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2/27/2017
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Amphibian Predation and Defense
By: Katie Harris
“Each stage of development from egg to adult faces it own particular dangers, and at no time of day or night are frogs and their offspring safe from attack.” –Tyler 1976
“almost anything will eat an amphibian.” – Porter 1972
Why Eat Amphibians?
Amphibian Predators
Evolutionary
Response
Future Directions
Summary
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Why Eat Amphibians?
Amphibian Predators
Evolutionary
Response
Future Directions
Summary
1. Egg
2. Larvae
3. Adult
Why eat an amphibian?
• Small, slow-moving, defenseless?
• High population densities
• Good source of protein
• Lack indigestible material
Why eat an amphibian?
• Small, slow-moving, defenseless?
• High population densities
• Good source of protein
• Lack indigestible material
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Why eat an amphibian?
• Small, slow-moving, defenseless?
• High population densities
• Good source of protein
• Lack indigestible material
Why eat an amphibian?
• Small, slow-moving, defenseless?
• High population densities
• Good source of protein
• Lack indigestible material
Common Predators?
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Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• eggs and larvae
• temporary ponds
• caddisfly larvae
• parasites
• trophic loop
Lethocerus americanus Pseudacris regilla
Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• eggs and larvae
• temporary ponds
• caddisfly larvae
• parasites
• trophic loop
TrichopteraAmbystoma maculatum
Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• eggs and larvae
• temporary ponds
• caddisfly larvae
• parasites
• trophic loop
MacrobdellaLithobates sylvaticus
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Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• eggs and larvae
• temporary ponds
• caddisfly larvae
• parasites
• trophic loop
Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• Fish
• Eggs, larvae, adults
Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• Fish
• Reptiles
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Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• Fish
• Reptiles
• Birds
Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• Fish
• Reptiles
• Birds
• Amphibians
Common Predators?
• Invertebrates
• Fish
• Reptiles
• Birds
• Amphibians
• Mammals
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Option 1:
Reduce the
likelihood of being
detected
Option 2:
Reduce the chances
of being consumed
once detected
Behavioral
PhysiologicalMorphological
Chemical
Phenological
Ambystoma maculatum
Option 1:
Reduce the
likelihood of being
detected
Option 2:
Reduce the chances
of being consumed
once detected
Behavioral
PhysiologicalMorphological
Chemical
Phenological
Ambystoma maculatum
Option 1:
Reduce the
likelihood of being
detected
Option 2:
Reduce the chances
of being consumed
once detected
Behavioral
PhysiologicalMorphological
Chemical
Phenological
Ambystoma maculatum
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Option 1:
Reduce the
likelihood of being
detected
Option 2:
Reduce the changes
of being consumed
once detected
Behavioral
PhysiologicalMorphological
Chemical
Phenological
Ambystoma maculatum
Eggs: Mechanical and Chemical
• Egg capsule and jelly
• Toxic and distasteful compounds
• Effectiveness depends on predator
• Eggs of R. calmitans & R. catesbianus
• distasteful to newts and larval ambystomatids (Walters 1975)
• readily consumed by leeches (Howard 1978)
Eggs: Oviposition Site
• Areas without fish
• temporary ponds
• on land
• Areas void of predators
• Anaxyrus americanus avoid oviposition in areas that contained Lithobates sylvaticus eggs (Pentranka et al. 1994)
• L. sylvaticus didn’t lay eggs in ponds with predatory sunfish (Hopey and Petranka 1994)
Lithobates sylvaticus
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Eggs: Oviposition Site
• Areas without fish
• temporary ponds
• on land
• Areas void of predators
• Anaxyrus americanus avoid oviposition in areas that contained Lithobates sylvaticus eggs (Pentranka et al. 1994)
• L. sylvaticus didn’t lay eggs in ponds with predatory sunfish (Hopey and Petranka 1994)
Lithobates sylvaticus
Eggs: Timing of Reproduction
• Early spring
• before predatory species reach peak densities
• Synchronized reproduction
• earlier hatchlings consume eggs deposited later
• swamp predators increasing individual survival
Lithobates sylvaticus
Eggs: Timing of Reproduction
• Early spring
• before predatory species reach peak densities
• Synchronized reproduction
• earlier hatchlings consume eggs deposited later
• swamp predators increasing individual survival
Lithobates sylvaticus
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Eggs: Adaptive Plasticity
• Red-eyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas)
• egg mass hatches immediately if clutch is attacked (Warkentin 1995, Warkentin 2000,
Warkentin et al. 2001)
• survive by dropping in water
• trade off! small, not very mobile
• wasp predation – single hatching (Warkentin 2000)
• fungus – eggs closet to fungus hatch first
Agalychinis callidryas
• Red-eyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas)
• egg mass hatches immediately if clutch is attacked (Warkentin 1995, Warkentin 2000,
Warkentin et al. 2001)
• survive by dropping in water
• trade off! small, not very mobile
• wasp predation – single hatching (Warkentin 2000)
• fungus – eggs closet to fungus hatch first
Leptodeira
Eggs: Adaptive Plasticity
• Red-eyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas)
• egg mass hatches immediately if clutch is attacked (Warkentin 1995, Warkentin 2000,
Warkentin et al. 2001)
• survive by dropping in water
• trade off! small, not very mobile
• wasp predation – single hatching (Warkentin 2000)
• fungus – eggs closet to fungus hatch first
Eggs: Adaptive Plasticity
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• Red-eyed tree frog (Agalychnis callidryas)
• egg mass hatches immediately if clutch is attacked (Warkentin 1995, Warkentin 2000,
Warkentin et al. 2001)
• survive by dropping in water
• trade off! small, not very mobile
• wasp predation – single hatching (Warkentin 2000)
• fungus – eggs closet to fungus hatch first
Eggs: Adaptive Plasticity
Eggs: Adaptive Plasticity
• Hatching is delayed in the presence of predators (Sih and
Moore 1993, Moore et al. 1996)
• Allows larvae to hatch at a more advanced stage
Ambystoma opacum
Larval Defense:
Lithobates clamitans
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Larval Defense: Color Patterns
• First line of defense
• Drab colors
• Countershading
• Disruptive coloration
• Reflective or transparent
• Deflection marks
Lithobates clamitans
Larval Defense: Color Patterns
• First line of defense
• Drab colors
• Countershading
• Disruptive coloration
• Reflective or transparent
• Deflection marks
Lithobates clamitansStorfer et al. 1999
Larval Defense: Color Patterns
• First line of defense
• Drab colors
• Countershading
• Disruptive coloration
• Reflective or transparent
• Deflection marks
Lithobates catesbianus
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• First line of defense
• Drab colors
• Countershading
• Disruptive coloration
• Reflective or transparent
• Deflection marks
Larval Defense: Color Patterns
Larval Defense: Color Patterns
• First line of defense
• Drab colors
• Countershading
• Disruptive coloration
• Reflective or transparent
• Deflection marks
Xenopus longipes
Larval Defense: Color Patterns
• First line of defense
• Drab colors
• Countershading
• Disruptive coloration
• Reflective or transparent
• Deflection marks
Acris sp.
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Larval Defense: Color Patterns
• First line of defense
• Drab colors
• Countershading
• Disruptive coloration
• Reflective or transparent
• Deflection marks
Clinotarsus alticola
Larval Defense: Phenotypic Plasticity
• Acris• tail tip coloration (Caldwell 1982)
• Hyla chrysoscelis• dragonfly naiads present
• dark orange, deep tail fins, dark (Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• predators absent• Shallow, unmarked tail fins
(Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• early age exposure = gradual development (LaFiandra
& Babbitt 2004)
• direct contact not necessary
dragonfly naiads present
fish present
Acris sp.
Larval Defense: Phenotypic Plasticity
• Acris• tail tip coloration (Caldwell 1982)
• Hyla chrysoscelis• dragonfly naiads present
• dark orange, deep tail fins, dark (Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• predators absent• Shallow, unmarked tail fins
(Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• early age exposure = gradual development (LaFiandra
& Babbitt 2004)
• direct contact not necessary
Present
Absent
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Larval Defense: Phenotypic Plasticity
• Acris• tail tip coloration (Caldwell 1982)
• Hyla chrysoscelis• dragonfly naiads present
• dark orange, deep tail fins, dark (Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• predators absent• Shallow, unmarked tail fins
(Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• early age exposure = gradual development (LaFiandra
& Babbitt 2004)
• direct contact not necessary
Present
Absent
Larval Defense: Phenotypic Plasticity
• Acris• tail tip coloration (Caldwell 1982)
• Hyla chrysoscelis• dragonfly naiads present
• dark orange, deep tail fins, dark (Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• predators absent• Shallow, unmarked tail fins
(Van Buskirk & McCollum 1999)
• early age exposure = gradual development (LaFiandra
& Babbitt 2004)
• direct contact not necessary
Present
Absent
Larval Defense: Behavioral
Lithobates sylvaticus
• Schooling (Rodel and Linsenmair 1997)
• decreases chance of individual capture
• Time of day
• shift active when predators are not active (Sih et al. 1992)
• Ambystoma barbouri – tend to be nocturnal in presence of fish (Taylor 1983)
• Refuge habitats: less food
• water column – Ambystoma talpoideum (Holomuzki 1986)
• trade-offs vulnerability versus foraging efficiency
• Limit activity (Altwegg 2003)
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Larval Defense: Behavioral
Lithobates sylvaticus
• Schooling (Rodel and Linsenmair 1997)
• decreases chance of individual capture
• Time of day
• shift active when predators are not active (Sih et al. 1992)
• Ambystoma barbouri – tend to be nocturnal in presence of fish (Taylor 1983)
• Refuge habitats: less food
• water column – Ambystoma talpoideum (Holomuzki 1986)
• trade-offs vulnerability versus foraging efficiency
• Limit activity (Altwegg 2003)
Larval Defense: Behavioral
Lithobates sylvaticus
• Schooling (Rodel and Linsenmair 1997)
• decreases chance of individual capture
• Time of day
• shift active when predators are not active (Sih et al. 1992)
• Ambystoma barbouri – tend to be nocturnal in presence of fish (Taylor 1983)
• Refuge habitats: less food
• water column – Ambystoma talpoideum (Holomuzki 1986)
• trade-offs vulnerability versus foraging efficiency
• Limit activity (Altwegg 2003)
Larval Defense: Behavioral
Lithobates sylvaticus
• Schooling (Rodel and Linsenmair 1997)
• decreases chance of individual capture
• Time of day
• shift active when predators are not active (Sih et al. 1992)
• Ambystoma barbouri – tend to be nocturnal in presence of fish (Taylor 1983)
• Refuge habitats: less food
• water column – Ambystoma talpoideum (Holomuzki 1986)
• trade-offs vulnerability versus foraging efficiency
• Limit activity (Altwegg 2003)
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(Strangel and Semlitsch 1987)
Lithobates sylvaticus
Larval Defense: Sensory Cues
• Tactile
• Visual
• Chemical
• discrimination between dangerous and less dangerous genetic response-previous exposure is not required (Lefcourt 1996,1998, Gallie et al. 2001, Mathis et al. 2003)
• discrimination between predators of conspecific larvae (Chivers and Mirza 2001)
• not always present, can develop rapidly (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997)
Lithobates sylvaticus
(Chivers, Kiesecker, Blaustein 1996)
Predatory
Predatory
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Larval Defense: Sensory Cues
Lithobates sylvaticus
• Tactile
• Visual
• Chemical
• discrimination between dangerous and less dangerous genetic response-previous exposure is not required (Lefcourt 1996,1998, Gallie et al. 2001, Mathis et al. 2003)
• discrimination between predators of conspecific larvae (Chivers and Mirza 2001)
• not always present, can develop rapidly (Kiesecker and Blaustein 1997)
Larval Defense: Alarm Responses
• Cues from injured conspecifics (Hews and Blaustein 1985)
• use these cues to avoid areas where predators are likely (Hews 1988)
• increase activity (different than most)
• beneficial if predator has already been detected (Hews 1998))
Lithobates sphenocephalus
Larval Defense: Growth & Development
• Rapid growth
• Predators have limited prey size
• Sprint speed increases with size (Richards and Bull 1990)
• Higher growth rate= higher survivorships (Travis 1983)
• Growth and predator exposure
• Bufo boreas – increased growth rate (Chivers et al. 1999)
• Ambystoma macrodactylum – decreased growth rate
• foraging decreased (Wildy et al 1999)
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Larval Defense: Growth & Development
• Rapid growth
• Predators have limited prey size
• Sprint speed increases with size (Richards and Bull 1990)
• Higher growth rate= higher survivorships (Travis 1983)
• Growth and predator exposure
• Bufo boreas – increased growth rate (Chivers et al. 1999)
• Ambystoma macrodactylum – decreased growth rate
• foraging decreased (Wildy et al 1999)
Larvae Defense: Chemical Defenses
• Distasteful and toxic; particularly anuran tadpoles
• Bufo- palatability varies among predators
• Why not in all species?
Bufo bufo
Larvae Defense: Chemical Defenses
• Distasteful and toxic; particularly anuran tadpoles
• Bufo- palatability varies among predators
• Why not in all species?
• expensive to produce
• temporary ponds: too costly, rapid growth
• permanent ponds: worth the energy costs, slow growth
Bufo bufo
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Adult Defense: Cryptic Coloration
• Matching dorsal coloration to environment (Edmunds
1974)
• Reflect light in visible and infrared spectrum (Schalm et al. 1977,
Emerson et al. 1990)
• Color change (Iga and
Bagnara 1975)
• Cryptic patterning (Cott 1940)
Hyla chrysoscelis
Adult Defense: Cryptic Coloration
• Matching dorsal coloration to environment (Edmunds
1974)
• Reflect light in visible and infrared spectrum (Schalm et al. 1977,
Emerson et al. 1990)
• Color change (Iga and
Bagnara 1975)
• Cryptic patterning (Cott 1940)
Hyalinobatrachium taylori
Adult Defense: Cryptic Coloration
• Matching dorsal coloration to environment (Edmunds
1974)
• Reflect light in visible and infrared spectrum (Schalm et al. 1977,
Emerson et al. 1990)
• Color change (Iga and
Bagnara 1975)
• Cryptic patterning (Cott 1940)
Hyla cinerea
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Ceratobatrachus guentheri - Soloman Island Frog
Adult Defense: Cryptic Coloration
• Matching dorsal coloration to environment (Edmunds
1974)
• Reflect light in visible and infrared spectrum (Schalm et al. 1977,
Emerson et al. 1990)
• Color change (Iga and
Bagnara 1975)
• Cryptic patterning(Cott 1940)
Adult Defense: Color Polymorphism
• Polymorphism = different forms
• Genetically controlled (Merrell 1965, Fogelman et al. 1980)
• can be environmentally influenced (Travis and Trexler 1984, Harkey and
Semlitch 1988)
• Pacific tree frog (Pseudacris regilla)
• color-changing morph (brown/green) (Wente and Phillips 2003)
• slow not effective to immediate predation
• adaptive
• light intensity and temperature thermoregulation (Stegen et al. 2004)
seasonal shifts
Acris crepitans
Adult Defense: Color Polymorphism
• Polymorphism = different forms
• Genetically controlled (Merrell 1965, Fogelman et al. 1980)
• can be environmentally influenced (Travis and Trexler 1984, Harkey and
Semlitch 1988)
• Pacific tree frog (Pseudacris regilla)
• color-changing morph (brown/green) (Wente and Phillips 2003)
• slow not effective to immediate predation
• adaptive
• light intensity and temperature thermoregulation (Stegen et al. 2004)
seasonal shifts
Acris crepitans
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Adult Defense: Color Polymorphism
• Polymorphism = different forms
• Genetically controlled (Merrell 1965, Fogelman et al. 1980)
• can be environmentally influenced (Travis and Trexler 1984, Harkey and
Semlitch 1988)
• Pacific tree frog (Pseudacris regilla)
• color-changing morph (brown/green) (Wente and Phillips 2003)
• slow not effective to immediate predation
• adaptive
• light intensity and temperature thermoregulation (Stegen et al. 2004)
seasonal shifts
Acris crepitans
Adult Defense: Predator Avoidance
• Avoid locations where predators present
• Chemical cues• predators
• injured conspecifics
• Newts (Woody and Mathis 1998)
• did not avoid chemical stimuli from fish (Marvin and Hutchinson 1995,
Woody and Mathis 1997)
• avoided chemical stimuli from fish if associated with injured conspecific (Woody and Mathis 1998)
Plethodon vandykei
Adult Defense: Predator Avoidance
• Avoid locations where predators present
• Chemical cues• predators
• injured conspecifics
• Newts (Woody and Mathis 1998)
• did not avoid chemical stimuli from fish (Marvin and Hutchinson 1995,
Woody and Mathis 1997)
• avoided chemical stimuli from fish if associated with injured conspecific (Woody and Mathis 1998)
Plethodon vandykei
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Adult Defense: Predator Avoidance
• Avoid locations where predators present
• Chemical cues• predators
• injured conspecifics
• Newts (Woody and Mathis 1998)
• did not avoid chemical stimuli from fish (Marvin and Hutchinson 1995,
Woody and Mathis 1997)
• avoided chemical stimuli from fish if associated with injured conspecific (Woody and Mathis 1998)
Plethodon vandykei
Adult Defense: Behavioral
• Jumping – slender bodies (Heinen and Hammond 1997)
• Flipping – Plethodontids (Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Azizi and Landberg 2000)
• Coiling – Mount Lyell salamander Hydromantes playcephalus (Garcia-
Paris and Deban 1995)
• Death feigning – leaf litter frog Ischnocnema aff. henselii (Vaz-Silva et. al
2004)
• Vocalization (Weber 1978)
• Biting (Taylor and Ludlam 2013)
• Tail display – Plethodontidae, Salamandridae (Wake and Dresner 1967)
• Unken reflex (Kuchta 2005)
Rana so.
Adult Defense: Behavioral
• Jumping – slender bodies (Heinen and Hammond 1997)
• Flipping – Plethodontids (Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Azizi and Landberg 2000)
• Coiling – Mount Lyell salamander Hydromantes playcephalus (Garcia-
Paris and Deban 1995)
• Death feigning – leaf litter frog Ischnocnema aff. henselii (Vaz-Silva et. al
2004)
• Vocalization (Weber 1978)
• Biting (Taylor and Ludlam 2013)
• Tail display – Plethodontidae, Salamandridae (Wake and Dresner 1967)
• Unken reflex (Kuchta 2005)
Plethodon cinereus
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Adult Defense: Behavioral
Adult Defense: Behavioral
• Jumping – slender bodies (Heinen and Hammond 1997)
• Flipping – Plethodontids (Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Azizi and Landberg 2000)
• Coiling – Mount Lyell salamander Hydromantes
playcephalus (Garcia-Paris and Deban 1995)
• Death feigning – leaf litter frog Ischnocnema aff. henselii (Vaz-
Silva et. al 2004)
• Vocalization (Weber 1978)
• Biting (Taylor and Ludlam 2013)
• Tail display – Plethodontidae, Salamandridae (Wake and Dresner 1967)
• Unken reflex (Kuchta 2005)
Ischnocnema aff. henselii
Adult Defense: Behavioral
• Jumping – slender bodies (Heinen and Hammond 1997)
• Flipping – Plethodontids (Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Azizi and Landberg 2000)
• Coiling – Mount Lyell salamander Hydromantes
playcephalus (Garcia-Paris and Deban 1995)
• Death feigning – leaf litter frog Ischnocnema aff. henselii (Vaz-
Silva et. al 2004)
• Vocalization (Weber 1978)
• Biting (Taylor and Ludlam 2013)
• Tail display – Plethodontidae, Salamandridae (Wake and Dresner 1967)
• Unken reflex (Kuchta 2005)
Lithobates catesbianus
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Adult Defense: Behavioral
• Jumping – slender bodies (Heinen and Hammond 1997)
• Flipping – Plethodontids (Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Azizi and Landberg 2000)
• Coiling – Mount Lyell salamander Hydromantes
playcephalus (Garcia-Paris and Deban 1995)
• Death feigning – leaf litter frog Ischnocnema aff. henselii (Vaz-
Silva et. al 2004)
• Vocalization (Weber 1978)
• Biting (Taylor and Ludlam 2013)
• Tail display – Plethodontidae, Salamandridae (Wake and Dresner 1967)
• Unken reflex (Kuchta 2005)
Amphiuma tridactylum
Adult Defense: Behavioral
• Jumping – slender bodies (Heinen and Hammond 1997)
• Flipping – Plethodontids (Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Azizi and Landberg 2000)
• Coiling – Mount Lyell salamander Hydromantes
playcephalus (Garcia-Paris and Deban 1995)
• Death feigning – leaf litter frog Ischnocnema aff. henselii(Vaz-Silva et. al 2004)
• Vocalization (Weber 1978)
• Biting (Taylor and Ludlam 2013)
• Tail display – Plethodontidae, Salamandridae (Wake and Dresner 1967)
• Unken reflex (Kuchta 2005)
Batrachoseps relictus
Adult Defense: Behavioral
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Adult Defense: Behavioral
• Jumping – slender bodies (Heinen and Hammond 1997)
• Flipping – Plethodontids (Whiteman and Wissinger 1991, Azizi and Landberg 2000)
• Coiling – Mount Lyell salamander Hydromantes
playcephalus (Garcia-Paris and Deban 1995)
• Death feigning – leaf litter frog Ischnocnema aff. henselii (Vaz-
Silva et. al 2004)
• Vocalization (Weber 1978)
• Biting (Taylor and Ludlam 2013)
• Tail display – Plethodontidae, Salamandridae (Wake and Dresner 1967)
• Unken reflex (Kuchta 2005)
Taricha granulosa
Adult Defense: Chemical
• Granular glands• Found in all amphibians, relatively similar structure
• Distributed throughout the skin or concentrated
• Defensive secretions1. Widespread, naturally occurring compounds.
• Can serve other functions microbes and fungi
• Defensive when secreted in large quantities
2. Evolved for defense toxic
• Origin• Synthesized within the animal (Smith et al. 2002)
• Derived from chemicals of other organisms (Daly et al. 1994)
Anaxyrus sp.
Adult Defense: Chemical
• Granular glands• Found in all amphibians, relatively similar structure
• Distributed throughout the skin or concentrated
• Defensive secretions1. Widespread, naturally occurring compounds.
• Can serve other functions microbes and fungi
• Defensive when secreted in large quantities
2. Evolved for defense toxic
• Origin• Synthesized within the animal (Smith et al. 2002)
• Derived from chemicals of other organisms (Daly et al. 1994)
Anaxyrus sp.
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Adult Defense: Chemical
• Granular glands• Found in all amphibians, relatively similar structure
• Distributed throughout the skin or concentrated
• Defensive secretions1. Widespread, naturally occurring compounds.
• Can serve other functions microbes and fungi
• Defensive when secreted in large quantities
2. Evolved for defense toxic
• Origin• Synthesized within the animal (Smith et al. 2002)
• Derived from chemicals of other organisms (Daly et al. 1994)
Anaxyrus sp.
Oophaga pumilioHyla chrysoscelis
Adult Defense: Aposematic Coloring
• Coloration to warn or deter predators
• Only beneficial when predator can see colors
• Dendrobatidae• Color brightness
correlates to toxicity (Summers and Clough
2001)
Adult Defense: Mimicry
• Predators learn to avoid the aposematic patterns
• Batesian mimicry: edible species benefit by evolving pseudoaposematic colors
• Pseudotriton ruber & Notophthalmus viridescens
• readily eaten before exposure to red efts (Brodie & Howard 1972)
• less palatable than Desmognathus species (Brandon et al. 1979)
• produce toxins Mullerian
• Mullerian mimicry: toxic species share a common warning coloration
Pseudotriton ruberNotophalmus viridescens
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Future Directions
• Impact on populations• demographic impact of predation
• impact of specific predators
• invasive predators
• Genetics
• Relationships between toxicity and predators
• Caecilians and salamanders
Lithobates sylvaticus
Summary
• Subject to vast array of predators
• Predation is greatest on egg and larval stages
• Most predators are generalists
• Protection against predators is varied
• Predation lessened by:
• reduce the change of detection
• reduce the changes of being consumed once detected
• chemical, phenological, behavioral, physiological, morphological
Ensatina eschscholtzii
Ensatina eschscholtzii
• Azizi, E., and T. Landberg. 2002. Effects of metamorphosis on the aquatic escape response of the two-lined salamander (Eurycea bislineata)." Journal of Experimental Biology. 205: 841-849.
• Brandon, Ronald A., George M. Labanick, and James E. Huheey. "Relative palatability, defensive behavior, and mimetic relationships of red salamanders (Pseudotriton ruber), mud salamanders
(Pseudotriton montanus), and red efts (Notophthalmus viridescens). Herpetologica 1979: 289-303.
• Brodie, E. D., and R. R. Howard. Behavioral mimicry in the defensive displays of the Urodele amphibians Nophthalmus viridescens and Pseudotriton ruber. BioScience 22: 666-667.
• Caldwell, J. P. 1982. Disruptive selection: a tail color polymorphism in Acris tadpoles in response to differential predation. Canadian Journal of Zoology, 60, 2818-2827.
• Chivers, D. P. and R. S. Mirza. 2001 Journal of Chemical Ecology. 27, 45-51.
• Chivers. D. P., J. M. Kiesecker, A. Marco, E. L. Wildy and A. R. Blaustein. 1999. Shift in life history as a response to predation in western toads (Bufo boreas). Journal of Chemical Ecology. 25, 2455-2463.
• Daly, J. W., S. L. Secunda, H. M. Garraffo, T. F. Spande, A. Wisnieski, and J. F. Cover. 1994. An uptake system for dietary alkaloids in poison frogs (Dendrobatidae). Toxicon, 32(6), 657-663.
• Heinen, Joel T., and George Hammond. 1997. Antipredator behaviors of newly metamorphosed green frogs (Rana clamitans) and leopard frogs (R. pipiens) in encounters with eastern garter snakes
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References
Photo Credits
Ensatina eschscholtzii
• Anna Spyrka
• Amber Hart
• Audobaun Society
• Barbara Magnuson
• Brandon Ballengee
• Brian Gratwicke
• Christina Rollo
• David Huth
• Douglas Mills
• Dwight Kuhn
• Gary Nafis
• Greg Pecold
• Harikrishnan S.
• Jacob Loyacano
• Jason Gibson
• Johnathan Mays
• John Whit
• John White
• Jones Fish Hatcher
• Kristiina Hurme
• Larry Kimball
• Mike Benard
• Montgomery Co. Dept. of Environmental Protection
• Nancy Tray
• Natalle McNear
• Nathan Shepard
• Oliver Kratz
• Peter May
• Ricky Relya
• Robert Clontz Photography
• Rod Williams
• Ryan Photographic
• The Amphibain Foundation
• Warren Photographic
• Werther Pereira Ramalho
Questions?
Katie Harris240 EPS Buildingkharri96@utk.edu
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