power quality and harmonics

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Power Quality and Harmonics:

Causes, Effects and Remediation Techniques

Carol GowanChad Loomis, PE

Cornell University PDC12/13/2006 Electrical Design Section

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Overview

• What is Power Quality?• What are some power quality concerns?• What are Harmonics and what causes them?• What effects do Poor PQ and Harmonics have on a

building power system and components?• How can Power Quality and Harmonics Issues be

mitigated?• Questions

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What is Power Quality?

• Can be defined as:– “Any power problem manifested in

• voltage, • current, • or frequency deviations

that results in failure or misoperation of customer equipment”

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What are general classes of power quality problems per IEC?• Conducted low-frequency phenomena

– Signal systems (power line carrier)– Voltage fluctuations (flicker)– Voltage dips and interruptions– Voltage Imbalance (unbalance)– Power frequency variations– Induced low-frequency voltages– DC in ac networks– Harmonics, interharmonics

• Radiated low-frequency phenomena– Magnetic and Electric Fields

(Int’l Electrotechnical Commission)

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Categories and Characteristics of Power System Electromagnetic Phenomena (IEC)

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Voltage Fluctuations withinCornell’s Utility Distribution

Transients – very quick < 1 cycle– Normal cause is lightning strike– No lights flicker– Cornell Utilities employs lightning arrestors

at substations and at primary switches located at each building electric service equipment

– End users need to purchase/install TVSS equipment to further clamp the voltage spike.

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Sags / Swells– Voltage imbalance lasting from 3-20 cycles– Typical cause NYSEG switching on the

incoming 115kV transmission line– Lights flickering are indicative of this fault– Utilities does not protect for this condition

Voltage Fluctuations withinCornell’s Utility Distribution

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• Long term voltage fluctuations– As load increases, voltage drops (and vice versa)– Cornell Utilities compensates the long-duration

voltage variations through the use of automatic load tap changers at the Maple Ave. substation

– System voltage tolerance limits are set in ANSI C84.1. The Cornell system voltages are designed to always operate in the range ‘A’ limits (108 –126V)

• * refer to IEEE 141-1993

Voltage Fluctuations withinCornell’s Utility Distribution

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Harmonic Distortion– Typically generated within a facility, not a

distribution issue– Utilities does not protect for this condition

Voltage Fluctuations withinCornell’s Utility Distribution

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CBEMA curve for susceptibility of 120V Computer Equipment

Computer Business Equipment Manufacturers Association

Early 1980’s CBEMA designed the curve to point out ways in which system reliability could be provided for electronic equipment

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ITIC curve for susceptibility of 120V Computer Equipment

Information Technology Industry Council

This derivation was developed to show a curve that more accurately reflects the performance of typical single-phase, 60-Hz computers and their peripherals

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Computer Equipment Disturbance Table

(Dranetz-BMI Field handbook for PQ Analysis)

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What are NOT proper descriptors of power quality problems per IEC?

• Blackout• Blink• Brownout• Bump• Clean Ground• Clean Power• Dirty Ground• Dirty Power

• Glitch• Outage• Interruption• Power Surge• Raw power• Spike• Surge• Wink

We all need to define the power quality in proper terms to address the problem. Is it voltage quality, harmonics, etc? Metering and analysis is the best way to resolve the issue.

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What are the causes of most trouble tickets issued for computer problems at Cornell?

• Internally (building area specific) induced problems– Shared neutrals– Overloaded circuits (breakers tripping)– Poorly or improperly grounded circuits

• Note there are VERY minimal utility / delivery issues (we are very fortunate here at Cornell!)

• Handful of harmonic issues in the last 20 yrs, but harmonics are becoming a larger concern with more sophisticated systems and buildings.

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What Are Harmonics?

• “A component frequency of a harmonic motion of an electromagnetic wave that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency”

• US fundamental frequency is 60 Hertz– 3rd Harmonic is 3 x 60Hz or 180Hz– 5th Harmonic is 5 x 60Hz or 300Hz, etc.

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What Causes Harmonics?

Non-Linear Loads

Current is not proportional to the applied voltage

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Linear loads and current waveforms.Pure resistance, inductance, and capacitance are all linear. What that means: If a sine wave voltage of a certain magnitude is placed across a circuit containing pure resistance, the current in the circuit follows Ohm's Law: I = E ÷ R. So, for a specific value of ohms, the relationship of volts and amperes is a straight line. The current will always be a sine wave of the same frequency.

Linear Loads include Incandescent lighting, heating loads, and motors

Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current waveforms

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Linear vs. Non-linear loads and current waveforms

Nonlinear loads and current waveforms.

Solid state electronics is based on the use of semiconductors. These materials are totally different in that their response to voltage is not a straight line.

What this means:With a nonlinear load, you cannot easily predict the relationship between voltage and current — unless you have an exact curve for each device. With equipment containing many solid-state devices, such an approach is impossible.

Nonlinear loads are switched on for only part of the cycle, as in a thyristor-controlled circuit, or pulsed, as in a controlled-rectifier circuit.

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Effect of harmonics on waveform

When a waveform is identical from one waveform to the next, it can be represented as a sum of pure sine waves in which the frequency of each sinusoid is an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency of the distorted wave.The sum of the sinusoids created by harmonics can be analyzed using the Fourier series concept

In Phase

180 Out of Phase

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What do harmonics do?

• Harmonics are carried through the system from the source and can nearly double the amount of current on the neutral conductor in three phase four wire distribution systems.

• Distorted currents from harmonic-producing loads also distort the voltage as they pass through the system impedence. Therefore, a distorted voltage can be presented to other end users on the system.

• Overall electrical system and power quality is affected by the introduction of harmonics.

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Sources of Harmonics

• Solid State Electronic Devices which contain a poor power supply– Computers (PCs/CPUs)– Laser Printers– Copy Machines

• *Solid State UPS Units• Solid State Devices (Fluorescent lighting ballasts)• **Rectifiers (AC-DC Converters VFDs)• Welding Units• Arc Furnaces

– Video display terminals– File Servers– Battery Chargers

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What are the order of typical harmonics generated by non-linear loads?

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Effects of Harmonics

• Distorted Voltage• Overheated Transformers and Motors

– Increases Hysteresis (magnetization) losses in steel and iron cores of transformers, motor and magnetic trip units of circuit breakers (Equipment inefficiencies and overheating)

• Heating of Neutral Conductors– Skin Effect Increased amount of current flowing on the

outside of conductors (overheating)• Low Voltage at End Loads• High Neutral to Ground Voltages at End Loads

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Effects of Harmonics (cont)

• Operation Problems of Relays and Circuit Breakers– Thermal/Magnetic Trip Circuit Breakers

• Fuses & bimetal strips respond to True RMS• Harmonic currents increase eddy current losses in the core

steel of the metallic strip.• This causes an OVERprotection situation… Increased losses

generate additional heat, this effect the thermal trip of the unit.– Electronic Trip Circuit Breakers

• Magnitude and phase angle(s) of harmonic current(s) in relationship to the fundamental current can cause:

– Overprotection when: Peak current sensing > True RMS– Underprotection when: Peak current sensing < True RMS

• Changing power system loads will vary the magnitude and phase angle, resulting in inaccurate and unpredictable sensing units and overload protection

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Effects of Harmonics (cont)

• Communication Problems– If sharing common parallel path, potential for harmonics to

have inductive coupling effect on unshielded cabling• Current Measurement Problems (distorted waveform)• Unreliable Operation of Electronic Equipment

– Mis-operation of electronic equipment that measures frequency or uses the zero crossing point of a sine wave.

• Control of Speed and Voltage Problems on Emergency Generators (supplying power)

• Capacitor Bank Application Problems (heating)• Computer (PC/CPU) data errors / data loss

– Affects power supplies and sensitive electronics

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How can Harmonics be Reduced?

• Isolate harmonic loads on separate circuits (with or without harmonic filters)

• Harmonic mitigating transformers• Phase shifting (zig-zag) transformers

– Used to cancel out specific harmonics by making one voltage circuit 180 degrees out-of-phase

• Filter capacitor backs

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How can Harmonics be Reduced?

• For VFD and UPS specifically:– Line Reactors– K-Rated / Drive Isolation Transformers– Harmonic Mitigating / Phase Shifting Transformers– 12, 18 or 24 pulse Converters– Passive parallel / series tuned Filters– Active Filters

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How can Harmonics be Reduced?

• PROPER GROUNDING– Neutral to ground conductor connection at one location; at

main panel or transformer secondary• When neutral is connected to ground at multiple

locations, interference can occur with sensitive electronic devices.

– Run power and control conductors in separate raceways– Sensitive loads should not share neutral and ground

conductors.– Avoid using conduit as the ground return path, run dedicated

ground wire with circuit conductors– Refer to IEEE Std 1100-1992 (Emerald Book)

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Computer Equipment GroundingTOP Radial or “daisy

chain” grounding Although Code compliant per NEC, small differences in potential can cause unintended ground loops

BOTTOM Best method for grounding is via dedicated equipment grounding conductors back to the source

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IEEE Defined Harmonic Current Limits

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Voltage Limit /HarmonicsEvaluationProcedure

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Questions?

Thank You!

Cornell Planning, Design & ConstructionCarol Gowan 254-1457 cag57@cornell.edu

Chad Loomis 255-8039 cel36@cornell.edu

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Phase Conductors – Heating from Skin Effect

Conduits – Heating from Skin Effect and eddy currents

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Circuit breakers – False tripping due to high heat and higher frequencies caused by harmonics

Peak sensing CB’s may trip because of higher peaks

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Neutral conductors – high current from zero sequence triplenharmonics (3rd & 9th) can add as much as 30% to neutral current even if phases are balanced. Shared neutrals or reduced size neutral can be hazardous (no CB to protect from overcurrent!)

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Neutral to ground voltage at receptacle – Excessive neutral current results in high voltage drops between neutral and ground at the outlet

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Neutral bus bar – overloading and heat from zero sequence harmonics (3rd and 9th)

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Panelboard enclosure – heating from eddy currents (induced currents caused by magnetic fluxes), as well as vibration (“buzzing” sound).

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Transformers – heating from eddy currents reduces the life of a transformer insulation system, and lowers efficiency.

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Induction Motor Leads – Heating from eddy currents and negative sequence harmonics (5th, 11th, 17th,etc.) Note – Negative sequence harmonics work AGAINST a motor’s natural rotation, making it work harder!

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

Power factor (kVAR) Capacitors – since they are lowest impedence, resultant high harmonic current can overheat capacitors and/or blow fuses.

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

kW and kVAR meter – may have reading errors when harmonic currents are present.

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Simplified Distribution System Diagram

In addition, emergency generators can have speed control and voltage supply issues caused by harmonics, and harmonics can impact communications cabling and sensitive electronic equipment.

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Typical PQ Evaluation Process