusedonsecurity,criminaljustice,andcrimeandpublicsafetyareclearlycriticalindeterminingfemalelaborforceparticipation.Theissuesofphysicalsafetytheyaddressareinterlinkedwithnormsthataffectwomen’smobilityandlaborforceparticipation.Indeed,ifwomenareconfidentthattheycantraveltoandfromworksafely,theymaybemuchmorelikelytoconsidertakingupworkoutsidethehome.

Improvingpublicsafetyforwomeniscrucialtoimprovetheirmobility.Institutionally,women’srepresentationisalsoimportant;whenwomengetintoleadershippositions,crimesagainstwomenarereportedmorefrequently(Iyeretal.2012).IfandwhenthelocalgovernmentsystemisrevivedinPakistan,thiswouldbeanotherreasontokeepthewomen’sreservationsinthatsystem.

• transportation

Publictransportationandcityinfrastructuredevelopmentisanotherpolicytoolparticularlyrelevantforenhancingwomen’smobilityinPakistan.Theycouldalleviatesomeoftheproblemswomenfaceinpursuingworkopportunities.Givenstrongnormsalmosteverywhereinthecountryagainstwomenridingbicyclesormotorbikesalone,mostwomendependentirelyonpublictransporttocommute.Yetthereisnostate-providedtransportationinmostcities,anditiscompletelyabsentfromruralareas.Inrural,peri-urban,andurbanareas,theexistingpublicandprivatetransportservicesarecrowdedwithmen;inasocietywhereclosecontactbetweenthesexesistaboo,ridingthemisamajorsocialobstacleforwomen.

ThecurrentADB-supportedexpansionoftransportservicesinPakistanprovidesanopportunitytobuildanevidencebasefortestingitsefficacyinenhancingwomen’smobilityandlaborforceparticipation.BetterevidenceonwhatworksandthemagnitudeofitsimpactcouldbeveryimportantininformingfuturepoliciesandprogramstobeimplementedbyPakistan’sgovernment,ADB,andotherdevelopmentpartners.GivenADB’sextensiveengagementintheongoingexpansionofpublictransportationinPakistan,itisuniquelypositionedtoencouragethegovernmenttoconsiderthefindingsfromongoingrigorousresearchandtosupportresearchersandgovernmenttoworktogetherinquantifyingthesocialandeconomicbenefitsoftheseinvestmentsingeneralandinparticularforwomen,aswellasidentifyingwaystomaximizethosebenefits.

references

Ali,K.A.2012.Women,WorkandPublicSpaces:ConflictandCoexistenceinKarachi’sPoorNeighborhoods.International Journal of Urban and Regional Research.36(3).pp.585-605.

AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB).2014.Rapid Assessment of Sexual Harassment in Public Transport and Connected Spaces in Karachi.Manila.

Cheema,A.,A.Khwaja,F.Naseer,andJ.Shapiro.2012.PEOPPhase1BaselineHouseholdSurveyReport.Mimeo,CenterforEconomicResearch inPakistan.Lahore.

Ejaz,M.2007.DeterminantsofFemaleLaborForceParticipationinPakistan:AnEmpiricalAnalysisofPSLM(2004–05)MicroData.Lahore Journal of Economics.SpecialEdition(September2007).pp.203-235.

Fatima,D.2014.Education,EmploymentandWomen’sSayinHouseholdDecision-MakinginPakistan.CREB Working Papers. Lahore:LahoreSchoolofEconomics.

Fogli,A.,andL.Veldkamp.2011.NatureorNurture?LearningandtheGeographyofFemaleLaborForceParticipation.Econometrica.79(4).pp.1103-1138.

InternationalLabourOrganization.2014.GlobalEmploymentTrends.Geneva.

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Iyer,L.,A.Mani,P.Mishra,andP.Topalova.2012.ThePowerofPoliticalVoice:Women’sPoliticalRepresentationandCrimeinIndia.American Economic Journal:Applied Economics.4(4).pp.165–193.

Jacoby,H.G.,andG.Mansuri.2011.CrossingBoundaries:Gender,CasteandSchooling inRuralPakistan.World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series5710.Washington,DC:WorldBank.

Jensen,R.andE.Oster.2009.ThePowerofTV:CableTelevisionandWomen’sStatusinIndia.Quarterly Journal of Economics.124(3).pp.1057–1094

Ray,R.2000.ChildLabor,ChildSchooling,andTheirInteractionwithAdultLabor:EmpiricalEvidenceforPeruandPakistan.World Bank Economic Review.14(2):pp.347–67.

Sadruddin,M.M.2013.SexualHarassmentatWorkplaceinPakistan:IssuesandRemediesabouttheGlobalIssueatManagerialSector.Journal of Managerial Sciences.7(1).pp.113–125.

WorldBank.2014.WorldDevelopmentIndicators.Washington,DC.

WorldBank.2006.Women’sWorkandMovementintothePublicSphere.siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/.../CGA-Chapter-5.pdf

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