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i
PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP; EFFECT OF
TRANSPLANTING DATES, SEEDLING AGE NITROGEN
FERTILIZER AND CULTIVARS
By
Noor Habib Khan
11-PhD-Agr-S-Hu-4
A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment for the requirement of degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
In
Agricultural Sciences (Horticulture)
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
THE UNIVERSITY OF HARIPUR
KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA PAKISTAN
APRIL, 2017
ii
PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP; EFFECT OF
TRANSPLANTING DATES, SEEDLING AGE, NITROGEN FERTILIZER
AND CULTIVARS
BY
Noor Habib Khan
Approved By:
_______________________
Dr. Shah Masaud Khan Chairman, Supervisory Committee
________________________
Prof. Dr. Ayub Khan Co-Supervisor
________________________
Dr. Sher Aslam Khan Member (Major Field)
Associate Professor
________________________
Prof. Dr. Abid Farid Member (Other Field)
________________________
Dr. Naushad Ali Member (Other Field)
Assistant Professor
_______________________
Prof. Dr. Ayub Khan Chairman, Deptt. Of Agri.Sciences
________________________
Prof. Dr. Abid Farid Dean Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences
________________________
Dr. Shah Masaud Khan Director, Advance Studies and Research Board
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES (HORTICULTURE)
THE UNIVERSITY OF HARIPUR, KHYBER PAKHTUNKHWA
PAKISTAN
April, 2017
iii
PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP; EFFECT OF
TRANSPLANTING DATES, SEEDLING AGE, NITROGEN FERTILIZER
AND CULTIVARS
BY
Noor Habib Khan
Approved By:
External Examiner
Prof. Dr. Akihiro Isoda
Graduate School of Horticulture
Chiba University Matsudo 648
Matsudo-city
Chiba 271-8510
Japan
E-mail: isoda@faculty.chiba-u.jp
Phone: +81-47-308-8814
iv
PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP; EFFECT OF
TRANSPLANTING DATES, SEEDLING AGE, NITROGEN FERTILIZER
AND CULTIVARS
BY
Noor Habib Khan
Approved By:
External Examiner
Prof. Dr. Mahmud T. Muda Mohamed
Universiti Putra Malaysia
Department of Crop Sciences
43400 UPM Serdang
Selangor Darul Ehsan
E-mail: mtmm@upm.edu.my
Phone: +603-8947 4823
v
PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP; EFFECT OF
TRANSPLANTING DATES, SEEDLING AGE, NITROGEN FERTILIZER
AND CULTIVARS
BY
Noor Habib Khan
Approved By:
Internal / National Examiner
Prof. Dr. Noor Ul Amin
Department of Horticulture
The University of Agriculture, Peshawar
Dr. Muhammad Sajid
Associate Professor
Department of Horticulture
Hazara University, Mansehra
vi
PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP; EFFECT OF TRANSPLANTING
DATES, SEEDLING AGE NITROGEN FERTILIZER AND CULTIVARS
ABSTRACT
By
Noor Habib Khan and Shah Masaud Khan
Research trials were conducted at Agricultural Research Institute, Mingora Swat over two consecutive
growing seasons from November to June 2013-14 and 2014-15.
In the first trial seedlings of 45, 60 and 75 days old were transplanted on 5 different dates (30th November,
15th December, 30th December, 15th January and 30th January) to study its effect on premature bolting in
onion. Transplanting dates and seedling age exerted significant effect on different growth and yield
parameters studied. Plant height, number of leaves at bolting, stem thickness, days to maturity, bulb
diameter, bulb weight and total yield (ton ha-1) decreased with delay in transplanting as well as with
increasing seedling age. On the other hand, bolting and cull percentage decreased with delay in
transplanting and increased with increase in seedling age. Maximum marketable yield (ton ha-1) was
recorded when 60 days old seedlings were transplanted on 15th December. The correlation co-efficient
analysis data revealed a positive correlation between marketable yield (0.671 ton/ha) and bulb diameter
(0.381). Non- significant positive correlations of marketable yield were recorded with bulb weight (0.173),
number of leaves at bolting (0.097), stem thickness (0.091) and plant height (0.106). The association of
marketable yield with bolting percentage (-0.381) and % cull (-0.552) was significantly negative.
In the second trial three commercial cultivars ‘Swat-1’, ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’ were transplanted
on five different dates at 15 days interval (25th November, 10th December, 25th December, 10th January and
25th January). Cultivars varied in their susceptibility to bolting. Cultivar Swat-1 took significantly
maximum (78.67 days) to bolting initiation and recorded minimum bolting percentage (12.51%) compared
to ‘Saryab Red’(13.75%) and ‘Chiltan-89’ (17.32%). Early transplanting took less (108.06 days) to bolting
initiation. Bolting percentage was maximum (34.52%) at early transplanting and reduced with delay in
transplanting from 25th November to 25th December. Bolting was not recorded at late, (10th and 25th
January) transplanting irrespective of the cultivar. When compared to ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’,
‘Swat-1’ had maximum plant height (65.58 cm), number of leaves per plant (10.64), stem thickness
(15.43mm), bulb diameter (60.08 cm), bulb weight (169.08 g), and days to maturity (168.37), total (32.94
vii
ton ha-1 ) and marketable yield (25.07 ton ha-1 ). Plant height (61.24cm), number of leaves per plant (10.96),
stem thickness (17.24 cm), bulb diameter (63.08 cm), bulb weight (149.31g), and days to maturity (167.89),
total yield (31.07 ton ha-1) was maximum at early transplanting and decreased with delay in transplanting.
Cultivar Swat-1 produced maximum marketable yield (25.07 ton ha-1) than ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’.
Marketable yield was maximum at mid transplanting date (25th December); attributed to less bolting and
percent cull compared to early transplanting. Unmarketable yield at early transplanting was largely due to
bolting while at late transplanting it was due to small ungraded bulbs.
In the third trial different rates of nitrogen fertilizer (75, 100, 125 and 150 kg ha-1) were applied at different
transplanting dates (15th Nov, 1st Dec, 15th Dec, 1st Jan and 15th Jan) with the objective to determine its
influence on inflorescence development in onion bulb crop. Bolting percentage decreased gradually with
increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Maximum bolting percentage was recorded in early transplanting
and declined with delay in transplanting. Bolting incidence did not occurre in very late (15th January)
transplanting irrespective of the rate of nitrogen applied. Plant height, stem thickness, bulb diameter, bulb
weight and total yield ton ha-1 increased with increase in nitrogen fertilizer and conversely showed a
downward trend with delay in transplanting. Different rates of nitrogen fertilizer didn’t significantly
influence number of leaves plant-1. However, early transplanting exhibited significantly more leaves than
late transplanting. Early transplanting took maximum 175.88 days to maturity than late transplanting
(163.75) days. Maturity was delayed with increase in nitrogen fertilizer. Percent cull decreased with
increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Marketable yield ton ha-1 was maximum at mid transplanting date
(15th December) and with maximum rate of nitrogen fertilizer. The correlation co-efficient analysis revealed
that marketable yield ton ha-1 has positive correlation with plant height, number of leaves plant-1, bulb
diameter, bulb weight, total yield ton ha-1 and negative correlation with stem thickness bolting percentage
and percent cull. Bolting percentage has positive association with percent cull.
It can be concluded that bolting resistant cultivar is not available in this country, however, ‘Swat-1’
performed best in the existing cultivars. Research should be initiated to develop bolting resistant cultivars
or produce resistance in available cultivars through phenotypic recurrent selection. Modification in cultural
practices remained the viable option for the growers to mitigate bolting problem. Transplanting should be
delayed in such a way to avoid plants receiving cold temperature at sensitive stage to minimize bolting.
Correct transplant age (50-60 days) and ample nitrogen fertilizer of 125-150 Kg ha-1 also reduced the
incidence of bolting.
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praises to Almighty Allah, the most beneficent the most merciful for all his blessing conferred upon me.
I have accompanied and supported by many people. It is pleasant opportunity to express my gratitude for
all of them.
I am truly indebted to my supervisor Dr. Shah Masaud Khan Associate professor, The University of Haripur for his
guidance, valuable advice and constructive criticism; refining my arguments and consolidating my resolve to
complete this dissertation. The guidance and encouragement of Professor Dr. Ayub Khan, Chairman Department of
Agricultural Sciences, University of Haripur has been vital in enabling me to reach this stage. Without his motivation
my PhD research would have been unbearably challenging.
I am very grateful to Professor Dr. Abid Farid, Dean Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences, for his insight and fruitful
criticism during this study. Faculty Members, Dr. Muhammad Saeed and Dr. Sher Aslam Khan deserve many thanks
for their useful suggestions and unforgettable friendly attitude.
I’m very indebted to Dr. Abdul Bari, Director ARI, Mingora, Swat who facilitated me at the institute during the course
of this study.
I would like to thank and wholeheartedly appreciate my colleagues Dr. Ehsan Ullah Principal Research Officer for
sparing his precious time to shape and edit this manuscript to an improved version, Dr. Rahmani Gul Senior Research
Officer, for his valuable suggestions and help in statistical analysis, Dr. Muhammad Naeem, Research Officer, Dr.
Amjad Khan Principal Research Officer and Dr. Fazli Maula Senior Research Officer for frequent help and most
needed moral support.
I wish to record my sincere thanks to Mr. Iqbal Hussain who extended full support in my field research work and data
analysis with patience, commitment and dedication. I also convey my thankfulness to Dr. Muhammad Munir who
accompanied me during my travel and stay during this study.
I am grateful to Mr. Javed Ali and Mr. Jamshid, Field Assistants and field workers of vegetable section for untiring
help in field operations and in data collection.
Last, but utmost thanks to my parents, wife and children whose prayers granted me the courage and devotion to deal
diligently with frequent frustration during this study
Date Noor Habib Khan
ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATION
Abbreviations Full form
% Per cent
@ At the rate of 0C Degree Celsius
Cm Centimeter
Plant-1 Per plant
et al. And co-worker/and others
Fig. Figure
FYM Farm yard manure
Gm Gram
ha-1 Per hectare
Kg Kilogram
m-2 Per Meter square
Mm Millimeter
N Nitrogen
Ns non-significant
RH Relative humidity
S. No. Serial number
Mn Manganese
Zn Zinc
K Potash
VD Vernalization day
RGR Relative growth rate
DATP Days after transplanting
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ VIII
LIST OF ABBREVIATION ................................................................................................................... IX
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................... XI
LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. XIII
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... I
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ....................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER 3: EXPERIMENT1:EFFECTS OFTRANSPLANTING DATES AND
SEEDLING AGE ON PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP…………….22
CHAPTER 4:EXPERIMENT 2: BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP AS INFLUENCED BY
CULTIVARS AND TRANSPLANTING DATES……………………………………………….51
CHAPTER 5: EXPERIMENT 3: EFFECT OF TRANSPLANTING DATES AND NITROGEN
FERTILIZER ON FLOWERING INITIATION IN ONION BULB CROP…………………..73
CHAPTER 6: OVERALL SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS……………………………………………………………………96
CHAPTER 7: LITERATURE CITED .............................................................................................. 101
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................................... 118
SELECTED PICTURES ...................................................................................................................... 133
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LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Nutritional composition of onion (per 100 g) .................................................................................... 2
Table 2: Effect of day length, temperature and variety on bolting in Alliums ................................................... 4
Table3: Physico-chemical properties of the experimental soil. ................................................................................. 26
Table 4: Elaborated planting dates and seedling ages. ............................................................................................... 27
Table 5: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on plant height during year 2014 and 2015....................... 31
Table 6:Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on number of leaves at Bolting in year 2014 and 2015….32
Table 7: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on stem diameter during year 2014 and 2015.. ................. 33
Table 8: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on days to maturity during the year2014 and 2015.. ........ 35
Table 9: Effect of transplanting dates and seedling age on bolting percentage during year 2014 and 2015.. ........ 36
Table 10: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on bulb diameter (mm) during years 2014 and 2015……39
Table 11: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on bulb weight (g) during year 2014 and 2015.. ............ 40
Table 12: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on yield (ton ha-1) during the year 2014 and 2015.. ........ 42
Table 13: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on percent cull during year 2014 and 2015.. ................... 44
Table 14:Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on marketable yield (ton ha-1) in year 2014 and 2015….46
Table 15: Phenotypic correlation coefficient among yield and yield related characters in onion.. ......................... 48
Table 16: Treatment detail of the experiment………………………………………………………………....53
Table 17:Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on plant height (cm) during the year 2014 and 2015……55
Table 18: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on number of leaves plant-1 in year 2014 and 2015. ........ 56
Table 19: Effect of on transplanting dates and cultivars on stem diameter during the year 2014 and 2015. ......... 57
Table 20: Effect of on transplanting dates and cultivars on bulb diameter during the year 2014 and 2015. .......... 58
Table 21: Effect of transplanting date and cultivars on bulb Weight (g) dduring the year 2014 and 2015............ 60
Table 22:Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on days to bolting initiation during year 2014 and 2015. . 62
Table 23: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on bolting percentage during during 2014 and 2015. ...... 65
Table 24: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on days to maturity during the year 2014 and 2015. ....... 67
Table 25: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on total yield (ton ha-1) during year 2014 and 2015. ....... 68
xii
Table 26: Effect of on transplanting dates and cultivars on marketable yield (ton ha-1) in year 2014 and 2015. .. 70
Table 27: Treatment details.......................................................................................................................................... 75
Table 28: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on plant height (cm) during the year 2014 and 2015. ...... 77
Table 29:Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on the number of leaves plant-1 in 2014 and 2015. .... 79
Table 30: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on stem thickness (cm) year 2014 and 2015. ............ 80
Table 31: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on bulb diameter (mm) in year 2014 and 2015. ........ 81
Table 32: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on bulb weight (g) in year 2014 and 2015. ................ 83
Table 33: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on bolting percentage in year 2014 and 2015. .......... 84
Table 34: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on days to maturity in year 2014 and 2015. .............. 86
Table 35: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on total yield (ton ha-1) in year 2014 and 2015. ......... 87
Table 36: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on percent cull in year 2014 and 2015 ....................... 89
Table 37: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on marketable yield ton ha-1 in year 2014 and 2015. 92
Table 38: Phenotypic correlation coefficient among yield and yield related characters in onion………………....84
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Bolting problem in onion bulb crop at farmer’s field in Swat-------------------------------------6
Figure 2: Mean monthly temperature at ARI Mingora during the growing season in 2013-14. ............................ 24
Figure 3: Mean monthly temperature during the growing season in 2014-15. ........................................................ 25
Figure 4: Mean data showing interaction transplanting dates and seedling age for bolting percentage. ................ 37
Figure 5: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for bulb weight (gm). ............. 41
Figure 6: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for yield ton ha-1. .................... 43
Figure 7: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and year for yield ton ha-1. ................................. 43
Figure 8: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for percent cull. ....................... 45
Figure 9: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for marketable yield ton ha-1...47
Figure 10: Interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for bulb diameter (mm). ............................................... 59
Figure 11: Interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for bulb weight (g)........................................................ 61
Figure 12: Interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for days to bolting initiation. ........................................ 63
Figure 13: Mean data on interaction of transplanting and year for days to bolting initiation. ................................. 63
Figure 14: Mean data on interaction of transplanting, dates and seedling age for Bolting Percentage. ................. 66
Figure 15: Mean data on interaction of transplanting, dates and year for bolting percentage. ................................ 66
Figure 16: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for yield ton / ha. ................................... 69
Figure 17: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for marketable yield ton / ha…………71
Figure 18: Mean data on interaction of Transplanting dates and nitrogen fertilizer for bolting percentage. ......... 85
Figure 19: mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and nitrogen level for percent cull. ............................. 90
Figure 20: Mean data on interaction of year and nitrogen level for percent cull...................................................... 90
Figure 21: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and N level for marketable yield ton/ha. ................... 91
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is a bulbus vegetable belonging to family Alliaceae and Central Asia is viewed
to be its center of origin (Vavilov, 1951: Brewster, 1994). It is monocotyledonous and cross pollinated
with diploid chromosome number 2n = 16 (Bassett, 1986; and Khokhar, 2014). It is the most important
spice and vegetable crop all over the world (Brewster, 1994). Onion is only second to tomato in term of
total annual production among the 15 vegetables listed by Food and Agricultural Organization (Pathak,
2000). It has been grown in 175 countries with a world production of about 82 million metric tons (FAO,
2013).
Onion being a biennial vegetable, largely grown as annual vegetable for bulbs, immature stem (Shallot)
or green leaves (Green Bunching Onion). Onions are called “tunicate” bulbs, which mean that the scales
are covered by a thin skin known as tunic. These scales are also called “wrapping scales.” (Sidhu et al.,
2005). Bulb is modified underground shoot or flower bud. The thick scales that protect the bud are in
fact swollen leaf bases. The scales are attached to a tough basal plate from which the roots grow. The
bulb contains nearly everything that the embryonic bud will need to grow and flourish (Sidhu et
al.,2005).
Cultivation of onion dates back to prehistoric times. Mentions of onions can be found in the Bible, Quran
and in the writings of the ancient civilization of Egypt, Rome, Greece, and China. As onion cultivation
spread, cultivars evolved with more diversity in shape, color, flavor, keeping-quality, and with critical
adaptations to new climates. The most important adaptive traits involved is the bulbing response to day
length and high temperature, and conversely bolting response to low temperatures (McCollum, 1976).
Maximum diversity in onion is found in the eastern Mediterranean countries, from Turkmenistan and
Tajikistan to Pakistan and India (Astley et al., 1982).
Onion is a common vegetable grown for its flavorful bulbs and leaves (Shanmugasundaram and Kalb,
2001). It contains carbohydrate, protein, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, ascorbic acid (Hanen
et al., 2012), beta-carotene and lachrymatic compounds having antioxidant activity that helps to fight
against cancer and chronic diseases (Karadeniz et al., 2005; Jorjandi et al., 2009). Onion has been
reported to have a range of health benefits which include anti-carcinogenic properties, anti-platelet
activity, antithrombotic activity, anti-asthmatic and antibiotic effects (Griffiths et al., 2002). The use of
onion by humans has a long history that can be traced back to the Egyptians. Olympic athletes were fed
onions and garlic to improve performance in track and field events and Europeans have treated blood
clots in horses for centuries with onion. So, these folklores suggested improved blood circulation by
consumption of onion. Internet has become a major source of information in this era of technological
2
advancement. Many websites exist with information on advocating herbal and therapeutic uses of onion
and garlic. Noticeably many of these claims on health benefits of Alliums have not received any
scientific research (Griffiths et al., 2002). Table 1: Nutritional composition of onion (per 100 g)
Nutional composition of onion is presented in
Table 1. Onion is consumed widely in every
household in several forms. It is used in
pickles, curries, salad, chutney, sauces and
dehydrated onion in spices. Onion bulbs are
consumed both cooked and uncooked as
salad. Due to its unique tasteIt is an essential
item of every kitchen and hence, German
called it Queen of the Kitchen.(Pareek et al,
2017)
Onion can be grown on soils ranging from
sandy loam to heavy clay but sandy and silt
loams fertile soil having good retention of
moisture are best suited for its cultivation. It is
very sensitive to water logging. The optimum
pH range is 5.8 to 8.0 (Rana and Hore, 2015).
Onion can be grown under a wide range of climatic condition but it grows well in mild climate without
extreme of high or low temperature. For seed germination a temperature range of 12.5 to 25oc, for
vegetative stage before bulbing 12.8 to 21oc and for bulb formation temperature range 15.5 to 25oc is
considered ideal. It is hardy and can withstand freezing temperatures. It does not grow well in area
having rainfall 75-100 cm in monsoon (Rana and Hore, 2015). High temperature favors bulbing and
curing (Shanmugasundaram and Kalb, 2001).Growth and development of onion is greatly affected by
temperature and photoperiod (Rabinowitch, 1985, Brewster, 1987; Coolong & Randle, 2003; Ansari,
2007; Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013). These environmental factors and their interaction with genotype
determine the performance of an onion cultivar (Brewster, 1994; Khan et al., 2001, Jilani & Ghaffoor,
2003) and this interaction defines the selection of variety for the specific area (Bosekeng and Coetzer,
2013).
Temperature also plays a key role in bulb initiation and formation in onions. Temperature variations
have been found to influence the degree of vegetative growth (Butt, 1968; Brewster, 1979; Seabrook,
2005), leaf initiation, and emergence (De Ruiter, 1986). Tesfay (2011) found that temperature induce
Constituents Quantity
Water (g) 86.6
Carbohydrate (g) 11.8
Protein (g) 1.5
Fat (g) 0.15
Fibers (g) 0.6
Minerals (g) 0.5
Phosphorus (mg) 55.0
Calcium (mg) 43.5
Potassium (mg) 127.0
Sodium (mg) 4.0
Magnesium (mg) 16.0
Iron (mg) 1.0
Copper (mg) 0.18
Zinc (mg) 0.41
Manganese (mg) 0.18
Molybdenum (mg) 0.03
Thiamine (mg) 0.08
Riboflavin (mg) 0.01
Carotene (µg) 8.0
Niacin (mg) 0.5
Folic acid(mg) 6.0
Ascorbic acid (mg) 11.0
Energy (kcal) 55 Rana and Hore, 2015
3
variations in leaf number, plant height, leaf area, and also influence bulb formation. Providing sowing
on the same dates, temperature probably seems to be the main reason for differences in maturity date
between seasons and between locations at the same latitude. In the tropics, it is temperature rather than
day length which controls the timing of bulbing (Sinclair, 1989).
Low temperature affects plant development in many species (Ritchie, 1991; Wang &Engel, 1998;
Streck, 2003). Exposure to low temperature promotes flowering in many plants including onion is called
vernalization (Pinthus, 1985; Flood & Halloran, 1986).
Vernalization in onion has been of research interest because of the need to prevent bulbs from bolting
in the first growing season and to enhance flowering in second growing season or in seed crop (Brewster,
1987; Streck, 2003). In tropical regions, onion plants neither flower nor produce seed due to lack of cold
temperature (Kimani et al., 1994). This is the reason that many countries in the tropics import onion
seed from sub tropic or temperate countries where winter provide vernalization temperature for
flowering and seed production (Peters, 1990; Khokhar, 2014). The response of plant to vernalization
depends on the combination of two factors, the temperature during vernalization and duration of
vernalization period (Hodges &Ritchie, 1991; Streck, 2003). In relation to temperature response,
vernalization has three basic (minimum, optimum and maximum) temperatures (Wang & Engel, 1998;
Yan and Hunt, 1999) while the duration to vernalization is measured by as effective vernalization day
(VD). Plant receives a vernalization for one VD when exposed to optimum temperature for a period of
24 hours (Streck, 2003).
Onion cultivars differ in their vernalization requirement for flower initiation. Cold temperatures between
5˚C - 13˚C for 20 to 120 days were optimum for flower induction in most cultivars. Yet, bolting resistant
cultivars needed comparatively longer (154 - 185 days) cold stimulus (Brewster, 1983; Peters, 1990;
Khokhar et al., 2007a; Khokhkar, 2008). Peters (1990) reviewed that vernalization temperature of 100C
is adequate to bring almost any cultivar to complete flowering.
Optimal day length and vernalization is not enough to induce flowering. Plants should be old enough to
sense and respond to these environmental stimuli. Some perennial plants flower readily when exposed
to environmental condition such as photoperiod and vernalization. While others cannot flower until pass
the juvenile stage and grown to a certain age or size (maturity). According to Fausey et al., (2006),
juvenility is the early phase of growth during which flowering cannot be induced by any treatment.
Onion differs in their flower initiation response to environmental condition because of differences in
genotypes (Khokhar, 2008; Brewster, 1987) and physiological age (Khokhar, 2008). Dong et al., (2013)
stated that onion seedling must be grown to certain age before they sense the cold temperature and start
4
vernalization process. Low temperature promote flowering in onion only if they have passed the
juvenility stage (Rabinowitch, 1990; Khokhar et al., 2007a). Leaf number rather than chronological time
is the best sign of the plant’s physiological age (Rabinowitch, 1990). Onion, depending on cultivars,
initiate flowering when have a minimum number of 7-10 leaves including leaf initial (Rabinowitch,
1990; Khokhar et al., 2007a).
Photoperiod is refers to the length of the day in which a plant is growing in (Denisen, 1979). Day length
has significant effect on bulb formation in onion and the leaves are considered to be the receptors of this
photoperiodic stimulus (Okporie & Ekpe, 2008). This stimulus helps carbohydrate accumulation passed
on from the leaf blade to the leaf sheath (Mondal et al., 1986; Mettananda & Fordham, 1999), making
the sheath of the leaves to swollen and expand. This thickened leaf sheath will form a storage structure
called bulb. The outer one to four leaf sheaths dry off to make protective skin as the bulb matures
(Brewster, 1994).
The day length requirements for bulbing vary with cultivar, normally ranging from 12-16 hours (Van
Den Berg et al., 1997). Short day onion cultivars need a day length of 11-12 hours for bulbing and can
be successfully cultivated in the tropics on 30°N and S from the equator. (Wiles, 1989; Smith, 2006).
Intermediate day cultivars may be cultivated as a winter or spring crop in regions from 30° and 45°
latitude. They need 12-14 hours day length for bulb formation. Long day cultivars require longer days
16 or more hours for bulb formation and can be planted in the regions between 45° to 60° latitude
(Hemy, 1984; Van Den Berg et al., 1997). Short and intermediate day cultivars like Swat-1, Saryab Red
and Phulkara are grown in Pakistan. Bulbing initiates in these cultivars in March when day length
exceeds 12 hours and harvested in May-June when day length is 14 hours.
Table 2: Effect of daylength, temperature and variety on bolting in Alliums.
Crop Day length Temperature Variety
Onion Slight Major Major
Garlic Slight Major Major
Shallot Slight Major Major
Leek Slight Major Moderate
Bunching onion Slight Major Major
Wien, H. C. (1997)
Bolting is premature seed stalk developments (Voss et al., 1999) that decrease the marketability of onion
bulb (Cramer, 2003). Bolting cuts the storage potential and quality of the bulbs as whole of the energy
5
of the plant is exhausted and nothing is left in the bulbs to accumulate. Thus, bulbs become fibrous and
light weight (Rana and Hore, 2015). Bolting in onion bulb crop is produced due to low temperature (8-
13 0C) when plants have grown enough to initiate bulbing. The sensitivity to cold temperature rises as
plant age increased (Cramer, 2003). When seedlings are transplanted early, the onion plants will grasp
the sensitive size for bulbing when temperature is still low, the plants will bolt instead of making bulbs.
Sowing / transplanting should be adjusted so as to prevent plants receiving a cold spell at sensitive plant
size that cause bolting instead of bulb formation. Cramer (2003) stated that late sowing reduced bolting
incidence, but plants are small yet when bulb formation begins causing small bulbs of a poor quality.
Sowing dates are, therefore, important factor that needs to be optimized to prevent bolting in onion.
Dong et al., (2013) reported significant effect of cultivar, sowing date and transplant location and their
interaction on the initiation and final rate of bolting in Welsh onion. Their results suggested that bolting
can be controlled in Welsh onion by choosing an appropriate cultivar, sowing date and transplant
location.
Seedling age or set size also influences the incidence of bolting. Kanton et al., (2003) reported that older
(30 or 40 days) seedlings take less days to mature than the younger (20 days) seedlings. Dong et al.,
(2013) stated that onion seedling must be grown to certain age before they sense the cold temperature
and start vernalization process. The characteristics of seedling also determine the survival percentage
and their ability to respond to cold temperature (Cremaschi et al., 2012). Gao et al., (2011) found that
older seedling needed less accumulation of low temperature for bolting. Khokhar (2009) reported that
incidence of bolting increased linearly with set-size and curvy-linearly with decreasing storage
temperature.
Other factors affecting bolting in onion include nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers (Brewester, 1983).
Rabinowitch (1990) termed onion as nitro-neutral plant whose flowering time is unaffected by nitrogen.
A few studies, however, indicates that nitrogen affect the flowering process in onion (Brewester, 1983;
Peterson, 1984). Brewster (1983) found that low nitrogen in nutrient solution speeded up flowering.
Abdissa et al., (2011) reported that percentage of bolters per plot decreased by about 11 and 22% in
response to the application of 69 and 92 kg N ha-1, respectively over the control. According to the
findings of Yamasaki and Tanaka, (2005) low nitrogen enhanced bolting in bunching onion (Allium
fistulosum L.) exposed to low temperature for 35 days. Diaz-Perez et al., (2003) suggested that low
nitrogen fertilizer application increased bolting and reported that bolting incidence decrease steadily
with increase nitrogen fertilization rates up to197 kg.ha1.
Different cultivars showed significant variation in bolting percentage (Mushtaq et al., 2013). This
variation was due to the genetic differences of the tested cultivars. Lancaster et al., (1999) evaluated 32
6
onion cultivars from four geographical regions for three years and found significant difference in bolting
tendency among the cultivars. It is difficult to determine the proper date for fall seeding to minimize
bolting and winter injury while increase yield, as it is cultivar and environment dependent. Bolting
resistance cultivars have less bolting percentage, less winter injury and high yield and can be planted
earlier (Cramer, 2003).
Onion is an important cash crop in Pakistan. It is a source of income and livelihood for small farmers.
An appreciable quantity of onions is also exported earning precious foreign exchange for the country. It
occupies an area of 147.2 thousand ha, with production of 1981.7 thousand tons in 2017-18. (Pakistan
Economic Survey 2017-18).
Malakand Division in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, plays a vital role in onion seed and bulb production. It is
an important cash crop widely grown in all six districts of Malakand division. It enhances the grower’s
net income and creates the employment opportunities for the landless and owner household families
(Saeed and Nasir, 2001).
Figure 2: Bolting problem in onion bulb crop at farmer’s field in Swat.
Onion has many production constraints like lake of quality seed, lack of more productive cultivars,
diseases & insect pest and premature bolting. Premature bolting poses a serious threat to onion
cultivation. Onions sown for bulb production send seed stalks causing them to be unmarketable. And
this occurred for the last many years and the intensity of the problem is more than 50% in most onion
bulb crop across the country. The climate change particularly shifting of winter rains from January-
February to April-May aggravated the problem.This is a great set back to the onion cultivation in
traditionally onion growing area of Malakand division in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. This problem not only
7
affects the socio economic condition of the farmers but also the availability of onion in local markets
resultantly leads to price hike.
We cannot control the weather but can re-adjust the cropping season to mitigate the problem. This
problem oriented research trials have been designed to re-adjust transplanting time, use correct seedling
age, adequate amount of N fertilizer and use bolting resistant varieties to prevent onion bulb crop from
bolting. This study aimed to achieve the following objectives.
• Main objective
• To prevent onion bulb crop from premature bolting.
• Specific objectives
• To determine the optimum transplanting dates and seedling age to avoid bolting and increase the
yield simultaneously.
• To find out the effect of cultivars and transplanting dates have any effect on premature bolting in
onion.
• To find out the influence of transplanting dates and nitrogen fertilizer on premature onion bolting,
growth and bulb yield.
8
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Temperature and photoperiod are the two environmental factors that largely control the growth and
development in onion. These environmental factors and their interactions with genotype determine the
performance of an onion cultivar (Brewster, 1994; Jilani & Ghaffoor, 2003; Khan et al., 2001). This
interaction defines the selection of variety for the specific area (Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013).
Cultural practices like sowing dates, seedling age, fertilizers, irrigation and plant population also
influence growth, yield and quality of onion bulbs (Brewster, 2008;Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013).
In this chapter literature pertaining to climatic requirement of onion, growth stages, plant structure, effect
of sowing dates, seedling age, nitrogen fertilizer and cultivars on yield and associated traits are being
discussed and reviewed.
Climatic Requirements
Temperature
Temperature influence growth and development of onion plant in all stages (Coolong & Randle, 2003;
Ansari, 2007; Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013). A temperature between 7.5 and 30°C is required to obtain
at least 70% germination percentage (Abu-Rayyan et al., 2012). Comrie, (1997a) stated that optimum
temperature for onion seed germination is 24°C, while minimum temperature for onion is 2°C and
maximum temperatures is 35°C, respectively.
The onion seedling grows best between 20 and 25°C (Shanmugasundaram & Kalb, 2001). Temperature
between18-22°C is best for optimum vegetative growth, yet plants can grow at low temperatures as
10°C and higher temperature up to 27°C (Comrie, 1997a). A higher temperate between 25 and 28°C is
required from bulb initiation till harvesting. However, lower temperatures of 8 and 13°Cat bulb
initiation, results in bolting instead of bulbing in onion crop (Comrie, 1997a).
Photoperiod
Photoperiod refers to the length of the day in which a plant is growing in (Denisen, 1979). Day length
has significant effect on bulb formation in onion and the leaves are considered to be the receptors of this
photoperiodic stimulus (Okporie and Ekpe, 2008). This stimulus helps carbohydrate accumulation
passed on from the leaf blade to the leaf sheath (Mondal et al., 1986; Mettananda and Fordham, 1999),
making the sheath of the leaves to swollen and expand. This thickened leaf sheath will form a storage
9
structure called bulb. The outer one to four leaf sheath dry out to make protective skin as the bulb
matures (Brewster, 1994).
The day length requirement for bulbing vary with cultivar, ranging from 12-16 hours (Van Den Berg et
al., 1997). Short day onion cultivars need a day length of 11-12 hours for bulb formation and can be
successfully cultivated in in the tropics between 30°N and S from the equator. (Wiles, 1989).
Intermediate day cultivars may be cultivated as a winter or spring crop in regions from 30° and 45°
latitude. They need 12-14 hours day length for bulb formation.Long day cultivars require longer days
16 or more hours for bulb formation and can be planted in the regions between 45° to 60° latitude
(Hemy, 1984; Van Den Berg et al., 1997).
Intermediate day cultivars like ‘Swat-1’,‘Saryab Surkh’ and ‘Pulkara’ can be grown in Pakistan.
Bulbing starts in early march when day length exceeds 12 hours and harvested in May-June when day
length is 14 hrs. Long day cultivars cannot be grown in Pakistan because maximum day length here
never exceeds 14 hours in May-June.
Adaptation of onion cultivar in a specific area is mostly depended on the photoperiod of that area and
photoperiodic requirement of the cultivar (Wiles, 1989). If an onion cultivar is grown in area having day
length shorter than needed, plant will grow forming leaves without bulbing (Wiles, 1994) and maximum
bolting percentage with high stem thickness can also happen (González, 1997). Conversely, when a
cultivar is exposed to the photoperiod longer than what is necessary, premature bulb formation
increased, bulbing and maturity is speeded up and that all causes smaller bulbs and little yield
(Wickramasinghe et al., 2000). Hence, day length of a certain area at the time of bulb initiation influence
the cultivar choice (Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013).
Growth Stages
Onion has fairly complex life cycle consisted of three main stages (Brewster 1990, Bosch & Casanova,
2000). According to Bosch & Casanova (2000) these stages are the seedling, vegetative and bulbing
stages. In the first growth stage onion seed will begin to germinate after sowing (Brewster, 1994). In the
process of germination, the primary root will start grow downward while the cotyledon rising upward
through the soil surface as hook or loop and this stage is called the loop stage. During this flag leaf stage,
also referred to as first leaf stage, the first true leaf stage appear while the cotyledon still bent in a whip
shape. At this stage cotyledon senescence takes place causing the withering and falling the cotyledon.
Second and third true leaf also appeared at this stage. At the fourth leaf stage also referred to as leek
stage, fourth true leaf appears and the first leaf begin to shrink and the neck of the plant starts to thicken.
As the first leaf falls, the second leaf becomes detached at the sheath and begins to senescence from the
10
tip, simultaneously fifth, sixth and seven leaf appear. This is called the fall of the first leaf stage. During
bulbing stage the bulbs begins to form, second and third leaf desiccate and at the same time leaves eight
to thirteen appear and the plant attain its maximum height (Bosekeng, 2012).
Progressive desiccation of the leaf four to six together with the tips of younger leaves occurred during
the rapid bulbing stage. Leaves begin to bend under their own weight. One or two short leaf blades may
still appear while bulb skin starts to form. During the leaf fall-down or soft neck stage the neck becomes
hollow, lose turgidity and soften causing the falling under its own weight and bulb reaches its maximum
size. In bulb ripening stage the outer skin of the bulb dries out cure and set while the senescence of the
foliage is complete (Bosekeng, 2012).
Effect of Sowing Dates
Temperature and photoperiod play a key role in onion growth and development. Transplanting time is,
therefore, important that every stage of plant growth and development occur in optimum temperature
and photoperiod.
Germination and emergence
Onion is winter vegetable and can withstand frost. According to Abu-Rayyan et al., (2012) a
temperature ranging from 7.5-300C is required for germination and emergence percentage. Kretschmer
(1994) in Germany obtained 90% germination at temperature ranging between 10 to 25°C. According
to Ansari (2007) late sowing speed up the emergence of onion seed. Seed sown in January, February
and March emerge after 22, 10 and 7 days undergoing an average temperature of 77.7, 24.7 and 34.7°C,
respectively. These findings shows that high temperature can shorten the time from germination to
emergence.
Seedling and vegetative growth
The seedling stage of onion (from loop up to the cotyledon senescence stage is a slow and long period
of growth and may continue for 2-3 months (Sullivan et al., 2001; Brewster, 2008). The relative growth
rate (RGR) of onion seedlings (1.00) is temperature dependent and is almost half the other winter
vegetables like lettuce (1.91) and cabbage (1.96). Nevertheless, onion seedlings are the fastest growing
among the edible alliums (Brewster, 2008).
Leaf growth and canopy development during the vegetative stage are closely linked with temperature.
A minimum or base temperature of 6°C is needed for leaf growth and leaf canopy development and leaf
growth stops below this temperature. The relatively growth rate (RLGR) rise linearly with an increase
11
in temperature from 6 to 20°C. Growth rate slow down with further increase in temperature and above
26°C it will end.
At the onset of bulb formation, second and third leaf dries out while leaf eight and thirteen appear, and
the plant attain its maximum height (Brewster, 1994). Late sown onion plants likely to be small at the
start of bulbing due to short growing period (Al-Moshileh, 2007). Bulb formation for early and late
sown plant of the same onion variety will happened at the same time as the plants mainly react to day
length for bulb initiation. The production of new leaves stop when bulbing initiates, suggesting that early
sown plant will develop more and larger leaves and larger leaf area compared to late sown plants
(Brewster, 1994). This will produce higher leaf area index for more light interception assisting in
efficient plant photosynthesis (Mondal et al., 1986; Sobeih and Wright, 1986).
Plant Height
Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) stated that sowing date did not influence plant height and leaf number
significantly over a period of two years, however, early sowing dates in one year resulted in taller plants.
Brewster (2008) reported that bulbs will be initiated when temperature starts to increase and the
necessary minimum day length of a specific onion cultivar is met. So, when the same cultivars is sown
at different times in the same area, plants will starts bulb formation more or less the same time. Hence,
earlier sown plants will have a longer vegetative growth period and consequently have larger plants with
more leaves (Comrie, 1997a; Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013). Sawant et al., (2002) found that plant height
and the number of leaves have significantly affected by sowing dates. Early sowing produced the tallest
plants with maximum number of leaves (Rahman et al., 2002; Ibrahim, 2010). Kandil et al., (2013)
found maximum plant height at 90 and 120 days from transplanting and total culls were resulted from
early transplanting date (15th November) in both seasons.
Leaf Area/ Number of Leaves/Plant
Cramer (2003) observed that earlier planting produced larger plants with more leaves compared to later
seeding dated in a growing season. Sawant et al., (2002) found that plant height and the number of
leaves have significantly affected by sowing dates. On the other hand, Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013)
stated that sowing date did not influence plant height and leaf number significantly over a period of two
years, however, early sowing dates in one year resulted in taller plants.
Bolting
Bolting is premature seed stalk development (Voss et al., 1999) that decreases the marketability of onion
bulb (Cramer, 2003). Bolting in onion bulb crop is produced to low temperature (8-13co) when plants
12
have grown enough to start bulbing. The sensitivity to cold temperature rises as plant age increased
Cramer (2003) added. Khokhar et al., (2007b) reported that the number of leaves has been used to define
the critical plant size at which bolting occur when expose to low temperature. They found that 7-10
leaves stage is sensitive plant size (at first leaf fall and the start of bulb formation stage). When seedlings
are transplanted early, the onion plants will grasp the sensitive size for bulbing when temperature are
still low, the plants will form seed stems instead bulbs. Sowing should be adjusted so as to prevent plants
receiving a cold spell at sensitive plant size that cause bolting instead of bulb formation. Cramer (2003)
stated that late sowing reduce bolting incidence, but plants are small yet when bulb formation begins
causing small bulbs of a poor quality. Sowing dates are, therefore, important factor that needs to be pay
heed to while preventing bolting.
Madisa (1994) reported that bolting did not occur when onion plants are sown late in the season as when
cold temperature prevailed plants are still small and not yet grown to minimum plant size for bolting.
Agic et al., (2007) found that bolting was encouraged by early sowing while cultivars differs in bolting
tendency in this study. Jianjun and Yu (2003) found higher premature bolting ratio and abruptly lower
mean bulb weight and plot yield in early sown crop. Dong et al., (2013) reported significant effect of
cultivar, sowing date and transplant location and their interaction on the initiation and final rate of bolting
in Welsh onion. The result suggests that bolting can be controlled in Welsh onion by choosing an
appropriate cultivar, sowing date and transplant location.
Stem Diameter
Both bulb and stem diameter are the two important quality traits in onion. Bulbs with thin necks store
for longer period than bulbs with thick necks (Gautam et al., 2006). (Peters et al., 1994; Wright and
Grant, 1997) reported that thick bulb necks take more time to dry off after harvesting and have a high
risk for infection of post-harvest storage diseases such as bacterial soft rot (Pseudomonas gladioli pv.
alliicola Burkholder). Gonzalez, (1997) found that 81% of the plants produced bulbs with thick necks
when sown late compared to 45.3% when sown early.
Bulb Diameter/Size
According to Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) bulb diameter was significantly influenced by both cultivar
and sowing dates and earlier sown crop produced the largest bulbs. Consumers prefer medium bulbs
above large bulbs and higher prices are consequently obtained on fresh produce markets for medium
bulbs (Kanton et al., 2002). Early planting produced maximum polar and equatorial diameter and hence,
produced large size bulbs (Sawant et al., 2002). Comrie (1997a) observed that early sown onions will
13
reach bulb formation stage when the temperature is still low and the plants will bolt instead of making
bulbs. This will cause less yield of low quality bulbs (Khokhar et al., 2007a).
Bulb Weight
Planting dates influence single bulb weight and yield in onion. Earlier sown plants will have a longer
vegetative growth period and consequently have larger plants with more leaves (Comrie, 1997b;
Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013). Sawant et al., (2002) found that plant height and the number of leaves
have significantly affected by sowing dates. Abdissa et al., (2011) found strong and positive correlation
of mean bulb weight with plant height, number of leaves, bulb length and diameter. Bosekeng and
Coetzer (2013) reported that delayed sowing significantly decreased average bulb fresh mass while early
sown plant produced the largest bulbs. This all suggest that planting dates influence single bulb weight
in onion.
Bulb Yield
Bulb yield in onion is influenced by several factors that include cultivar, temperature, and photoperiod,
light interception, sowing dates, plant population, seedling age, irrigation and fertilizer. Ample
vegetative growth before bulb formation is essential (Ibrahim, 2010) to get high yield. When sowing is
delayed, plant starts bulbing before attaining sufficient vegetative growth, resulting in small bulbs and
lesser yield. Late sown crop produce smaller plants with small canopy that intercept less light and
resultantly produce low yield (Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013). They also found that delayed sowing dates
significantly reduce bulb fresh mass and yield from 40.96 to 28.20 tons ha-1.
According to Cramer (2003) premature onion bolting increased when fall-sown onions were seeded
earlier. In general, less bolting, later maturity and increase in bulb yield were recorded with delay in
seeding. Madisa (1994) reported that late planting (April) produced lower yields than the March planting
due to a reduction in bulb size. Ibrahim (2010) found reduction in bulb yield from 40 tons ha-1 to 20 tons
ha-1 in 2001-02 when transplanting was delayed from November to March and from 48 tons ha-1 to less
than 20 tons ha-1 in 2002-03 when transplanting was delayed from December to March. Asmatullah et
al., (2004) transplanted onion cv. Swat-I at 10-day intervals from 12 November 1994 to 21 January
1995 reported that the nursery transplanted on 12 November produced maximum bulb yield (21.38
t/ha), number and weight of large-sized bulbs, leaves per plant but reduced number of culls. A higher
percentage of bolting and thick neck were recorded at earlier transplanting dates.
Sowing date for a specific onion cultivar should be selected to attain sufficient leaf growth before bulb
initiation to get high yields. However, a too long growth period before bulb initiation can also lead to
14
bolting as this results in large plants exposed to cold temperatures just before bulb initiation and split
bulbs may also occur.
Effect of Seedling Age
Is the seedling age at the time of transplanting influence the growth and development of onion plant?
Literature on seedling age are sparse (Vavrina, 2002). Brewster (1994) reported that one cause for low
yield is the use of seedlings of different age. Transplanting seedling is widely adopted practice in onion
cultivation though work on direct seeding has also been produced. The largest volume of literature on
transplant age is available on vegetables.
Wien (1997) stated that seedling transplanting is a common practice particularly for those vegetable
having small seeds, slow or difficult to germinate and require special care. (Islam, 1981; Saha, 1982)
reported that seedling age at transplanting influence bulb yield. Salter (1985) stated that transplanting
permits more precise control of plant population and spacing, and also make the best use of expensive
seed better than does direct seeding. Mohammadi et al., (2010) reported that transplanting produce quick
and complete stand compared to direct seeding.
Plant Height and Leaf Numbers
Salik and Pervaiz, (2000) transplanted 4, 5 and 6 week old seedling of three cultivar of tomato to find
out best age for transplanting. They found medium age, 5 week old seedling survival percentage of
plants, height of plant, number of fruits and yield. Kanton et al., (2003) found significant effect of
seedling age on plant height and the tallest plants from 40 days old transplants in onion. Gao et al.,
(2011) conducted a trial to determine the influence of accumulated temperature and seedling age on
shallot onion bolting. Results depicts that when plant attained height of 13.8cm with 2.6 leaf and stem
diameter 0.4 cm and active accumulated temperature and the effective accumulated temperature before
winter were 971℃ ( ≥ 5℃)or 777℃ ( ≥ 10℃) and 616℃ ( ≥ 5℃) or 542℃ (≥10℃), respectively, it
reached a critical stage and initiated inflorescences development.
Stem Diameter
According to Bijarniya et al, (2015) seedling age has significant influence on stem thickness.
Older seedling produce thick neck compared to young seedlings. Increase in stem thickness in
older seedlings may be due the vigorous growth due to enough stored foods (Bijarniya et al,
2015).Kumbhekar al el, (2012) reported thin neck bubs of 1.04 cm from 6 week old transplant
compared to 7 and 8 weeks seedlings. Bijarniya et al, (2015) also recorded thick neck from old
seedling compared to young seedlings.
15
Bolting
Onion is a bulb vegetable that needs vernalization for flower induction. Dong et al (2013) stated that
Onion seedling must be grown to certain age before they sense the cold temperature and start
vernalization process. The characteristics of seedling also determine the survival percentage and their
ability to respond to cold temperature (Cremaschi et al., 2012). Gao et al., (2011) found that older
seedling needed less accumulation of low temperature for bolting.
Khokhar, (2009) reported that incidence of bolting increased linearly with set-size and curvy-linearly
with decreasing storage temperature. Seedlings of 30 or 40 days old take less days to mature than
younger (20 days) seedlings (Kanton et al., 2003)
Bulb Diameter/size
Kanton et al (2003) stated that plants grown from 30 and 40-day-old seedlings took less time to mature
than those grown from 20-day-old seedlings. Seedling age influence final plant height, bulb height, bulb
diameter, bulb average weight, harvest index and yield. 40-day-old seedlings produced the tallest plants
with widest and heaviest bulbs (Kanton et al., 2003)
Mean bulb weight and bulb diameter decreased with increasing seedling age. (Kanton et al., 2003,
Aubyn and Abutiate, 1994). Oladiram and Sangodele, (1996) reported that onion cv. Composite 4
produced widest bulbs when six weeks old seedlings were transplanted. Mohanty et al., (1990) and
Herison et al., (1993) reported conflicting results that bulb diameter and yield increased with increasing
seedling age.
Bulb Weight & Bulb Yield
Age of transplants affects bulb yield (Islam, 1981; Saha, 1982). Islam (1981) found that 60 days old
seedling produced more yield than 50 days old transplants while Saha (1982) reported that plants
derived from 50 day transplant had produced the maximum yield with exception of cultivar Patra Red
where 40 days transplant had the highest yield. Aubyn and Abutiate (1994) reported that bulb yield of
fresh onion decreased with increasing age of transplants. If transplanting of seedlings were delayed than
the optimum time in which they are making active growth, then growth after transplanting and yield
would be suffered (NeSmith, 1993). Bulb yield increased with increasing seedlings age up to 7 weeks,
after which it started to decline (Vachhani and Patel, 1988) while Herison et al, (1993) stated that
increase in bulb yield is due to transplant size rather than transplant age. According to Norman, (1992)
that younger seedlings recovered from transplanting shock more quickly than older ones.
16
Kanton et al., (2003) stated in their arguments that higher bulb yields produced for plants developed
from younger transplants could be attributed to better plant growth as revealed in taller plants having the
maximum leaf and bulb dimensions compared to older seedlings. They further reported that younger
seedlings restarted vegetative growth more quickly, which might have contributed to more vigorous
development. Plants derived from younger transplants seemed to be more efficient in conversion of
photosynthate into harvestable bulbs than plants grown from older seedlings.
Lujan-Favela (1992) in Mexico, obtained the highest yield from 7-week-old transplants sown in mid-
September. He correlated yield with transplant size suggesting larger seedlings were better in
performance.
Vavrina (1998) reported that the conflicting results in the literature on transplant age may be due to the
different environmental and cultural conditions that the plants were exposed to, both in the greenhouse
and in the field.
Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer
Nitrogen is the major plant nutrient required in greater quantities. It is important component of protein,
enzymes, vitamins and chlorophyll (Kokobe et al., 2013). Onions are more susceptible to nutrient
deficiencies than most crop plants because of their shallow and unbranched root system (Brewester,
1994).Onion is heavy feeder and need a sufficient amount of nitrogen. Yet, excess N fertilization effects
undue vegetative growth, delay maturity, rise susceptibility to diseases, cut dry matter contents and
storage life and finally decrease yield and quality of bulbs (Brewster, 1994; Sorensen and Grevsen,
2001).
Vegetative Growth
Rizk (1994) reported that increasing the amount of NPK fertilizer increased the vegetative growth and
yield of onion bulb. According to the findings of Vachhani and Patel, (1993) plant height, number of
leaves/plant, bulb weight, size and onion yield were highest with the application of 150 kg N ha-1.
Nitrogen fertilization, regardless of the rate, prolonged physiological maturity by about 6 days over the
control (Abdissa et al., 2011). They also reported that plant height and leaf length has increased by about
10 and 11.5%, respectively over the unfertilized check with application of 69 kg N ha-1.They also found
an increase of about 8% over the control when 92 kg N ha-1 was applied. According to Vachhani and
Patel, (1993) that plant height, number of leaves/plant, bulb weight, size and onion yield were maximum
with the application of 150 kg N ha-1. Pandey and Ekpo, (1991) reported that application rate of 160 kg
N ha-1 produced maximum plant height of 63.9 cm and high number of leaves/plant (13.0), while 120
kg N ha-1 produced highest average bulb weight and the maximum yield of onion bulb.
17
Plant height and number of leaves plant-1
Plant height and leaf length has increased by about 10 and 11.5%, respectively with application of 69
kg N ha-1over the unfertilized check and further addition of N did not produce significant increase
(Abdissa et al., 2011). The increase in height could be attributed to its involvement in the synthesis of
amino acids, as they link together and form proteins and make up metabolic processes needed for plant
growth (Abdissa et al., 2011). Bungard et al., (1999) argued that N is a constituent of many fundamental
cell components and it plays an essential role in all living tissues of the plant. No other element has such
an effect on promoting vigorous plant growth. Abdissa et al., (2011) claimed that N fertilizers
significantly affect number of leaves per plant in onion. They reported about 8% increase in number of
leaves over check when 92 kg N ha-1 was added. The results of Nasreen et al., (2007) showed that
application of 120 kg N ha-1 significantly increased the number of leaves per plant and further addition
of nitrogen to 160 kg ha-1 inclined to decrease it.
Bolting
Premature seed stalk development (bolting) in onion produces poor quality unmarketable bulbs
(Rabinowitch, 1990). Flowering process in onion is influenced by plant age and several environmental
factors (Brewester, 1997; Rabinowitch, 1990; Roberts et al., 1997; Diaz-Pérez et al., 2003). Though
temperature and photoperiod are two important factors affecting onion bolting (Brewester, 1997;
Roberts et al., 1997) temperature has the major factor influencing the initiation and development of
inflorescence in onion (Rabinowitch, 1990). Flowering, however, occur after the formation of certain
number of leaves followed by exposure to low temperature (Brewester, 1985). Other factors affecting
bolting in onion are nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizers (Brewester, 1983; Diaz-Pérez et al., 2003).
Rabinowitch (1990) termed onion as nitro neutral plant whose flowering time is unaffected by nitrogen.
A few studies, however, indicates that nitrogen affect the flowering process in onion (Brewester, 1983;
Peterson, 1984). Brewester (1983) found that low nitrogen in nutrient solution speeded up flowering.
Abdissa et al., (2011) reported that percentage of bolters per plot decreased by about 11 and 22% in
response to the application of 69 and 92 kg N ha-1, respectively over the control. According to the
findings of Yamasaki and Tanaka, (2005) low nitrogen enhanced bolting in bunching onion (Allium
fistulosum L.) exposed to low temperature for 35 days. Low N fertilizer increases bolting and that bolting
incidence decreases steadily with increasing the level of N fertilizer up to 197 kg ha-1. (Diaz-Pérez et al.,
2003)
18
Bulb diameter
Bulb diameter is an important character that predicts its marketability and usage of crop. Variations in
bulb diameter are mostly due to variation in the genetic makeup of varieties but is also affected by
environment and management practices (Yang et al., 2004). Onion bulb size can be increased by
application of N during the growing period (Rice et al, 1993). Results of a field experiment of Abdissa
et al., (2011) showed that regardless of the rate of application, N fertilization increased bulb diameter
and average bulb weight by about 12 and 21.5%, respectively over the control. According to their
findings nitrogen fertilization significantly increased bulb diameter without affecting bulb length. N
application up to 120 kgha-1increase bulb diameter (Nasreen et al., 2007; Yadav et al., 2003). Bulb
length, however, reported to increase with increased in N fertilization (Yadav et al, 2003; Reddy et al.,
2005). Bulb diameter has strong and positive correlation with the total bulb yield of onion signifying
that an increase in individual bulb size is key to maximize onion productivity per unit area (Abdissa et
al., 2011).
Bulb Weight
Bulb weight is a key parameter that adds towards the yield and also determines the suitability of an
onion variety for salad purpose. Abdissa et al., (2011) reported that N fertilizer significantly increased
bulb weight. Increase in N fertilizer up to 69 kg ha-1 increased bulb weight by about 26% while further
addition did not increase in bulb weight (Abdissa et al., 2011). From the result they concluded that
increase in bulb weight to N could be attributed to the increase in plant height, number of leaves, leaf
length, and extended physiological maturity in response to the fertilization all might have increased
assimilate production and allocation to the bulbs. Their results showed that mean bulb weight was
positively and strongly correlated with bulb length and diameter suggesting that N fertilization increased
bulb weight by improving bulb length and diameter. Resende et al.,(2014) reported thatincrease in the
levels of nitrogen caused a linear increase in fresh mass of the bulbs.
Bulb Yield
Onion bulb yield depends on many factors like planting dates, soil nutrient supply, climate and cultivar.
Kolota et al., (2013) reported that growth, yield and nutritional value of bunching onion is affected by
nutrient supply. Abdissa et al., (2011) found that N significantly increases total and marketable bulb
yield of onion. Total and marketable yield increased by about 5.74 and 4.06 ton respectively at the
application of nitrogen at the rate of 69 kg ha-1. Cizauskas et al., (2003) also reported somewhat similar
results that application of 60 kg N ha-1 gave highest bulb yield of onion. According to Aklilu (1997)
application of 90 to 120 kg N ha-1 compared to the unfertilized crops in sandy loam soil in semiarid
19
region was beneficial. Different researcher at different times reported increase in bulb yield in response
to nitrogen fertilization (Singh et al., 1989; Patel and Patel, 1990; Pandey and Ekpo, 1991; Vachhani
and Patel, 1993b; Patel and Vachhani, 1994). Different growth parameters like plant height and bulb
diameter are reported to increased bulb yield (Nasreen et al., 2007). Abdissa et al., (2011) found that
leaf length and leaf diameter was positively correlated with total bulb and marketable yield. This
indicates that photosynthetic area increases with application of nitrogen application which resulted
production of more assimilates and more onion bulb production.
Pungency
Onion is mostly used to boost the flavor of other foods. The quality of onion is often judged by its
pungency. A distinct group of organo-sulfur compounds governs onion flavor. Hydrolysis of the flavor
precursor compounds, like, S-alk (en)yl-l-cysteine sulfoxides, when the cells are mechanically ruptured,
produced pungent onion flavor. This hydrolysis reaction is catalyzed by allinase and takes about 6
minutes to complete. (Schwimmer & Weston, 1961). During this reaction thiopropanol S-oxide
(lachrymator), pyruvic acid, ammonia and many sulfur volatiles are produced. The measurement of
pyruvate as indicator of pungency is probably the most recognized method to assess pungency in onion
and garlic (Dhuma et al, 2007).
Nitrogen fertilizer improved onion pungency. Nitrogen application increased sulfur availability to plants
which is the main source of pungency in onion. Application of nitrogen @ 138 kg ha-1 increased
pyruvate content by 10.29 % over the control (Tekalign et al., 2012; Nasreen et al., 2007)). Randle and
Ketter (1998) described that pyruvate contents in onions are determined by the genetics of the cultivar.
Yet, the growing environment like sulfate availability, growing temperature, and water availability
affect onion pungency. The more sulphate available for uptake, the more pungent the onion bulbs will
be. Randle (2000) found that when N level increased from 0.22 to 0.97 gl-1 in a hydroponic solution,
enzymatically produced pyruvate increased linearly but then declined at the highest N dose. Conflicting
results to the above studies were reported by Abbey, (2004) that N fertilization significantly reduced
onion bulb pyruvic acid concentration.
Effect of Cultivar
Mushtaq et al, (2013) stated that different onion cultivars had different photoperiod and vernalization
requirements and vary in yield, yield related traits and bolting percentage. Brewster, (1994) and Khan
et al, (2001) reported that genotype and environment are the two factors that defines the performance of
a variety. A variety responds differently in different environmental condition and several varieties of the
same species are vary in performance even grown under the same climatic condition.
20
Effect on Plant Height
Bosekeng and Coetzer, (2013) found significant difference in plant height in onion cultivars over a
period of two year study. Haydar et al., (2007) reported that plant height, bulb yield and bulb length
were found to show high broad sense heritability. Bulb yield showed strong positive correlation with
plant height, bulb length, bulb diameter and days to harvest.
2. Effect on Bolting
Different cultivars shows significant variation in bolting percentage (Mushtaq et al., 2013). This
variation was due to the genetic differences of the tested cultivars. Lancaster et al., (1999) evaluated 32
onion cultivars from four geographical regions for 3 years and found significant difference in bolting
tendency among the cultivars. It is difficult to determine the proper date for fall seeding to minimize
bolting and winter injury while increase yield as it is cultivar and environment dependent. Bolting
resistance cultivars have less bolting percentage, less winter injury and high yield and can be planted
earlier (Cramer, 2003).
Effect on Bulb Weight
Bulb weight is a key parameter that contributes towards final yield. Mushtaq et al., (2013) reported
significant difference in bulb weight in different onion cultivars. The differences in bulb weight was due
the genotype and the adaptability of the cultivars in given environment.
Effect on Bulb Diameter/Size
According to (Mushtaq et al., 2013) bulb diameter determines the marketability and use of the bulbs.
They found variation in bulb diameters in different cultivars. Different sizes bulbs produced by different
varieties was due genetic variation of the varieties (Mushtaq et al., 2013 and Yang et al., 2004).
Management practices also influence bulb diameter (Mushtaq et al., 2013). Rahman and Das, (1985)
stated that bulb diameter followed by number of leaves/plant had maximum positive direct effect on
bulb yield in garlic.
Neck Diameter
Neck diameter is an important character that indicates the storage potential of onion. Gautam et al.,
(2006) reported that thin neck varieties have longer shelf life compared to thick neck varieties. Mushtaq
et al., (2013) found significant variation in neck diameter in nineteen varieties evaluated. Brewster,
(1997) stated that stem thickness shows the failure of the plant to complete the bulb formation process
21
and such bulbs do not undergo dormant. This problem arises because of slow growth or short growing
period.
Bulb Yield
Bulb yield is the end product for which the onion bulb crop is grown. A number of factors likeplanting
dates, soil nutrient supply, climate and cultivar influence bulb yield (Kolota et al., 2003). Mushtaq et al.,
(2013) stated that bulb yield in onion crop is a manifestation of collective effect of different yield
components. Many researchers reported wide variations in bulb yield and its quality among onion
cultivars (Kandil et al, 2013).
Mushtaq et al., (2013) and Cheema et al., (2003a) and Cheema et al, (2003b) found significant
difference in bulb yield in different onion varieties. This may be attributed to superiority and suitability
of genotype to the local conditions (Naz and Amjad, 2004). Boyhan et al., (2014) in five year varietal
trial found marketable yield ranged from 23% to 99% of the total yield.
22
Chapter 3
EXPERIMENT 1: EFFECTS OF TRANSPLANTING DATES AND SEEDLING AGE ON
PREMATURE BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP.
ABSTRACT
By
Noor Habib Khan and Shah Masaud Khan
Department of Agricultural Sciences (Horticulture), University of Haripur
April 2017
Premature bolting reduces the storage life, quality and marketable yield of onion bulbs. Experiments
were arranged in RCB design with the objective to determine the effect of transplanting dates and
seedling age on bolting and marketable yield. Trials were conducted for two consective years from
November 2013-June 2014 and November 2014-June 2015at Agricultural Research Institute, Mingora,
Swat. Seedlings of 45, 60 and 75 days old were transplanted on five different dates (30th November, 15th
December, 30th December, 15th January and 30th January) to study its effect on premature bolting in
onion. Transplanting dates and seedlings age exerted significant effects on different growth and yield
parameters studied. Plant height, number of leaves at bolting, stem diameter, days to maturity, bulb
diameter, bulb weight decreased with delay in transplanting as well as with increasing seedling age. On
the other hand, bolting and cull percentage decrease with delay in transplanting and increased with
increase in seedling age. Maximum marketable yield (ton ha-1) was recorded when 60 days old seedlings
were transplanted on15th December. The correlation co-efficient analysis data revealed positive
correlation between marketable yield (0.671 ton/ha) and bulb diameter (0.381). Non- significant positive
correlations of marketable yield were recorded with bulb weight (0.173 gm), number of leaves at bolting
(0.097), stem thickness (0.091) and plant height (0.106). The association of marketable yield with
bolting percentage (-0.381) and % cull (-0.552) was significantly negative.
INTODUCTION
Onion (Allium cepa L.) is biennial herbaceous vegetable and mostly grown as annul for bulbs
production. It has two stages of growth, a vegetative stage and reproductive stage. In vegetative
stage it grow and produce leaves and bulbs while in reproductive stage it send seed stalk,
produce flowers and seeds. When onions are seeded/transplanted for bulbs and it initiated
inflorescences development, thus, deviating from its normal life cycle, is called bolting. Bolting
makes the bulb hard, fibrous, and lightweight and are discarded in final grading for the market.
Premature bolting, therefore, reduces the quality and marketable yield of onion bulb.
23
Low temperatures affects plant development in many species (Ritchie, 1991; Wang & Engel,
1998; Streck. 2003). Exposure to low temperature promotes flowering in many plants including
onion is called vernalization (Pinthus. 1985; Flood and Halloran. 1986).Vernalization in onion
has been of research interest because of the need to prevent bulbs from bolting in the first
growing season and to enhance flowering in seed crop (Brewster, 1987; Streck, 2003). Some
perennial plants flower readily when exposed to environmental condition such as photoperiod
and vernalization that enhance flowering. While others cannot flower until pass the juvenile
stage and grown to a certain age or size (maturity). According to Fausey et al. (2006) Juvenility
is the early phase of growth during which flowering cannot be induced by any treatment. Low
temperature also induce flowering in onion only if it grown to a certain stage and passed the
juvenility phase (Rabinowitch, 1990; Khokhar et al. 2007a).
Onion cultivars differ in their vernalization requirement for flowering initiation. A cold
temperature of 5-13 0C for 20 to 120 days is enough to bring flowering in any cultivar (Shishido
and Saito. 1977; Brewster. 1983; Khokhar et al. 2007a; Khokhkar. 2008). Peters. (1990) in a
literature review concluded that vernalization temperature of 10 0C is adequate to bring almost
any cultivar to complete flowering. The growth stage at which plants become responsive to low
temperature and switch from vegetative stage to reproductive stage has been studied by many
researchers. According to Brewster, (1983, 1987), leaf initiation is constant in a given
environment and thus, leaf number instead of chronological time is used to decide plant’s
physiological age (Rabinowitch. 1990). Onion require 10-14 leaves before inflorescence
initiation (Gregory. 1936 cited by Cramer. 2003). According to Heath and Mathur, 1944 cited
by Cramer. 2003) 12 leaves with most plants averaging 13.6 leaves required before flower
induction. Depending on cultivars, onion initiate flowering when have a minimum number of
7-10 leaves including leaf initial (Rabinowitch. 1990; Khokhar et al. 2007a).
When seedlings are transplanted early, onion plants will grasp the sensitive size when
temperature are still low, the plants induce to bolt instead of making bulbs. Agic et al. (2007)
found that bolting was enhanced by early sowing while cultivars differ in bolting tendency in
their study. Madisa. (1994) reported that onion plants sown late did not bolt because when low
temperatures responsible for bolting prevailed, plants were still in juvenile stage. Cramer.
(2003) stated that late sowing reduce bolting incidence, but plants are small yet when bulb
formation begins causing small bulbs of poor quality. Sowing dates are, therefore, important
factor that needs to be adjusted in such a way to avoid bolting and have maximum marketable
yield.
24
Seedling age or set size also an important factor in onion production. Generally, large seedling
produce higher yield but have more bolting incidence (Boyhan et al. 2009). Kanton et al. (2003)
reported that older (30 or 40 days) seedlings take less days to mature than the younger (20 days)
seedlings. Dong et al. (2013) stated that onion seedling must be grown to certain age before
they sense the cold temperature and start vernalization process. The characteristics of seedling
also determine the survival percentage and their ability to respond to cold temperature
(Cremaschi et al. 2012). Gao et al. (2011) found that older seedling needed less accumulation
of low temperature for bolting. Khokhar et al. (2009) reported that incidence of bolting
increased linearly with set-size and curvy-linearly with decreasing storage temperature. The
objective of this study is to determine correct seedling age and to adjust the transplanting date
in such a way that prevent bolting and produce greater marketable yield at the same time.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Trial was conducted at Agricultural Research Institute, Mingora, Swat in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
province of Pakistan from November to June 2013-14 and was repeated at the same location in the next
growing season i-e 2014-15. ARI Swat, the experimental site, is 906 m above sea level located in the
Hindu Kush range at 34.3- 35.53° North Latitude and 71.5-72.5° Longitude in the north of west of
Figure 3: Mean monthly temperature at ARI Mingora during the growing season in 2013-14.
0
100
200
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400
500
600
700
800
0
5
10
15
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25
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40
To
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re ̊C
Avg. Min Temp Avg. Max temp Avg. Temp Total Rainfall
25
Pakistan. Climate is warm temperate. Temperature ranges from 25 to 35 oc while it drops in winter as
low as -4oC with snow and frost. In summer mercury rises sometimes above 40oc. Average rainfall
ranges from 740-1200mm. Mean monthly temperature and total rainfall at experimental site during the
two growing seasons of 2013-14 and 2014-15 is given in figures 2 and 3. Soil is silt loam with pH ranges
from 5-5.6. Soil analysis of the site are presented in Table 3.
Experiment Detail
The experiment was carried out in two consecutive growing seasons from November 2013 to June 2014
and November 2014 to June 2015. Nursery of onion variety Swat-1, the commercial variety grown in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Pothohar region, was raised on different dates. Seedlings having age of 45,
60 and 75 days were transplanted on five different dates. First transplanting was done on November,
30th and the subsequent
Figure 4: Mean monthly temperature during the growing season in 2014-15.
transplanting was carried out at 15 days intervals. Seedling were transplanted 10 cm apart within row
and 25 cm between rows in plot size of 1×3 m2 having 120 plants in 4 rows.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
0
5
10
15
20
25
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Jan
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r
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rag
e
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m
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C
Avg. Min Temp Avg. Max temp Avg. Temp Total Rainfall
26
Table 3: Physico-chemical properties of the experimental soil.
Soil Analysis 2013-14 2014-15
Soil Texture Silt Loam Silt Loam
pH 6.4 6.0
OM % 1.59 1.31
Lime % 2.4 2.6
N % .057 .035
P mg Kg-1 41.0 27.51
K mg Kg-1 54.0 50.0
Cu mg Kg-1 5.48 4.02
Fe mg Kg-1 32.62 34.62
Zn mg Kg-1 6.22 4.90
Mn mg Kg-1 11.25 14.75
Layout and Treatment details
Planting on five different dates and three seedling ages were the two factors making 15 treatment
combinations. These treatment combinations were set in randomized complete block design (RCBD)
with three replications.
Treatments: 1. Transplanting Dates=5 2. Seedling Age =3
Experimental lay out
R
3
D1S
1
D1S
2
D1S
3
D2S
1
D2S
2
D2S
3
D3S
1
D3S
2
D3S
3
D4S
1
D4S
2
D4S
3
D5S
1
D5S
2
D5S
3
R
2
D4S
1
D4S
3
D3S
1
D3S
2
D5S
3
D3S
3
D1S
2
D5S
1
D4S
2
D5S
2
D1S
1
D1S
3
D2S
2
D2S
3
D2S
1
R
1
D4S
2
D2S
3
D5S
1
D3S
1
D5S
2
D1S
1
D4S
3
D1S
3
D5S
3
D2S
2
D2S
1
D4S
1
D1S
2
D3S
2
D3S
3
D = Date of transplanting S = Seedling Age
27
Table 4: Elaborated planting dates and seedling ages.
S.No Sowing/Planting Dates Seedling Age Treatments
1 30th November 45 days old seedlings T1
60 days old seedlings T2
75 days old seedlings T3
2 15th December 45 days old seedlings T4
60 days old seedlings T5
75 days old seedlings T6
3 30th December 45 days old seedlings T7
60 days old seedlings T8
75 days old seedlings T9
4 15th January 45 days old seedlings T10
60 days old seedlings T11
75 days old seedlings T12
5 30th January 45 days old seedlings T13
60 days old seedlings T14
75 days old seedlings T15
Cultural Practices
Nursery preparation
Field was thoroughly ploughed and weeds were removed by hand. Fully decomposed FYM was mixed
with soil. Soil clods were well broken with help of hand hoe. Raised beds with 2×1m length and width
were prepared. Seeds were sown in lines and covered with mixture of fine sand. After sowing jute bags
were spread over the bed and irrigated with hand sprinkle till the seedling emergence. Weeding was
practiced manually. Nursery was raised on different dates in order to prepare 45, 60 and 75 days old
seedlings for each 5 transplanting dates.
Field Preparation
Experimental field was ploughed with cultivator and the weeds, stubbles and residues of the previous
crop, if any, were manually collected and removed. On the next day, soil was pulverized with rotovator
and prepared to a good tilth. Plots were prepared according to experimental design.
Transplanting of Seedlings
Seedling of 45, 60 and 75 days old were uprooted with help of hand hoe and transplanted manually in
prepared experimental plots. Soon after transplanting a pre-emergence weedicide pandymethaline at the
28
rate of 2 ml per litre of water was sprayed to disallow the emergence of weed seeds. On next day
transplanted field was light irrigated.
Manure and Fertilizer Application
Well decomposed FYM @ of 15 tons per hectare was applied during land preparation. Recommended
dose of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash (100: 90:60) were applied based on the soil analysis results
(Table 2 page 37). Total amount of phosphorus and potash was applied and mixed with soil at the time
of sowing while nitrogen was applied in three split doses. Nitrogen was applied in the form of
ammonium sulphate, phosphorus in the form of single super phosphate (SSP) and potash in the form of
potassium sulphate (SOP).
Harvesting
Bulbs were harvested when 80 % of the tops were down. Care was taken to avoid bulb injuries.
Data Collection
To assess the effect of various treatments on bolting and yield in onion, data on different growth
parameters was collected from transplanting of seedlings to the harvesting of bulbs. Data was collected
on 20 randomly selected plants from 2 central rows in each unit plot. The randomly selected plants were
marked and used for succeeding data parameters.
Plant height (cm)
The plant height was measured at the maturity stage on randomly selected 20 plants with the help of
standard ruler and the average was worked out.
Leaf Number
Number of leaves per plant was counted on randomly selected 20 plants and then averaged.
Number of Leaves at Bolting
Number of Leaves per plant was counted when bolting was initiated in 20 plants and then average was
counted.
Stem Diameter(mm)
Neck diameter or stem thickness is an important character in onion that indicates bulb storage ability.
Stem thickness of randomly selected 20 sampled plants was measured with the help of digital Vernier
Caliper in centimeter (mm) and the average was analyzed.
29
Bulb weight (g)
Single bulb weight on randomly selected 20 bulbs from middle rows were measured on electric balance
and average worked out.
Bulb diameter (mm)
Bulb diameter (size) was measured on randomly selected 20 plants with the help of digital Vernier
Caliper in centimeter (mm) and the averaged calculated value was analyzed.
Days to Bolting initiation
Days to bolting initiation were counted from the date of transplanting to the day at which inflorescence
initiation was observed.
Bolting percentage
Total number of plants that developed premature bolting in a unit plot were counted and then percentage
was calculated. The average value of bolting percentage was used for analysis.
Days to Maturity
Days to physiological maturity was calculated from date of transplanting to 80% yellowing of the leaves.
Total Bulb Yield (ton ha-1)
Marketable bulb yield per plot was weighed using an electric balance and then the values were converted
into bulb yield per hectare.
Cull
Bolted, diseased, damaged and double bubs were separated, culled and weighted and the values were
converted to cull per hectare.
Marketable Yield (ton ha-1)
Marketable yield per plot was determined after separating cull from the bulbs. The bulbs weight per plot
was recorded converted to marketable yield ton ha-1.
Statistical Analysis
Data were analyzed by the technique of analysis of variance on all studied parameters using statistical
software “Statistix 8.1”. Significant differences between means of treatments were calculated using
LSD test for the LSD ≤ 0.05.
30
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
The data collected was statistically analyzed to deduce results. The findings of the study are presented
in tables, graphs and figures and are briefly discussed in light of the available litrature.
Plant height (cm)
Data related to plant height in 2014, 2015 and its mean were presented in Table 5. It is evident from the
table that transplanting date and seedling age significantly (p<0.05) affected plant height whereas years
had a non-significant effect for these traits. All interactions were also non-significant at 5% level of
probability. Maximum plant height of 58.80 cm were recorded from early transplanting on 30th
November followed by 57.62 cm transplanted on 15th December whereas, almost two months late
transplanting on 30th January resulted in minimum plant height of 53.77cm. Sawant et al., (2002) found
that plant height and the number of leaves were significantly affected by sowing dates. Early sowing
produced the tallest plants with maximum number of leaves (Rahman et al., 2002; Ibrahim, 2010).
Brewster (2008) reported that bulbs will be initiated when temperature starts to increase and the required
minimum day length of a specific onion cultivar is met. So, when the same cultivar is sown at different
times in the same area, plants will start bulb formation more or less the same time. Hence, earlier sown
plants will have a longer vegetative growth period and consequently have vigorous plants with more
leaves (Comrie, 1997b; Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013). Vigorous plants with more vegetative growth
produce bigger bulbs and thus more yield.
Seedling age also significantly affected plant height at 5 % level of probability. Maximum plant height
of 57.91cm was recorded when 60 days old seedlings were transplanted while, the minimum plant
height of 55.16cm was recorded when younger seedlings of 45 days old were transplanted. Seedlings
of 60 days age may be in active growth stage and recover from transplanting shock quickly. Very small
seedling have the risk of winter injury while very old seedlings recover from transplanting shock slowly.
If transplanting of seedlings were delayed than the optimum time in which they are making active growth,
31
Table 5: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on plant height during year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
30th November 58.43 a 59.16 a 58.80 a
15th December 57.06 ab 58.18 ab 57.62 ab
30th December 55.72 b 56.87 bc 56.29 bc
15th January 55.19 b 56.03 c 55.61 c
30th January 52.41 c 55.07 c 53.74 d
LSD 1.19 2.09 1.39
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 55.32 b 57.02 ab 56.17 b
60 day’s old seedlings 57.86 a 57.95 a 57.91 a
45 day’s old seedlings 54.11 b 56.21 b 55.16 b
LSD 1.75 1.95 1.36
Year 55.04 a 57.02 a
Interactions
D × S ns ns Ns
Year × D - - Ns
Year × S - - Ns
Year × D × S - - Ns
D = Transplanting dates S = Seedling age *- significant at P =0.05
the optimum time in which they are making active growth, the growth after transplanting and yield
would be affected (NeSmith, 1993). Bijarniya et al., (2015) recorded maximum plant height 29.86,
59.61 and 64.00cm from 8 weeks old seedlings 45, 75 and 90 days after transplanting respectively. On
the contrary Kanton et al., (2003) found significant effect of seedling age on plant height and reported
the tallest plants from 40 days old transplants in onion as compared to older transplanting.
Number of Leaves at Bolting Stage
Data for number of leaves at bolting dring 2014, 2015 and its mean was given in Table 6. Analysis of
the data revealed that number of leaves at bolting initiation stage was non-significant in both years, while
transplanting date and seedling age had significant (p<0.05) effect on the number of leaves at the time
of bolting initiation. All the interactions were found non-significant. Maximum number of leaves per
plant 8.29 were recorded, when premature inflorescence initiated, in 30th November transplantings and
the lowest number of leaves 6.29 were recorded in 30th January transplanting. Flowering induction in
onion is caused by low temperature after the juvenile stage of development. Onion plants will form seed
32
stem in the first year if they reach the critical size and then receive cold stimulus. As leaf initiation rate
is constant in a given environment (Brewster, 1983, 1987; Cramer, 2003) leaf number has been used to
determine plant’s age (Rabinowitch, 1990). Khokhar et al., (2007a) reported that the number of leaves
has been used to determine the critical plant size at which bolting occurs when exposed to low
temperature. They found that 7-10 leaves stage is sensitive plant size (at the end of the first leaf fall and
the beginning of bulbing stage). When seedlings are transplanted early, plants reach the reproductive
stage and initiate bolting upon exposure to low temperature. Current study confirm this as early
transplanting produced more leaves 8.29 and were at reproductive stage when temperature was still low
and had maximum bolting percentage 33.63.
Table 6: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on number of leaves at Bolting in year 2014 and
2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
30th November 8.19 a 8.38 a 8.29 a
15th December 7.50 b 7.58 b 7.54 b
30th December 7.11 bc 7.17 bc 7.13 b
15th January 6.53 cd 6.50 cd 6.51 c
30th January 6.31 d 6.28 d 6.29 c
LSD 0.65 0.69 0.51
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 8.17 a 8.00 a 8.08 a
60 day’s old seedlings 7.00 b 7.10 a 7.05 b
45 day’s old seedlings 6.21 c 6.45 b 6.33 c
LSD 0.50 0.53 0.46
Year 7.13 a 7.18 a
Interactions
D × S ns ns Ns
Year × D - - Ns
Year × S - - Ns
Year × D × S - - Ns
D = Transplanting dates S = Seedling age *- significant at P =0.05
Cramer (2003) observed that earlier planted onion produced larger plants with more leaves compared
to later seeding onion. Sawant et al, (2002) found that plant height and the number of leaves were
significantly affected by sowing dates. On the other hand, Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) stated that
33
sowing date did not influence plant height and leaf number significantly over a period of two years,
however, early sowing dates in one year resulted in taller plants.
Likewise, maximum number of leaves at bolting (8.08 leaves/plant) were reported when 75 days old
seedlings were transplanted, whereas minimum of 6.33 leaves per plant were recorded when 45 days
old seedling were transplanted. These results are in conformity with the findings of Singh and Chaure,
(1999) and Bahadur and Singh (2005). Bijarniya et al, (2015) recorded maximum number of leaves per
plant 5.16, 8.61 and 10.95 from 8-weeks old seedling at 45, 75 and 90 DATP compared to 6 and 7-
weeks old seedling. Thus, early transplanting coupled with aged seedlings completes the juvenile phase
early and become receptive to cold stimulus that induces bolting.
Stem Diameter (mm)
Stem diameter data influence by transplanting date and seedling age during 2014, 2015 and its combined
means is given in Table 7. It is evident from the data that year as a source of variation was not significant
at 5% level of probability. The interactions were also found non-significant. Transplanting date and
Table 7: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on stem diameter during year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
30th November 17.21 a 17.24 a 17.22 a
15th December 16.85 ab 16.81 ab 16.83 ab
30th December 16.46 ab 16.55 ab 16.51 bc
15th January 16.11 bc 16.19 bc 16.15 c
30th January 15.20 c 15.28 c 15.24 d
LSD 0.97 0.93 0.66
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 16.85 a 16.90 a 16.87 a
60 day’s old seedlings 16.41 ab 16.46 ab 16.43 a
45 day’s old seedlings 15.85 b 15.89 b 15.87 b
LSD 0.75 0.72 0.51
Year 16.37 16.37
Interactions
D × S ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
D = Transplanting dates S = Seedling age *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
34
seedling age had significant effect on stem diameter in both the years. Stem diameter declined with
delay in transplanting from 30th November to 30th January.
Maximum stemt diameter 17.22 mm was noted in 30th November transplanting, followed by 16.38 mm
in 15th December transplanting, whereas lowest stem thickness 15.24 mm was recorded when onion
were transplanted on 30th January. Brewster, (1997) stated that stem thickness shows the failure of the
plant to complete the bulb formation process and such bulbs do not undergo dormant. This problem
arises because of slow growth or short growing period. According to Rana and Hore (2015), every
cultivar has specific photoperiodic requirement for bulb initiation. When the minimum photoperiodic
and temperature requirement of the cultivar does not meet, plants continue to grow without bulb
formation which leads to thickening of the stems. Results similar to this study were reported by
Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) who obtained bulbs with thickest stem from early transplanting compared
to late transplanting. Jilani (2004), also reported that the thickest onion bulb necks was obtained with
early plantings (27th October) compared to late plantings (26th December). Thinner stem with later
planting may be due to early bulb initiation in smaller plants. Asmatullah et al, (2004) reported a higher
percentage of bolting and thick neck from earlier transplanting dates. Likewise, decreasing stem
thickness with decreasing seedling age was also recorded. Maximum stem diameter of 16.87mm was
obtained when 75 days old seedlings were transplanted and minimum stem diameter of 15.87mm was
noted when 45 days old seedling were transplanted. The results of this study are in conformity with the
findings of Bijarniya et al, (2015) who found maximum stem thickness in 8-weeks old transplanting
compared to 6 and 7-week old seedlings.
Days to Maturity/Harvesting
Data regarding maturity for two consective years 2014- 2015 and its combined means are presented in
Table 8. Maturity/harvesting remained non-significant between the two growing seasons. All the
interactions were also non-significant. Transplanting date significantly affected days to harvesting while
the seedling age effect was found to be non-significant (p<0.05). Maximum days to maturity 180.89
were observed for 30th November transplantings, followed by 176.50 in 15th December transplantings.
Whereas minimum days of 152.72 to maturity were recorded in 30th January transplantings. Data in
2014 and 2015 showed a similar trend.
Though the effect of seedling age on maturity was non-significant, however, mean data revealed that
younger seedlings took more days to maturity as compared to older seedlings. The combined means of
two year showed that maximum 167.83 days to maturity were taken by 45 days old seedlings and
minimum 165.73 days to were taken to harvesting when 75 days old seedlings were transplanted. Bulbs
35
normally start to mature when the required minimum photoperiod and temperature requirement of the
specific cultivar is met. Hence a cultivar sown on different dates or having varying seedling ages start
to mature more or less at the same time. Thus late transplanting (30th January) took less days to maturity
than early transplanting. Similar results were reported by Sawant et al, (2002) that early transplanting
took the longest duration (137 days) to maturity than late planting. The findings of Bijarniya et al, (2015)
that older seedling take less days to maturity than younger seedlings also support our results.
Table 8: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on days to maturity during the year2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
30th November 182.56 a 179.22 a 180.89 a
15th December 177.89 a 175.11 a 176.50 b
30th December 164.00 b 167.11 b 165.56 c
15th January 158.22 c 156.78 c 157.50 d
30th January 153.56 c 151.89 d 152.72 e
LSD 5.63 4.29 3.43
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 167.93 a 164.73 a 165.73 a
60 day’s old seedlings 166.13 a 165.33 a 166.33 a
45 day’s old seedlings 167.67 a 168.00 a 167.83 a
LSD 4.36 3.32 2.66
Year 167.24 a 166.02 a 166.46
Interactions
D × S ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
Bolting Percentage
Statistical analysis of the data pertaining to bolting percentage during 2014-2015 and its combined
means are summarized in Table 9 and significant interaction (p < 0.05) of transplanting date and seedling
age is given in Figure 4.Transplanting date and seedling age significantly affected the bolting percentage
while the year effect was non-significant (p < 0.05). Maximum bolting percentage of 33.63% was
recorded in in early transplantin on 30th November and it decreased with delay in transplanting and
completely diminished (0%) in the very late transplanting on 30th January.Thus, bolting was decreased
from 33.63 % to 0% when transplanting was delayed from 30 November to 30 January. Khokhar et al.,
36
(2007a) reported that the number of leaves has been used to determine the critical plant size at which
bolting occur when expose to low temperature. They found that 7-10 leaves stage is sensitive plant size
(at the end of the first leaf fall and the beginning of bulbing stage). When seedlings are transplanted early
in the season, seedlings will achieve enough growth to complete the vegetative phase before the fall of
temperature. And when cold temperature occurs it induces bolting instead of making bulbs. As in our
study early transplanting on 30th November produced 8.29 leaves (Table 5) and were at reproductive
stage when temperature was still low in season which inducecd 33.63 % plants to boltings. Late
transplanted (30th January) seedlings were at juvenile phase having 6.29 leaves and produce 0 % bolting
in spite of low temperature prevailing late in the season. Thus, late transplantings escape the cold spell.
Sowing should be adjusted so as to prevent plants receiving a cold spell at sensitive plant size that cause
bolting instead of bulb formation. .It is difficult to define the exact date for transplanting to reduce bolting
and increase yield at the same time as it is cultivar and environment dependent (Cramer, 2003).
Table 9: Effect of transplanting dates and seedling age on bolting percentage during year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
30th November 34.55 a 32.72 a 33.63 a
15th December 23.44 b 22.23 b 22.83 b
30th December 12.67 c 12.16 c 12.41 c
15th January 6.03 d 7.14 d 6.57 d
30th January 0.0-e- 0.0-e- 0.0-e-
LSD(0.05) 3.44 3.81 2.47
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 29.73 a 31.90 a 30.81 a
60 day’s old seedlings 10.60 b 9.12 b 9.86 b
45 day’s old seedlings 5.67 c 3.53 c 4.60 c
LSD 2.67 2.95 1.91
Year 15.33 14.85 15.79
Interactions
D × S * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
37
Temperature later in the season, particularly in March-April when plants have enough leaf numbers to
respond to cold stimulus is vary year after year. In some years climate is cool and favor bolting or vice
versa.In current study though year effect was not significant, 2013-14 season was little colder than 2014-
15 and have more bolting numbers. Boyhan et al, (2009) also reported more bolting occurrence in 2003-
04 season compared to 2004-05 season. Madisa (1994) reported onion plants sown late did not bolt as
when low temperatures responsible for bolting prevailed, the plants were still small and had not yet
reached minimum plant size.
Similarly, highest bolting percentage was noted in older seedlings compared to younger seedlings. The
highest bolting percentage of 30.81% was observed in 75 days old transplantings, followed by 9.86%
in 60 days old transplantings.The lowest bolting percentage 4.60% was noted when 45 days old
seedlings were transplanted.
Transplant size may be an important factor in onion performance. Commonly, large seedling have higher yield
but more bolting occurrence. This may be due to the fact that large seedlings are more stressed and grown enough
to enter the reproductive stage early as reflected in the study of Boyhan et al, (2009) and is also verified by present
study. Dong et al, (2013) stated that onion seedling must be grown to certain age before they sense the cold
temperature and start vernalization process. Gao et al, (2011) found that older seedling needed less accumulation
of low temperature for bolting. Kanton et al (2003) reported that older (30 or 40 days) seedlings take less days to
mature than younger transplants (20 days). Jahromi and Amirizadeh (2015) reported similar results that bolting
percentage increased with increasing seedling age.
Figure 5: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for bolting percentage
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
D 1 D 2 D 3 D 4 D 5
Bo
ltin
g p
erce
nta
ge
Transplanting dates
S1 S2 S3
38
All the interactions were found non-significant except, transplanting date and seedling age. As per the
two year means interaction results of D×S combination maximum bolting percentage 66.33% was
recorded in D1S1 combination followed by 48.33 % D2S1 (Figure 3). The Lowest bolting percentage of
4.33% was observed in D3S3. No bolting was recorded in D4S3 and D5 irrespective of the seedling age.
Early transplanting of larger seedlings take less time to reach minimum critical size, sense the cold
response and bolt readily instead of making bulbs. Contrary, younger seedlings with late transplanting
take more time to mature and are more likely to escape the cold weather inducing bolting. Brewster
(1994) showed that there is a relationship between sowing date, bulb yield and bolting. Muhammad et
al (2016) also found significant interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for bolting
percentage.
Bulb Diameter (mm)
Data regarding bulb diameter showed significant differences for transplanting dates and seedling age,
whereas years and all interactions were not significant at 5% level of probability (Table 10). Maximum
bulb diameter of 69.74 mm was recorded for 30th November transplantings. Bulb diameter decreased
as transplanting delayed from November 30 to January 30 and minimum bulb diameter of 47.61mm
was recorded in late transplanting on January 30. Early transplants have sufficient time for vegetative
growth before minimum temperature and day length requirement for bulbing is fulfilled. Thus they
attain maximum plant height with more number of leaves and produce large size bulbs. Sawant et al,
(2002) reported that early planting produced maximum polar and equatorial diameter and hence,
produced large sized bulbs. According to Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) bulb diameter was significantly
influenced by both cultivar and sowing date and earlier sown crop produced the largest bulbs. The results
of Bijarniya et al., (2015), Hiray (2001), Kumar et al., (1998) and Mosleh and Deen (2008) also support
current study. Similarly, seedling age exerted significant effect on bulb diameter and maximum bulb
diameter of 63.11mm was noted in 60 days old seedling (S2) while minimum bulb size of 56.16 mm
was recorded when 75 days old nursery was transplanted. These results are in conformity with the
findings of Kanton et al, (2003) and Aubyn and Abutiate (1994) that mean bulb weight and bulb
diameter decreased with increasing seedling age. Norman (1992) reported that younger seedlings
recovered from transplanting shock quickly than older seedlings. NeSmith (1993) reported that if
transplanting is delayed after the optimal time in which they are making active growth, then growth after
transplanting and yield would be affected.
39
Table 10: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on bulb diameter (mm) during the years 2014 and
2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
30th November 71.34 a 68.14 a 69.74 a
15th December 67.16 a 66.92 a 67.03 a
30th December 58.62 b 59.99 b 59.31 b
15th January 51.43 c 51.53 c 51.48 c
30th January 48.21 c 47.01 c 47.61 d
LSD 4.31 4.58 3.05
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 57.53 b 58.13 b 57.83 b
60 day’s old seedlings 63.27 a 62.97 a 63.11 a
45 day’s old seedlings 57.26 b 55.1 b 56.16 b
LSD 3.34 3.54 2.36
Year 5.93 5.87
Interactions
D × S ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
Bulb Weight (g)
Data concerning bulb weight in 2014 and 2015 and its combined means are presented in Table 11.
Statistical analysis of the data revealed that transplanting dates, seedling age and its interaction had
significant (p<0.05) effect on bulb weight while the years effect was not significantly. Maximum bulb
weight of 224.39 g was noted for when seedlings were transplanted early on November 30 followed by
218.39 g in 15th December transplantings. Bulb weight decreased with delay in transplanting and the
minimum bulb weight of 158.89 g was recorded in the late transplanting on January 30. Bosekeng and
Coetzer (2013) reported that delayed sowing significantly decreased average bulb fresh mass while early
sown plant produced the largest bulbs. This all suggest that planting dates influence single bulb weight
in onion.
40
Table 11: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on bulb weight (g) during year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
30th November 221.56 a 226.89 a 224.39 a
15th December 218.00 a 218.78 a 218.39 a
30th December 188.06 b 195.33 b 191.69 b
15th January 168.44 c 171.00 c 169.72 c
30th January 159.56 c 158.22 d 158.89 d
LSD 9.26 8.19 6.05
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 186.47 b 192.27 b 189.37 b
60 day’s old seedlings 207.10 a 212.00 a 209.55 a
45 day’s old seedlings 180.00 b 177.87 c 178.93 c
LSD 7.17 6.35 4.68
Year 189.22 a 193.87 a
Interactions
D × S * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
D = Transplanting dates S = Seedling age *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
Combined means of bulb weight as affected by seedling age showed that maximum bulb weight of
209.55 g was recorded in 60 days old transplants ,while the minimum bulb weight of 178.93g was
recorded in 75 day’s old transplant (S3). A similar trend of decreasing bulb weight with decreasing
seedling age has also been observed in 2014 and 2015. Age of transplants affects bulb yield (Saha,1982).
Islam, (1981) found that 60 days old seedling produced more yield than 50 days old transplants. Aubyn
and Abutiate (1994) reported that bulb yield of fresh onion decreased with increasing age of transplants.
If transplanting of seedlings were delayed than the optimum time in which they are making active
growth, then growth after transplanting and yield would be affected (NeSmith, 1993). Vachhani and
Patel (1988) reported that bulb yield increased with increasing seedlings age up to 7 weeks, after which
it started to decline while Herison et al, (1993) stated that increased bulb yield is due to transplant size
rather than transplant age.
41
Figure 6: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for bulb weight (g).
Kanton et al (2003) stated in their arguments that higher bulb yields produced for plants developed from
younger transplants could be attributed to better plant growth as revealed in taller plants having the
maximum leaf and bulb dimensions compared to their older seedlings. They also reported that younger
seedlings restarted vegetative growth more quickly, which might have contributed to more vigorous
development. Plants derived from younger transplants seemed to be more efficient in conversion of
photosynthates into harvestable bulbs than plants grown from older seedlings. The interaction of D×S
was significant while the remaining interaction were not significant.
Data about the interaction of transplanting date and seedling age is given in Figure 4 revealed that
maximum bulb weight 249.50 g was produced by D1S2 combination followed by 237.50 g in D2S2
combination. Bulb weight decline as transplanting delayed and seedling aged decreased. Minimum bulb
weight of 158.83 g was produced in D5S3 combination.
Total Yield (ton ha-1)
Data associated with yield ton ha-1 is shown in Table 12. Transplanting date and seedling age made
significant difference in yield ton ha-1 at 5% level of probability while the year effect on yield ton ha-1
was found non-significant. All the interaction were also found non-significant. Maximum yield 39.90
ton ha-1was obtained from 15th December transplanting followed by 39.71 ton ha-1 from 30th November
transplantings, whereas, minimum yield 15.99 ton ha-1was recorded when transplanting was delayed to
January 30. Ample vegetative growth before bulb formation is essential to get high yield (Ibrahim,
2010). When sowing is delayed, plant start bulbing before attaining sufficient vegetative growth,
resulting in small bulbs and lesser yield. Smaller plant canopy of small plant in late sowing crop
intercepts less light and resultantly produce low yield (Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013). They also found
that late sowing significantly reduce bulb fresh mass and yield from 40.96 to 28.20 tons ha-1.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Bu
lb w
eig
ht
(g)
Transplanting Dates
S1 S2 S3
42
Different age nursery transplanting also found to have significant effect on yield ton ha-1. The highest
yield 32.43 ton ha-1 was produced when 60 days old seedlings were transplanted while lowest yield
27.24 ton ha-1was recorded in 45 days old transplants. Similar results has reported by Kanton et al,
(2003) that higher bulb yields produced
Table 12: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on yield (ton ha-1) during the year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
30th November 38.64 a 40.78 a 39.71 a
15th December 39.81 a 40.00 a 39.90 a
30th December 29.75 b 31.47 b 30.61 b
15th January 20.31 c 23.06 c 21.68 c
30th January 12.78 d 19.19 d 15.99 d
LSD 3.35 2.51 2.05
Seedling Age
75 day’s old seedlings 25.42 a 29.07 a 27.24 a
60 day’s old seedlings 31.77 b 33.08 b 32.43 b
45 day’s old seedlings 27.58 b 30.55 b 29.07 c
LSD 2.60 1.95 1.58
Year 28.26 30.90
Interactions
D × S * ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
43
Figure 7: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for yield ton ha-1.
for plants developed from younger transplants could be attributed to better plant growth compared to
their older seedlings. They further stated that younger seedlings revived vegetative growth more quickly,
which might have contributed to more vigorous development. Plants derived from younger transplants
seemed to be more efficient in conversion of photosynthate into harvestable bulbs than plants grown
from older seedlings. According to Fathi (2009) the optimum seedling age of onion is 60 days and the
60 days-old transplant had the higher yield than other transplant ages. The results of this study are also
matched with the findings of Jahromi and Amirizadeh (2015) who obtained maximum total yield from
60 days old transplants.
Figure 8: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and year for yield ton ha-1.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Yie
ld t
on
ha-1
Transplanting Dates
S1 S2 S3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Yiel
d t
on
ha-1
Transplanting dates
Y1 Y2
44
Percent Cull
Statistical analysis of the data regarding percent cull in 2014, 2015 and their means were shown in Table
13. Transplanting date and seedling age caused significant difference in percent cull at 5% level of
probability. Year as a source of variation remained non- significant. Maximum percent cull of 33.85%
was recorded in early transplanting on November 30 followed by 31.15%. in 15th December transplants.
Table 13: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on percent cull during year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
30th November 35.85 a 31.84 a 33.85 a
15th December 32.46 b 29.81 b 31.15 b
30th December 12.62 c 11.81 c 12.21 c
15th January 6.89 d 8.35 d 7.62 d
30th January 2.21 e 2.64 e 2.42 e
LSD(0.05) 2.25 1.86 1.43
Age of seedling
75 day’s old seedlings 22.78 a 21.25 a 21.89 a
60 day’s old seedlings 18.07 b 17.07 b 17.57 b
45 day’s old seedlings 13.40 c 12.37 c 12.89 c
LSD 1.74 1.44 1.11
Year 14.51 17.17
Interactions
D × S * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
D = Transplanting dates S = Seedling age *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
A reduction of 31.43% in unmarketable yield was recorded when transplanting was delayed from
November 30-January 30. Early transplants complete vegetative phase and reach reproductive stage
early when cold temperature prevails. This low temperature induce bolting which contribute to
unmarketable yield. In early transplanting maximum bolting 33.63% and maximum unmarketable yield
were recorded. The lowest percent cull in late transplanting was due to small ungraded bubs. The results
of this study matched with findings of Bijarniya et al, (2015) who recorded maximum % cull in early
transplanting compared to later transplanting. Kandil et al, (2013) reported similar results stating that
the highest values on total culls were resulted from transplanting seedlings on 15th November (early
45
transplanting date) in2010-11 and 2011-12. Similar results has been reported by Kumar et al, (1998)
and Singh (2006).
In the same way highest cull 21.89% was recorded in 75 days old seedlings (S1) while lowest 12.89 %
cull was noted in 45 days old seedlings ( S3). A similar trend has also been observed in year 1 and year
2. Flowering stem formation started only after the juvenile stage of development (the emergence of
certain number of leaves depending on cultivar) followed by exposure to low temperature (Brewster,
1985; Diaz-Perez, 2003). The sensitivity to low temperature increased with increase plant age.
Figure 9: Mean data showing interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for percent cull
Older seedling take less time to attain maturity and run to premature bolting instead of making bulbs. In
this study higher % cull in older seedlings was due maximum bolting while in younger seedling small
bulbs contributed to unmarketable yield. Bijarniya et al, (2015) reported highest unmarketable yield
7.66 kg/plot was recorded in 8-weeks old seedling compared to 6-week old seedlings.
The interaction of D × S was found significant (p<0.05) while the remaining. Interactions were non-
significant. The D × S interaction pointed out that percent cull was maximum in D1S1 combination 42.44
and decline consistently as transplanting delayed and seedling age decreased. Minimum cull 1.81% was
recorded in D5S3 combination.
Marketable Yield (ton ha-1)
Marketable yield ton ha-1 affected by transplanting dates and seedling age has been presented in Table
14. Statistical analysis of the data revealed that transplanting date and seedling age significantly
42
.44
30
.68
29
.48
22
.72
17
.04
16
.16
12
.72
11
.71
10
.29
7.5
2
5.2
4
2.5
3
2.5
3
2.2
8
1.8
1
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
S 1 S 1 S 2 S 1 S 2 S 3 S 1 S 3 S 2 S 3 S 2 S 2 S 3 S 3 S 1
D 1 D 2 D 1 D 3 D 2 D 1 D 4 D 2 D 3 D 3 D 4 D 5 D 4 D 5 D 5
Per
cen
t C
ull
Transplanting dates & seedling age
46
influenced marketable yield ton ha-1 at 5% level of probability. Year as source of variation was non-
significant (p<0.05). The highest marketable yield 28.50 ton ha-1 was obtained from when transplanting
was done on December 30 , followed by 26.36 ton ha-1 in 15th December transplantings whereas, the
lowest marketable yield 15.64 ton ha-1 was recorded in when transplanting was carried out late on
January 30. According to Cramer (2003) early transplanting and larger seedling resulted in maximum
bolting percentage. Bolters occurred in early transplanting from November 30-January 15 contributed
to unmarketable yield. Bolting and cull both are negatively correlated with marketable yield. Marketable
yield decreased when bolting percentage and percent cull increased. Ibrahim (2010) also found
maximum cured yield ton ha-1 from 3rd date of transplanting.
Table 13: Effect of transplanting date and seedling age on marketable yield (ton ha-1) during the year 2014
and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
30th November 24.81 b 26.82 b 25.81 b
15th December 25.50 b 27.22 ab 26.36 b
30th December 27.29 a 29.70 a 28.50 a
15th January 20.75 c 21.50 c 21.13 c
30th January 14.50 d 16.79 d 15.64 d
LSD(0.05) 2.16 2.78 1.72
Age of seedling
75 day’s old seedlings 19.10 b 21.67 b 20.39 b
60 day’s old seedlings 24.91 a 26.09 a 25.50 a
45 day’s old seedlings 23.70 a 25.45 a 24.58 a
LSD 1.67 2.15 1.33
Year 22.57 24.41 23.49
Interactions
D × S * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × S - - ns
Year × D × S - - ns
D = Transplanting dates S = Seedling age *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
Bijarniya et al (2015) also reported similar results. There is a tendency of declining total yield with delay
in transplanting but early transplanting have the risk of bolting, splitting and doubles. Thus, later dates
produced medium sized bubs with highest marketable yield (Sinclair (1989).
47
Transplanting should be adjusted to avoid plant to receive enough cold at reproductive stage. Too much
delay will diminished the bolting at the cost of marketable yield. The result of this study is at variance
with Nourai et al., (2007) who reported highest total and marketable yield from early transplanting (15th
Nov) compared to 15th Dec and 15th Jan transplanting.
Similarly, maximum marketable yield 25.50 ton ha-1 was recorded in 60 days old seedlings S2 while the
minimum marketable yield 20.39 ton ha-1 was recorded from 75 days old transplants. Conflicting results
has been reported by Bijarniya et al (2015) who recorded maximum marketable yield from older nursery
transplanting and marketable yield decrease with decrease in seedling age.
Figure 10 Mean data of interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age for marketable yield ton ha-1.
The interaction of D × S was significant (p<0.05) while the rest of interactions were non-significant.
The D × S interaction indicated that marketable yield ton ha-1 was maximum 37.17 ton ha-1 in D2S2
combination followed by 34.47 ton ha-1 D2S3. Marketable yield decreases as with delay in transplanting
as well as decreasing seedling age. Minimum 14.90 ton ha-1 was recorded in D5S3 combination. (Figure
9). Muhammad et al, (2016) also found significant interaction of transplanting dates and seedling age
for marketable yield ton ha-1.
Correlation co-efficient analysis
The correlation co-efficient analysis quantifies the mutual relationship of various characters. The
correlation co-efficient between total and marketable yield with yield contributing parameters is
presented in Table 15. The data revealed that marketable yield ton ha-1 has significant positive
correlation with bulb diameter (0.381) and total yield ton ha-1 (0.671) and non- significant positive
correlation with bulb weight (0.173), number of leaves at bolting (0.097), stem thickness (0.091) and
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Mar
keta
ble
Yie
ld t
on
ha-1
Transplanting Dates
S1 S2 S3
48
plant height (0.106). The association of marketable yield with bolting percentage (-0.381) and % cull (-
0.552) was significantly negative. Marketable yield decreases as bolting and % cull increased (Cramer,
2003) who also found negative correlation of marketable yield with bolting percentage. The table
showed that percent cull has positive correlation with bolting percentage (0.671) and negative
correlation with total yield ton ha-1 (-0.05) and marketable yield ton ha-1 (-0.552). Bolting percentage
contribute to unmarketable yield and increasing in bolting percentage and percent cull is lowering
marketable yield. It is evident from the table that total yield ton ha-1 has positive correlation with plant
height (0.011), bulb diameter (0.397), bulb weight (0.227), marketable yield (0.671) and negative
correlation with total cull (-0.05).
According to Kanton et al., (2003) bulb yield was significantly (P < 0.05) correlated with mean bulb
weight (r = 0.92) and bulb diameter (r = 0.64). Rahman et al (2010) also found significantly positive
correlation of total bulb yield with plant height, number of leaf per plant, bulb diameter and bulb weight.
Haydar et al (2007) in a trial found that bulb yield had highly positive significant association with bulb
length and bulb diameter. Bulb diameter has significantly positive correlation with bulb weight (0.491),
yield ton ha-1 (0.397), marketable yield (0.381)
Table 14: Phenotypic correlation coefficient among yield and yield related characters in onion.
Bolting
percentage
No. of
leaves/plant
at Bolting
Bulb
weight
Bulb
Diameter
Stem
Thickness
Plant
Height
Days to
Maturity
Yield
tons/ha
Percent
Cull
Marketable
Yield(t/h)
Bolting
percentage
1 0.078 0.033 -0.072 0.149 -0.201 0.033 0.105 0.671* -0.381*
No. of
leaves/plant
at Bolting
1 -0.031 0 0.038 -0.064 0.029 0.039 0.037 0.097
Bulb
weight
1 0.491* 0.025 0.243* 0.024 0.248* 0.185 0.173
Bulb
Diameter
1 0.078 0.122 -0.069 0.397* -0.076 0.381*
Stem
Thickness
1 0.043 0.137 0.227* 0.093 0.091
Plant
Height
1 -0.058 0.011 -0.231* 0.106
Days to
Maturity
1 -0.063 0.131 -0.048
Yield
tons/ha
1 -0.05 0.671*
Percent
Cull
1 -0.552*
Marketable
Yield
1
49
and negative correlation with % cull (-0.76).Bolting percentage has positive correlation with number of
leaves at bolting stage (0.078), stem thickness (0.149), bulb weight (0.033), yield ton ha-1 (0.105) and
% cull (0.671) while its association with plant height (-0.201), bulb diameter (-0.72) and marketable
yield (-0.381) was found negative. Plant height has non-significantly positive correlated with bulb
diameter (0.122), bulb weight (0.243), yield ton ha-1 (0.011) and marketable yield ton ha-1 (0.106) while
its correlation is significantly negative with number of leaves at bolting (-0.064) and percent cull (-
0.231).
Summary Conclusios And Recommendations
Summary
Premature flower stalk development in onion bulb crop deviating from normal life cycle is called
bolting. Bolting makes the bulbs fibrous, lightweight and thus reduces its quality. Bolting is one of the
major production constraints in all onion growing areas in Pakistan. This study was conducted with the
aim to prevent onion bulb crop from bolting and produce quality onion bulbs.
This study was conducted to find out the effect of transplanting dates and seedling age on premature
bolting in onion bulb crop. Seedlings of 45, 60 and 75 days in nursery were transplanted on 5 different
dates (30th November, 15th December, 30th December, 15th January and 30th January) Transplanting
dates and seedling age produced significant effect on different growth and yield parameters studied.
Early transplantings produced maximum plant height, number of leaves at bolting, stem diameter, days
to maturity, bub diameter, bulb weight and total yield decreased with delay in transplanting as well as
increasing seedling age. On the other hand bolting and cull percentage decrease with delay in
transplanting and increased with increase in seedling age. Maximum marketable yield (tons ha-1) was
recorded when 60 days old seedlings were transplanted on15th December. The correlation co-efficient
analysis data revealed positive correlation between marketable yield (0.671 ton ha-1) and bulb diameter
(0.381). Non- significant positive correlations of marketable yield were recorded with bulb weight
(0.173 gm), number of leaves at bolting (0.097), stem thickness (0.091) and plant height (0.106). The
association of marketable yield with bolting percentage (-0.381) and percent cull (-0.552) was
significantly negative.
Conclusions
1. A 15 days delay in transplanting from 30th November to 15thDecember caused reduction in bolting
from 33.63% to 22.83 %. Likewise, 15 days delay from 15 December to 30th December decreases
bolting from 22.83% to 12.41%. Moreover, 15 days delay in transplanting from 30th December to
50
15th January reduced bolting percentage from 12.41% to 6.57%. Bolting was not observed on 30th
January transplanting.
2. Younger seedlings take more days to pass the juvenile stage and enter the reproductive stage, thus,
more likely to escape the cold temperature that is responsible for bolting. Older seedlings (more
than 60 days) took less days to transition phase and initiate inflorescence development upon
exposure to low temperature.
3. Bolting percentage decreased from 30.81 to 9.86% when transplant age was reduced from 75 days
to 60 days. Bolting incidence further declined from 9.86% to 4.60% when 45 days old seedlings
were transplanted.
Recommendation
1. Transplanting should be carried out from December 15 to January 15 since it produced
maximum marketable yield with low bolting percentage and minimum cull in the north of West
Pakistan. Very early transplanting increases bolting whilevery late transplanting produces small
bulbs and low yield.
2. Seedling age also influence the incidence of bolting. Larger plants switched from juvenile stage
to reproductive stage earlier when temperature gets low and start bolting instead of bulbing.
Fifty to sixty days old seedlings gave maximum marketable yield and minimum bolting.
51
Chapter 4
EXPERIMENT 2: BOLTING IN ONION BULB CROP AS INFLUENCED BY
CULTIVARS AND TRANSPLANTING DATES.
ABSTRACT
By
Noor Habib Khan and Shah Masaud Khan
Department of Agricultural Sciences (Horticulture) University of Haripur
April 2017
Three commercial cultivars ‘Swat-1’, ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’ were transplanted on five different
dates at 15 days interval (25th November, 10th December, 25th December, 10th January and 25th January).
Cultivars varied in their susceptibility to bolting. Cultivar Swat-1 took significantly maximum 78.67
days to bolting initiation and recorded minimum bolting percentage 12.51 compared to ‘Saryab
Red’13.75 and ‘Chiltan-89’ 17.32. Early transplanting took less 108.06 days to bolting initiation.
Bolting percentage was maximum 34.52 at early transplanting and reduced with delay in transplanting
from 25th November to 25th December. Bolting has not been recorded at late, (10th and 25th January)
transplanting irrespective of the cultivar. When compared to ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’, ‘Swat-1’
produced maximum plant height 65.58 cm, number of leaves per plant 10.64, stem diameter 15.43 mm,
bulb diameter 60.08 cm, bulb weight169.08 g, and days to maturity 168.37, total yield 32.94 ton ha-1
and marketable yield 25.07 ton ha-1. Plant height 61.24 cm, number of leaves per plant 10.96, stem
thickness 17.24 cm, bulb diameter 63.08 cm, bulb weight 149.31g, and days to maturity 167.89, total
yield 31.07 ton ha-1 and percent cull was maximum at early transplanting and decreased with delay in
transplanting. Cultivar Swat-1 produced maximum marketable yield 25.07 ton ha-1 than ‘Saryab Red’
and ‘Chiltan-89’. Marketable yield was highest at mid transplanting date (25th December); attributed to
less bolting compared to early transplanting. Unmarketable yield at early transplanting was largely due
to bolting while at late transplanting it was due to small ungraded bulbs.
INTRODUCTION
Onion is a biennial vegetable, and its growth and development is greatly affected by temperature and
photoperiod (Brewster, 1983, 1987; Rabinowitch, 1985). These environmental factors and their
interactions with genotype determine the performance of an onion cultivar (Brewster, 1994; Jilani &
Ghaffoor, 2003; Khan et al., 2001) and this interaction defines the selection of variety for the specific
area (Bosekeng and Coetzer, 2013).
52
Onion cultivars differ in their vernalization requirement for flower initiation. Cold temperatures between
5˚C - 13˚C for 20 to 120 days were optimum for flower induction in most cultivars. Yet, bolting resistant
cultivars needed comparatively longer (154 - 185 days) cold stimulus (Peters, 1990; Brewster, 1983;
Khokhar et al., 2007a; Khokhkar, 2008).
Onion differs in their flower initiation response to environmental condition because of differences in
genotypes (Khokhar, 2008; Brewster, 1987) and physiological age (Khokhar, 2008). Dong et al., (2013)
stated that onion seedling must be grown to certain age before they sense the cold temperature and start
vernalization process. Low temperature promotes flowering in onion only if they have passed the
juvenility stage (Rabinowitch, 1990; Khokhar et al., 2007a). Onion, depending on cultivars, initiate
flowering when have a minimum number of 7-10 leaves including leaf initial (Rabinowitch, 1990;
Khokhar et al., 2007a).
Bolting is premature seed stalk development (Voss et al., 1999) that decrease the marketability of onion
bulb (Cramer, 2003). Bolting cuts the storage potential and quality of the bulbs as whole of the energy
of the plant is exhausted and nothing is left in the bulbs to accumulate. Thus, bulbs become fibrous and
lightweight (Rana and Hore, 2015). Bolting in onion bulb crop is produced to low temperature (8-13
0C) when plants have grown enough to initiate bulbing. When seedlings are transplanted early, the onion
plants will grasp the sensitive size for bulbing when temperature is still low, the plants will bolt instead
of making bulbs. Agic et al., (2007) found that bolting was encouraged by early sowing while cultivars
differs in bolting tendency in their study. Cramer (2003) stated that late sowing reduced bolting
incidence, but plants are small yet when bulb formation begins causing small bulbs of a poor quality.
Sowing dates are, therefore, important factor that needs to be optimized to prevent bolting in onion.
Dong et al., (2013) reported significant effect of cultivar, sowing date and transplant location and their
interaction on the initiation and final rate of bolting in Welsh onion. Their results suggest that bolting
can be controlled in Welsh onion by choosing an appropriate cultivar, sowing date and transplant
location. Bolting resistance cultivars have less bolting percentage, less winter injury and high yield and
can be planted earlier (Cramer, 2003). The objective of this trial is to select an appropriate cultivar and
adjust the sowing date to prevent onion bulb crop from bolting and get high marketable yield.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Location
Field trial was conducted at Agricultural Research Institute, Mingora, Swat located in the Hindu
Kush range at 34.3- 35.53° North Latitude and 71.5-72.5° Longitude in the north of west of Pakistan.
Altitude of the site is 906 m above sea level. Climate is warm temperate. Temperature ranges from 25
53
to 35 oc. Average rainfall ranges from 740-1200mm. Soil is silt loam with pH ranges from 5-5.6.
Weather data of 2013-14 (Fig: 1) and 2014-15 (Fig: 2) have been recorded using Remote Automatic
Weather Station-Fire (RAWS-F) of Cambel Scientific. Detail of the physico-chemical properties
of the experimental soil is presented in Table 3.
Experiment Detail
The experiment was carried out in two growing seasons from November 2013 to June 2014 and from
November 2014 to June 2015. Nursery of onion varieties Swat-1, Saryab Red, and Chiltan- 89 were
sown on raised seedbed. First transplanting was done on November, 25 and the subsequent 4
transplanting were carried out at 15 days interval. Plot size was 1×3 m2 with four rows each 25 cm apart
having 30 plants per row. Thus, total numbers of plants in a unit plot were 120.
Layout and Treatment detail
Commercially grown three onion cultivars namely Swat-1, Saryab Red and Chiltan-89 were
transplanted on five different dates making 15 treatment combinations. These treatment combinations
were set in factorial RCB design with three replications.
Table 15: Treatment detail of the experiment.
S.No Cultivars Sowing/Planting Dates Treatments
1 Swat-1 25 the November T1
10 the December T2
25the December T3
10 the January T4
25 the January T5
2 Saryab Red 25 the November T6
10 the December T7
25the December T8
10 the January T9
25 the January T10
3 Chiltan-89 25 the November T11
10 the December T12
25the December T13
10 the January T14
25 the January T15
54
Experimental lay out
R
3
C3D
2
C1D
2
C2D
3
C1D
4
C3D
5
C2D
1
C3D
3
C1D
3
C2D
4
C2D
5
C3D
1
C1D
1
C2D
2
C3D
4
C1D
5
R
2
C3D
2
C2D
5
C3D
1
C3D
5
C1D
3
C3D
3
C1D
1
C1D
4
C1D
2
C3D
4
C1D
5
C2D
1
C2D
3
C2D
4
C2D
2
R
1
C2D
1
C3D
3
C2D
2
C3D
4
C3D
2
C2D
3
C2D
4
C3D
1
C1D
5
C3D
5
C1D
2
C1D
1
C1D
3
C2D
5
C1D
4
D = Transplanting Date C = Cultivar
Cultural Practices
Seeds of cultivars Swat-1, Saryab Red and Chiltan-89 were sown in manure mixed good tilth
soil on raised seed bed to develop nursery. It was sown on the same date in order to achieve the
size seedlings. Nursery of the same size and age was transplanted in already prepared
experimental plots. Soon after transplanting a pre-emergence weedicide pandymethaline was sprayed
to disallow the emergence of weed seeds. FYM, well decomposed @ of 15 tons per hectare was applied
during land preparation. Recommended dose of nitrogen, phosphorus and potash were applied based on
the soil analysis results. Bulbs were harvested when 80 % of the tops were down. Care was taken to
avoid bulb injuries. For detail see chapter 3 page 37-38.
Data Collection
Data was collected from 20 randomly selected plants from 2 central rows in each unit plot. The selected
plants were marked and used for all subsequent data parameters. Data on different parameters were
collected from transplanting of seedlings to the harvesting of bulbs to measure the effect of various
treatments on bolting and yield. For detail see chapter 3 page 38-39.
Data were analyzed by the technique of analysis of variance on all studied parameters using statistical
software “Statistix 8.1”. Significant differences between means of treatments were calculated using
LSD test for the LSD ≤ 0.05.
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Plant Height (cm)
Data pertaining to plant height affected by transplanting dates and cultivars was presented in Table 17.
Both transplanting dates and cultivar significantly affected plant height at 5% level of probability. Year
as a source of variation was not significant (p<0.05). All the interaction for plant height were also non-
significant. Plant height showed a slight and steady decrease with delay in transplanting. Maximum
55
plant height of 61.24 cm was recorded in early transplanting on 25th November while minimum plant
height of 56.08 cm was recorded by almost two months late transplanting on 25th January. Sawant et
al., (2002) found that plant height and the number of leaves were significantly affected by sowing dates.
Kandil et al., (2013) found maximum plant height at 90 and 120 days from transplanting and total culls
were resulted from early transplanting date (15th November) in both seasons. The results of this study
also matched with the findings of Brewster (2008) who reported that earlier sown plants will have a
longer vegetative growth period and consequently have larger plants with more leaves.
Among the cultivars, Swat-1 produced maximum plant height of 65.58cm while Saryab Red and
Chiltan-89 attained plant height of 55.09 cm and 54.10 cm, respectively. Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013)
also found different plant height for different cultivars. Similar result has also been reported by Singh
and Bhonde (2011) from a trial evaluating 15 hybrids and a variety of onion in Maharashtra, India.
Table 17. Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on plant height (cm) during the year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 60.33 a 62.16 a 61.24 a
10 the December 58.77 a 61.36 ab 60.06 a
25the December 55.20 b 59.99 bc 57.60 b
10 the January 53.98 b 58.59 c 56.29 b
25 the January 53.47 b 58.68 c 56.08 b
LSD(0.05) 2.74 1.60 1.41
Cultivars
Swat-1 63.97 a 67.18 a 65.58 a
Saryab Red 52.83 b 57.35 b 55.09 b
Chiltan-89 52.25 b 55.94 c 54.10 b
LSD 2.12 1.24 1.20
Year 56.35 60.16 58.25
Interactions
D × Cv ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
56
Number of Leaves Plant-1
Mean data regarding number of leaves plant-1 influenced by transplanting dates and cultivars is shown
in Table 18. Transplanting dates and cultivars caused significant effect (p<0.05) on the number of leaves
plant-1.The influence of year was significant. Maximum number of leaves plant-1 10.96 were produced
by early transplanting on 25th November .A slight decrease in leaf number was recorded with each 15
days interval delay in transplanting and minimum number of leaves plant -1were noted in late
transplanting on 25th January. Sawant et al., (2002) found that plant height and the number of leaves
were significantly affected by sowing dates. Bijarniya et al., (2015) noted maximum number of leaves
(4.99, 8.74 and 10.90) 45, 75 and 90 DATP in 30th November transplanting. Early seeded yield more
leaves and taller plants (Cramer, 2003).
Table 16 Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on number of leaves plant-1 in year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 10.53 a 11.39 a 10.96 a
10 the December 9.83 b 10.86 b 10.34 b
25the December 9.56 bc 10.33 c 9.94 c
10 the January 9.41 bc 9.86 d 9.63 c
25 the January 9.09 c 9.33 e 9.21 d
LSD(0.05) 0.55 0.42 0.34
Cultivars
Swat-1 10.22 a 11.06 a 10.64 a
Saryab Red 9.79 b 10.34 b 10.07 b
Chiltan-89 9.04 c 9.66 c 9.35 c
LSD 0.43 0.33 0.26
Year 9.68 b 10.35 a 10.02
Interactions
D × Cv ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
Cultivar also varied significantly for number of leaves plant-1 and cultivar ‘Swat-1’ produced maximum
number of leaves plant-1 10.64 followed by ‘Saryab Red’ 10.07 and minimum number of leaves plant-1
9.35 were recorded in ‘Chiltan-89’. All the interaction for number of leaves plant-1 were non-significant.
57
Kandil et al., (2013) also found significant difference in number of leaves plant-1, at 90 and 120 day after
transplanting.
Stem Diameter (mm)
Statistical analysis of the data regarding stem thickness revealed significant differences for transplanting
dates and whereas years as source of variance and the different interactions were non-significant at 5%
level of probability (Table 19). Early transplanting produced plants with maximum stem diameter which
is gradually decrease with delay in transplanting. The maximum stem diameter of 17.24 mm was
recorded in 25th November transplantings and the minimum stem diameter of 14.42 mm was recorded
in late 25th January transplanting. Pandy et al., (1992) found that neck thickness problem was more in
early (June) sowing onion. Results of this study also in conformity with the finding of Boyhan et al.,
(2009) that early transplanting reduced the bulb quality by producing thick neck bulbs. Muhammad et
al., (2016) also reported that early transplanting resulted thick neck of bulbs.
Table 17: Effect of on transplanting dates and cultivars on stem diameter during the year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 16.97 a 17.52 a 17.24 a
10 the December 16.53 a 17.01 b 16.77 b
25the December 15.38 b 16.37 c 15.87 c
10 the January 14.68 c 15.39 d 15.04 d
25 the January 14.24 c 14.60 e 14.42 e
LSD(0.05) 0.56 0.43 0.34
Cultivars
Swat-1 15.06 b 15.81 b 15.43 b
Saryab Red 15.78 a 16.44 a 16.11 a
Chiltan-89 15.84 a 16.27 a 16.06 a
LSD 0.43 0.33 0.26
Year 15.56 16.18 15.87
Interactions
D × Cv ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
58
Among the cultivars, maximum stem diameter of 16.11mm was noted in ‘Saryab Red’ and minimum
stem diaameter of 15.43 mm was recorded in ‘Swat-1’. Stem thickness is important trait indicating the
storage prospect of an onion cultivar. Gautam et al., (2006) reported that thin neck varieties have longer
shelf life than thick neck varieties. According to Brewester (1997) the problem of thick stem arises
because of slow growth or short growing cycle. The result of this study is similar to the findings of
Mushtaq et al., (2013) who found significant difference in stem thickness in 19 onion cultivars.
Bulb Diameter (mm)
Data regarding bulb diameter as affected by transplanting dates and cultivars is depicted in Table 20.
Transplanting dates and cultivars significantly influenced (p < 0.05) bulb diameter while year as a source
of variation was not significant. The interactions of transplanting dates and cultivars (D×Cv) for bulb
diameter were significant while the remaining interactions were not significant Maximum bulb diameter
of 63.08 mm was recorded in early transplanting on 25th November and it reduced consistently with
Table 20: Effect of on transplanting dates and cultivars on bulb diameter during the year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 61.26 a 64.90 a 63.08 a
10 the December 55.51 b 59.86 b 57.69 b
25the December 48.72 c 51.47 c 50.10 c
10 the January 41.92 d 43.66 d 42.79 d
25 the January 35.33 e 37.69 e 36.51 e
LSD(0.05) 3.35 3.05 2.22
Cultivars
Swat-1 58.12 a 62.04 a 60.08 a
Saryab Red 45.95 b 48.60 b 47.27 b
Chiltan-89 41.58 c 43.90 c 42.74 c
LSD 2.59 2.37 1.71
Year 48.55 51.52 50.03
Interactions
D × Cv * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
59
delay in transplanting. Minimum bulb diameter of 36.51 mm was noted in late 25th January
transplanting. Sawant et al., (2002) reported that early planting produced maximum polar and equatorial
diameter and hence, produced large size bulbs. According to Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) bulb
diameter was significantly influenced by both cultivar and sowing date and earlier sown crop produced
the largest bulbs. According to Bijarniya et al., (2015) bulb diameter decreased with delay in
transplanting after 15th November. They recorded maximum bulb diameter from early transplanting i.e.,
15th November.
Among cultivars, maximum bulb diameter 60.08 mm was produced by cultivar ‘Swat-1’. ‘Saryab Red’
and ‘Chiltan 89’ produced bulb diameters of 47.27 mm and 42.74 mm respectively. According to
Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) bulb size vary with different cultivars. Mushtaq et al., (2013) in trial
evaluating 19 onion varieties for yield and quality found significant difference in bulb diameter.
The interactions of D×Cv indicated that bulb diameter was maximum in early transplanting and ‘Swat-
1’ cultivars. Bulb diameter declined with delay in transplanting irrespective of the cultivars used in the
trial.
Figure 11: Interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for bulb diameter (mm).
Bulb Weight (g)
Data concerning with bulb weight influenced by transplanting dates and cultivars is summarized in
Table 21. It is evident from the table that transplanting dates and cultivars produced significant effect in
bulb weight at 5% level of probability while the year’s effect was not significant. The interaction of
transplanting dates and cultivars (D×Cv) was significant (p < 0.05) while the rest of the interactions
were found non-significant. Maximum bulb weight 149.31g was produced by early 25th November
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Bu
lb D
iam
eter
(m
m)
Transplanting Dates
Swat-1 Saryab Red Chiltan 89
60
transplanting and the weight lessened steadily with each 15 days interval delay in transplanting.
Minimum bulb weight 80.98 g was recorded in very late transplanting on 25th January. Early
transplanting have more time for vegetative growth and produced more leaves and maximum plant
height. Abdissa et al., (2011) found strong and positive correlation of mean bulb weight with plant
height, number of leaves, bulb length and diameter. Plants with more vegetative growth translocated
more photosynthate towards bulb formation. This resultantly produced bigger bulbs than late
transplanting. Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) reported that late sowing significantly decreased average
bulb fresh mass while early sown plant produced the largest bulbs.
Cultivars also caused significant difference in bulb weight. Cultivar ‘Swat-1’ produced heaviest bulbs
169.08 g compared to ‘Saryab Red’ 100.14 g and ‘Chiltan-89’ 82.35g.
Table 28: Effect of transplanting date and cultivars on bulb Weight (g) dduring the year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 146.23 a 152.39 a 149.31 a
10 the December 132.63 b 138.38 b 135.50 b
25the December 117.66 c 122.46 c 120.06 c
10 the January 97.51 d 102.68 d 100.09 d
25 the January 79.71 e 82.26 e 80.98 e
LSD(0.05) 9.34 8.44 6.15
Cultivars
Swat-1 166.72 a 171.44 a 169.08 a
Saryab Red 97.69 b 102.59 b 100.14 b
Chiltan-89 79.83 c 84.87 c 82.35 c
LSD 7.24 6.53 4.77
Year 114.75 a 119.63 a 117.19
Interactions
D × Cv * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
The D×Cv interaction showed significant effect (p<0.05) on bulb weight. Bulb weight was maximum
at early transplanting in Swat-1 cultivar and constantly decreased with delay in transplanting. This trend
61
was more prominent in cultivar ‘Swat-1’ than ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’. Similar results were
reported by Mushtaq et al., (2013)
who stated that bulb weight is an important yield parameter and found it significant in different cultivars.
Kimani et al., (1993) evaluated 9 onion cultivars in different environment in Kenya and found that bulb
weight differs among cultivar and in different environment.
Figure 11: Interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for bulb weight (g)
Days to Bolting initiation
Information about days to bolting initiation as influenced by transplanting dates and cultivars is
presented in Table 22. Transplanting dates and cultivars significantly affected days to bolting initiation.
Year as a source of variation was non-significant at 5% level of probability. Early transplanting took
less 108.06 days to bolting initiation which gradually increased with delay in transplanting and 25th
December transplanting took 117.28 days to bolting initiation. Bolting has not been initiated in late 10th
and 25th January transplantings. According to Cramer (2003) bolting in onion bulb crop is produced in
response to low temperature (8-13 0C) when plants have grown enough to start bulbing. The sensitivity
to cold temperature increases with increase in plant age. Khokhar et al (2007a) reported that the number
of leaves has been used to determine the critical plant size at which bolting occur when expose to low
temperature. They found that 7-10 leaves stage is sensitive plant size (at which onion plant become
responsive to cold temperature). When seedlings are transplanted early, plants will reach the sensitive
size for bulbing when temperature is still low, plants initiate bolting instead bulbing. Thus early
transplanting will take less day to bolting initiation compared to late transplants.
21
9.5
20
2.6
6
17
8.8
3
14
1.7
5
12
6.3
6
11
1.9
5
10
2.6
6
10
2.0
7
10
0.9
3
91
.9
86
.03
80
.41
75
.45
72
.51
64
.84
0
50
100
150
200
250
D1 D2 D3 D4 D1 D2 D5 D1 D3 D2 D4 D3 D5 D4 D5
Swat-1 Swat-1 Swat-1 Swat-1 Saryab
Red
Saryab
Red
Swat-1 Chiltan-
89
Saryab
Red
Chiltan-
89
Saryab
Red
Chiltan-
89
Saryab
Red
Chiltan-
89
Chiltan-
89
Bulb
Wei
ght
(g)
Transplanting dates & Cultivars
62
Table 22: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on days to bolting initiation during year 2014 and
2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 105.22 b 111.67 c 108.06 c
10 the December 108.56 b 116.56 b 112.22 b
25the December 113.56 a 121.00 a 117.28 a
10 the January 0.00 0.00 0.00
25 the January 0.00 0.00 0.00
LSD(0.05) 3.72 2.74 2.07
Cultivars
Swat-1 76.67 a 81.27 a 78.67 a
Saryab Red 56.80 c 60.60 c 58.47 c
Chiltan-89 63.53 b 67.67 b 65.40 b
LSD 2.88 2.12 1.60
Year 65.18 69.84 67.51
Interactions
D × Cv * * *
Year × D - - *
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - *
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
Cultivars also varied for days to bolting initiation. Cultivar ‘Swat-1’ took maximum days 78.67 to
inflorescence initiation and ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’ took 58.47 and 65.40 days respectively. The
results indicate that all the three cultivars are prone to bolting, cultivar ‘Swat-1’ is a little better among
them. The mechanism of bolting is not understood (Cramer, 2003). There isn’t complete bolting
resistance variety in the world. As such variety will not flower even at normal condition and cannot be
propagated. According to Cramer, (2003) the resistance to bolting is additive as bolting resistant
varieties have been developed from bolting susceptible germplasms in bolting inducing environment
through phenotypic recurrent selection. According to Cramer, (2003) bolting resistant cultivar may
require either large plant size or longer cold period for bolting.
63
Figure 12: Interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for days to bolting initiation.
Interaction of D×Cv, Y×D and Y×D × Cv were significant and that of Y×Cv was not
significant(p<0.05). Interaction of D× Cv indicated that early transplanting took less days to bolting
initiation and number of days increased as transplanting delayed. Cultivar ‘Swat-1’ took more days to
bolting initiation compared to ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’. Bolting has not been initiated in late 10th
and 25th January transplanting irrespective of the cultivar.
Figure 13: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and year for days to bolting initiation.
From the interaction of Y×D it is evident that early transplanting took less days to premature seed stalk
development in both the years compared to late 10th and 25th December transplanting (D2 and D3). As
year 2 was warmer than year 1, number of days to bolting initiation were more in year 2 compared to
year 1. Bolting was not initiated in late transplanting on 10th and 25th January in either year.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Day
s to
bo
ltin
g in
itia
tio
n
Transplanting dates
Swat-1 Saryab Red Chiltan-89
12
1
11
6.5
6
11
3.5
6
11
1.6
7
10
7.8
9
10
4.4
4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
D3 D2 D3 D1 D2 D1 D4 D5 D4 D5
Y2 Y2 Y1 Y2 Y1 Y1 Y1 Y2 Y2 Y2
Day
s to
bo
ltin
g i
nit
iati
on
Transplanting dates & growing seasons
64
Bolting Percentage
Bolting is a physiological disorder in which floral stalk developed in onion plants intended for bulbs
production. It lower the marketability of bulbs as the whole energy of the plant is exhausted and nothing
is left in to accumulate in the bulbs. This make the bulbs fibrous and lightweight.
Data pertaining to bolting percentage affected by transplanting dates and cultivars is presented in Table
23. Both transplanting dates and cultivars made significant difference in bolting percentage while year
as a source of variation remained non-significant at 5% level of probability. The interaction of
transplanting dates and cultivars (D× Cv), year and transplanting dates (Y×D) were significant and the
rest of the interactions were not significant.
Bolting was maximum 34.52% in early in 25th December transplanting and decline steadily with delay
in transplanting. Bolting has not been recorded in late 10th and 25th January transplanting. These results
are in agreement with the findings of Madisa (1994) who reported onion plants sown late did not bolt
because when low temperatures responsible for bolting prevailed, the plants were still small and had not
yet reached minimum plant size. Tendaj and Mysiak (2013) recorded maximum seed stalk development
in early transplanting irrespective of the cultivars in the trial. Earlier transplanting seedlings clench the
critical stage for bulbing sooner when low temperature still prevails and initiate inflorescence instead of
bulb formation. Late transplanting plants will be at juvenile stage when the temperature are low late in
the season. Flowering cannot be induced by vernalization in juvenility stage. Hence, bolting will not
occur in late transplants.
Among the cultivars 17.32% plants developed premature seed stalk in ‘Chiltan-89’ while 13.75 % and
12.51% initiated premature inflorescence development in ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Swat-1’ respectively.
Brewster and Salter, (1980) reported that cultivars varied evidently in their susceptibility to bolting.
Mushtaq et al (2013) reported that onion cultivars differs in yield and yield related traits and bolting in
specific agro- conditions. Among the nineteen evaluated onion varieties high bolting percentage
(46.67%) was found in Desi Red, while it was the lowest in Faisal Red and VRIO-6 (13.33%).It is
difficult to give the exact date for transplanting to reduce bolting and increase yield at the same time as
it is cultivar and environment dependent. Bolting resistant cultivar have less bolting incidence and can
be seeded/transplanted earlier (Cramer, 2003).
65
Table 23: Effect of transplanting date and cultivars on bolting percentage during 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 36.67 a 32.37 a 34.52 a
10 the December 22.46 b 24.21 b 23.33 b
25the December 15.68 c 13.87 c 14.77 c
10 the January 0.00 d 0.00 d 0.00 d
25 the January 0.00 d 0.00 d 0.00 d
LSD(0.05) 2.96 2.67 1.95
Cultivars
Swat-1 12.90 b 12.12 b 12.51 b
Saryab Red 14.25 b 13.24 b 13.75 b
Chiltan-89 17.73 a 16.91 a 17.32 a
LSD 2.29 2.07 1.51
Year 14.96 14.09 14.53
Interactions
D × Cv * * *
Year × D - - *
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
Flowering is essential for crop production if grown for fruit or seed purpose. The transition from
vegetative to reproductive growth is a key developmental change in flowering plants. Blumel et al,
(2015). Onion initiate floral stalk development after the juvenile phase when receive flower inductive
low temperature. Khokhar et al (2007a) reported that onion plants switch from vegetative phase to
reproductive phase when grown 7-10 leaf stage. Thus, earlier transplants in the season reached
reproductive stage and are more susceptible to bolting when temperature drops latter in the season. The
bolting tendency also varies with cultivars. To our knowledge there is no complete bolting resistance
cultivar.
66
Figure 14: Mean data on interaction of transplanting, dates and cultivars for bolting percentage.
According to Cramer, (2003) the mechanism of bolting resistance is not known. Bolting resistance is
highly additive as it is developed from bolting susceptible germplasms in bolting favorable environment
through phenotypic recurrent selection. According to Cramer, (2003) many theories may explained the
phenomenon of bolting. Bolting resistant cultivars may require more chilling hours than bolting
susceptible cultivars. Bolting resistant cultivars may require larger plant size than bolting susceptible
cultivar to become receptive to cold stimulus. Likewise, bolting resistant plant may be slow in growth
during initial period of low temperature and thus not receptive to cold stimulus.
Figure 15: Mean data on interaction of transplanting, dates and year for bolting percentage.
The interaction of D× Cv indicated that bolting percentage was maximum in early transplanting and
decreased gradually as transplanting was delayed from November 25-December 25 (D1 to D3 ). Bolting
has not been recorded in late 10th and 25th January transplanting regardless of the cultivar. The interaction
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Bo
ltin
g P
erce
nta
ge
Transplanting Dates
Swat-1 Saryab Red Chiltan-89
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Bo
ltin
g P
erce
nta
ge
Transplanting Dates
Year 1 Year 2
67
of Y×D showed that delaying transplanting from D1 to D3 decrease bolting percentage from 36.67% to
13.87%. Premature bolting has not been noted in late 10th and 25th January transplanting in both years.
Days to Maturity/Harvesting
Data about days to harvesting affected by transplanting dates and cultivars is given in Table
24.Transplanting dates and cultivars caused significant difference in days to harvesting. Year as a source
of variation was also found significant at 5% level of probability. Interactions for days to maturity were
not significant. Maximum 167.89 days to harvesting were taken by early 25th November transplanting
and days to harvesting decreased with delay in transplanting. Late transplanting on 25th January took
minimum days 158.28 to harvesting. Bulbs normally start to
Table 24: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on days to maturity during the year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 165.67 a 170.11 a 167.89 a
10 the December 164.22 a 168.33 a 166.28 b
25the December 160.00 b 164.56 b 162.29 c
10 the January 156.56 c 161.53 c 159.06 d
25 the January 155.33 c 161.22 c 158.28 d
LSD(0.05) 3.21 2.21 1.07
Cultivars
Swat-1 166.60 a 170.13 a 168.37 a
Saryab Red 160.47 b 165.53 b 163.00 b
Chiltan-89 154.00 c 159.80 c 156.90 c
LSD 2.49 1.72 0.94
Year 160.36 b 165.16 a 163.00
Interactions
D × Cv ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
Cultivar ‘Swat-1’ took maximum 168.37 day to harvesting and ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’ took
163.00 and 156.90 day to harvesting in this order. Kimani et al, (1993) evaluated 9 onion cultivars in
Kyneya and found mature when the required minimum day length and temperature of the specific
cultivar is met. Hence the same cultivar sown on different dates or having varying seedling ages will
68
start to mature more or less at the same time. Thus late transplanting tookk less days to maturity than
early transplanting. Similar results have reported by Sawant et al., (2002) that early transplanting had
taken the longest duration (137 days) to maturity than late planting.significant difference in days to
Maturity. Minimum days (144.6-202.0) to maturity was taken by “KON 4” while maximum days
(159.2-215.4).took by “KON 8”. Temperature and photoperiod essentially control the growth and
development in onion. The interaction of these environmental factors with genotype decide the
performance of an onion cultivar (Brewster, 1994; Jilani & Ghaffoor, 2003; Khan et al., 2001). This is
the reason that different genotypes perform differently in the same environment.
Total Yield (ton ha-1)
Data relating to total yield ton ha-1 affected by transplanting dates and cultivars is summarized in Table
25. Transplanting dates and cultivars shaped significantly total yield tonha-1. Year as a source of variance
remained non-significant. All the interaction were non-significant (p<0.05) except D × Cv. Early
Table 25: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on total yield (ton ha-1) during year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 29.44 a 32.71 a 31.07 a
10 the December 27.97 a 31.49 a 29.73 a
25the December 24.67 b 27.09 b 25.88 b
10 the January 21.33 c 23.21 c 22.27 c
25 the January 19.68 c 18.78 d 20.00 d
LSD(0.05) 2.90 2.17 1.54
Cultivars
Swat-1 32.19 a 33.70 a 32.94 a
Saryab Red 22.73 b 25.21 b 23.97 b
Chiltan-89 18.94 c 21.06 c 22.09 c
LSD 2.24 1.68 1.19
Year 24.62 a 26.65 a 26.39
Interactions
D × Cv ns ns *
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
69
transplanting on 25th November produced maximum yield 31.07 ton ha-1 and the yield showed a decline
trend with delay in transplanting and late transplanting on 25th January produced minimum yield 20.00
ton ha-1. A total 60 days delay in transplanting caused reduction in yield from 31.07 to 20.00 ton ha-1
amounting to 11.07 ton ha-1. From this it can be concluded that each 10 day delay in transplanting caused
1.85 ton ha-1 reduction in yield. Ample vegetative growth before bulb formation is essential to get high
yield (Ibrahim, 2010). Bulb formation starts when temperature and day length requirement is fulfilled.
Though when a variety is sown on different dates yet, bulbing will starts more or less at the same time.
Hence, early transplants will have more vegetative growth and high yield. The results of Patil et al.,
(2012) showed that early transplanting (15th November) of onion significantly produced high yield.
Figure 16: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for yield ton ha-1.
Among the cultivars ‘Swat-1’ produced total yield of 32.94 ton ha-1while ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-
89’ yielded 23.97 and 22.09 tonha-1respectively. Lancaster et al, (1995) evaluating 32 onion varieties
for commercial production in New Zealand found significant difference in yield. The interaction of D ×
Cv revealed a descending trend in yield ton ha-1 with delay in transplanting from November 25-January
25 (D1 to D5 ) in all the three cultivars.
Marketable (Yield ton ha-1)
Data concerning marketable yield ton ha-1affected by transplanting dates and cultivar is presented in
Table 26. Transplanting dates and cultivar produced significant effect (p<0.05) on marketable yield
tonha-1. Year as a source of variation was also significant. Interaction of D × Cv was significant and the
remaining interactions were not significant. Maximum marketable yield 23.45 ton ha-1was recorded in
mid transplanting on 25th December. While the marketable yield of 10th December and 10th January
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
45.00
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
Yiel
d t
on
ha-1
Transplanting Dates
Swat-1 Saryab Red Chiltan-89
70
transplantings was statistically at par. Very early and very late transplanting produce less marketable
yield of 17.23 and 15.42 ton ha-1 respectively. In very early transplanting 34.52 % plants went to
premature bolting and become unmarketable and were discarded. In very late transplanting small
ungraded bulbs contributed to cull. The result of this study are in conformity with findings of Bijarniya
et al., (2015) and Ibrahim (2010) who reported maximum marketable yield from mid transplanting
dates.
Among the cultivars ‘Swat-1’ produced maximum marketable yield of 25.07 ton ha-1 ‘Saryab Red’ and
‘Chiltan-89’ produced 19.09 and 14.38 ton ha-1 marketable yield. Baliyan (2014) in a trial evaluated six
onion varieties and found that Texas Grano produced the highest total yield of 54.07 ton ha-1, however,
Hanna variety produced the highest marketable yield of 43.01 ton ha-1. Texas Grano produced the lowest
marketable (60%) in Botswana. Cramer (2003) in a five year varietal trial found that marketable yield
ranged from 61-82%. In current study cultivar ‘Swat-1’ produced the highest total and marketable yield
32.94 and 25.07 ton ha-1 respectively.
Table 26: Effect of on transplanting dates and cultivars on marketable yield (ton ha-1) during the year
2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
25 the November 16.73 c 17.72 c 17.23 c
10 the December 19.88 b 22.53 ab 21.21 b
25the December 22.62 a 24.27 a 23.45 a
10 the January 18.56 b 21.97 b 20.27 b
25 the January 14.27 d 16.58 c 15.42 d
LSD(0.05) 1.56 1.98 1.19
Cultivars
Swat-1 24.16 a 25.98 a 25.07 a
Saryab Red 17.96 b 20.22 b 19.09 b
Chiltan-89 13.12 c 15.64 c 14.38 c
LSD 1.21 1.53 0.92
Year 18.41 b 20.61 a 19.51
Interactions
D × Cv * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × Cv - - ns
Year × D × Cv - - ns
D = Transplanting dates Cv=Cultivar *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
71
The interaction of Transplanting dates and cultivars (D× Cv) revealed that marketable yield was
maximum in cultivar “Swat -1” at mid transplanting date. In very early and late transplantin produced
less marketable yiels ton ha-1 Less marketable yield in early transplanting was due to high percentage of
bolting while in late transplantings it was due to small ungraded bulbs
Figure 17: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and cultivars for marketable yield (ton ha-1).
Summary conclusios and recommendations
Summary
Three commercial cultivars ‘Swat-1’, ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’ were transplanted on five different
dates (25th November, 10th December, 25th December, 10th January and 25th January). Apparently none
of the cultivars showed resistance to bolting however, they varied in their susceptibility to bolting.
Cultivar Swat-1 took significantly maximum 78.67 days to bolting initiation and recorded minimum
bolting percentage 12.51 compared to ‘Saryab Red’13.75 and ‘Chiltan-89’ 17.32. Early transplanting
took less 108.06 days to bolting initiation. Bolting percentage was maximum 34.52 at early transplanting
and reduced with delay in transplanting from 25th November to 25th December. In all cultivars bolting
has not been recorded at late, (10th and 25th January) transplanting irrespective of the cultivar. Compare
to ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’, ‘Swat-1’ has maximum plant height 65.58 cm, number of leaves per
plant 10.64, stem thickness 15.43 mm, bulb diameter 60.08 cm, bulb weight 169.08 g, and days to
maturity 168.37, total yield 32.94 ton ha-1 and marketable yield 25.07 ton ha-1. Plant height 61.24 cm,
number of leaves per plant 10.96, stem diameter 17.24 cm, bulb diameter 63.08 cm, bulb weight
149.31g, and days to maturity 167.89, total yield 31.07 ton ha-1 were maximum at early transplanting
and decreased with delay in transplanting. Cultivar Swat-1 produced maximum marketable yield 25.07
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 Mean
Mar
keta
ble
yie
ld t
on
ha-1
Transplanting dates
Swat-1 Saryab Red Chiltan-89 Mean
72
ton ha-1 than ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’. Marketable yield was maximum at mid transplanting date
(25th December); attributed to less bolting and percent cull compared to early transplanting.
Unmarketable yield at early transplanting was largely due to bolting while at late transplanting it was
due to small ungraded bulbs.
Conclusions
Cultivar Swat-1 took significantly maximum days to bolting initiation and had minimum bolting
percentage compared to Saryab Red and Chiltan-89. Early transplanting took less days to bolting
initiation. Bolting percentage was maximum at early transplanting and reduced with delay in
transplanting from 25th November to 25thDecember in all cultivars. Bolting was not recorded in late
transplanting (10th and 25th January) irrespective of the cultivar. Compared to Saryab Red and Chiltan-
89, Cultivars Swat-1 produced maximum marketable yield ton ha-1. Marketable yield was maximum at
mid transplanting date (25th December) attributed to less bolting and percent cull compared to early
transplanting. Unmarketable yield at early transplanting was largely contributed by bolting while at late
transplanting it was due to small ungraded bulbs.
Recommendations
1. Transplanting should be done from December 15 to January 15 since it produced low bolting
percentage and maximum marketable yield. Very early transplanting increased bolting and very
late transplanting produced small bulbs and low yield.
2. Bolting resistant variety should be used. Though, there is no bolting resistant variety in Pakistan
‘Swat-1’ has comparatively less bolting incidence among the existing cultivars. Research work
should be initiated to develop bolting resistant variety or produce bolting resistance in existing
cultivars though phenotypic recurrent selection.
73
Chapter 5
EXPERIMENT 3: EFFECT OF TRANSPLANTING DATES AND NITROGEN
FERTILIZER ON FLOWERING INITIATION IN ONION BULB CROP.
ABSTRACT
By
Noor Habib Khan
Department of Agricultural Sciences (Horticulture) University of Haripur
April 2017
Trials were conducted in two consecutive growing seasons from 2013-14 and 2014-15 at Agricultural
Research Institute, Mingora Swat 906 m above sea level. Experiment was planned in RCB design in a
plot size of 2.5 × 0.8 m2 with 5 rows and 25 plants per row. Rows were 20 cm apart and plants were
spaced 10 cm within a row. Different doses of nitrogen fertilizer (75, 100, 125 and 150 kg ha-1)
were applied to onion crop transplanted on five different dates (15th November, 1st December, 15th
December, 1st January and 15th January) with the objective to determine its influence on
inflorescence development in onion bulb crop. Bolting percentage decreased gradually with
increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Maximum bolting percentage was recorded in early
transplanting and declined with delay in transplanting. Bolting incidence did not occurred in
very late transplanting (15th January) irrespective of the rate of nitrogen applied. Plant height,
stem thickness, bulb diameter, bulb weight and total yield increased with increase in nitrogen
fertilizer and conversely showed a downward trend with delay in transplanting. Different doses
of nitrogen fertilizer didn’t significantly influenced leaves per plant. Early transplanting took
maximum days to maturity than late transplanting. Maturity was delayed with increase in
nitrogen fertilizer. Percent cull decreased with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer.
Marketable yield was maximum at mid transplanting (15th December) and with maximum dose
of nitrogen fertilizer. It can be concluded that 150 Kg N ha-1 should be applied and transplanting
should be delayed up to December 15th to avoid bolting and have maximum marketable yield.
INTRODUCTION
Bolting is the premature seed stem development in some vegetables that reduces storage life
and marketability of the produce (Rana and Hore, 2015). Inflorescence initiated in onion after
74
plants have grown and developed to certain number of leaves, depending on cultivar, followed
by exposure to low vernalizing temperature ( Diaz-Perez, 2003, Dong et al, 2013).
Vernalization in onion has been of research interest because of the need to prevent bulbs from bolting
in the first growing season and to enhance flowering in second growing season (Streck, 2003, Dong et
al, 2013). In tropical regions onion plants neither flower nor produce seed due to lack of cold
temperature (Kimani et al., 1994). This is the reason that many countries in the tropics import onion
seed from sub tropic or temperate countries where winter provide vernalization temperature for
flowering and seed production (Khokhar, 2014). The response of plant to vernalization depends on the
combination of two factors, the temperature during vernalization and duration of vernalization period
(Streck, 2003).
Optimal day length and vernalization is not enough to induce flowering. Plants should be old enough to
sense and respond to these environmental stimuli. Some perennial plants flower readily when exposed
to environmental condition that enhance flowering such as photoperiod and vernalization. While others
including onion cannot flower until pass the juvenile stage and grown to a certain age or size.
(Rabinowitch, 1990; Khokhar et al., 2007a). Leaf number rather than chronological time is the best sign
of the plant’s physiological age (Rabinowitch, 1990). Depending on cultivars, onion plant initiates
flowering when have a minimum number of 7-10 leaves including leaf initial (Rabinowitch, 1990;
Khokhar et al., 2007a).
Other factors affecting bolting in onion are nitrogen and phosphorous (Brewester, 1983). Rabinowitch
(1990) termed onion as nitro-neutral plant whose flowering time is unaffected by nitrogen. A few
studies, however, indicates that nitrogen affect the flowering process in onion (Brewester, 1983).
Brewester (1983) found that low nitrogen in nutrient solution speeded up flowering. According to the
findings of Yamasaki and Tanaka, (2005) Bolting in bunching onion (Allium fistulosum L.) enhanced
by low nitrogen following exposure to low temperature for a period of 35 days. Diaz-Perez et al. (2003)
suggested that low nitrogen fertilizer application increased bolting and reported that bolting incidence
decrease steadily with increase nitrogen fertilization rates up to 197 kg ha-1. This trial was aimed to
investigate the effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen fertilizer on premature bolting in onion.
MATERIALS & METHODS
Location
Field trials were conducted at Agricultural Research Institute, Mingora, Swat located in the Hindu
Kush range at 34.3- 35.53° North Latitude and 71.5-72.5° Longitude in the north of west of Pakistan.
75
Altitude of the site is 906 m above sea level. Climate is warm temperate. Temperature ranges from 25
to 35 oc. Average rainfall ranges from 740-1200 mm. Soil is silt loam with pH ranges from 5-5.6.
Weather data of 2013-14 (Fig: 1) and 2014-15 (Fig: 2) have been recorded using Remote Automatic
Weather Station-Fire (RAWS-F) of Cambel Scientific. Detail of the physico-chemical properties
of the experimental soil is presented in Table 3.
Experiment Detail
The experiments cited above were carried out in two consecutive years from November 2013 to June
2014 and from November 2014 to June 2015. Nursery of onion cultivar “Swat-1”, was sown on different
dates in a raised seedbed. Seedling of the same size and age were transplanted on five different dates.
Plot size was kept 2.5×0.8 m2 with five rows and 25 plants per row. Row to row distance was 20 cm and
plants were spaced 10 cm within a row.
Table 27: Treatment details.
S. No Sowing/Planting Dates Nitrogen Levels Treatments
1 15th November L1 =75 kg/ha T1
L2=100 Kg/ha T2
L3=125 kg/ha T3
L4=150 kg/ha T4
2 30th December L1 =75 kg/ha T5
L2=100 Kg/ha T6
L3=125 kg/ha T7
L4=150 kg/ha T8
3 15th December L1 =75 kg/ha T9
L2=100 Kg/ha T10
L3=125 kg/ha T11
L4=150 kg/ha T12
4 1st January L1 =75 kg/ha T13
L2=100 Kg/ha T14
L3=125 kg/ha T15
L4=150 kg/ha T16
5 15th January L1 =75 kg/ha T17
L2=100 Kg/ha T18
L3=125 kg/ha T19
L4=150 kg/ha T20
76
Experimental Lay out
R3
D3L
4
D1L
3
D2L
1
D2L
4
D4L
3
D2L
3
D5L
1
D4L
4
D5l
2
D1L
1
D4L
1
D5L
3
D4L
2
D3L
2
D1L
2
D2L
2
D5L
4
D1L
4
D3L
1
D3L
3
R2
D5L
3
D5l
2
D4L
2
D3L
2
D2L
2
D3L
4
D5L
4
D1L
4
D1L
2
D2L
1
D3L
3
D2L
3
D4L
3
D3L
1
D4L
4
D5L
1
D1L
3
D1L
1
D4L
1
D2L
4
R1
D4L
4
D2L
3
D5L
1
D1L
1
D4L
1
D3L
3
D5L
3
D5L
4
D4L
2
D3L
2
D2L
2
D2L
4
D1L
4
D3L
4
D2L
1
D5l
2
D3L
1
D1L
2
D4L
3
D1L
3
D = Transplanting dates L= Level of Nitrogen
Layout and Treatment detail
The experiment was planned in RCB Design with factorial arrangement. Cultivar Swat-1 planted on
five different dates and four levels of nitrogen fertilizer were applied. Thus, making total treatment
combinations 20 which were repeated 3 times.
Treatments: 1. Transplanting Dates=5, 2. Nitrogen Level=4, 3. Cultivar=1 (Swat-1)
Cultural Practices
Nursery of cultivars Swat-1, was sown in good tilth soil on raised seed bed on five different
dates to get uniform size and age of seedling transplanting. Nursery of the same size and age
was transplanted in already prepared experimental plots. Soon after transplanting a pre-emergence
weedicide pandymethaline was sprayed to disallow the emergence of weed seeds. FYM, well
decomposed @ of 15 tons per hectare, phosphorus @ 90 kg ha-1 and potash @ 60 Kg ha-1 was applied
during land preparation. Four levels of nitrogen fertilizer 75, 100, 125 and 150 kg ha-1 were applied in
three split doses. Bulbs were harvested when 80 % of the tops were down. Care was taken to avoid bulb
injuries. For detail see chapter 3 page 37-38.
Data Collection
Data was collected from 20 randomly selected plants from 2 central rows in each unit plot. The selected
plants were marked and used for all subsequent data parameters. Data on different parameters were
collected from transplanting of seedlings to the harvesting of bulbs to measure the effect of various
treatments on bolting and yield. For detail see chapter 3 page 38-39.
Data were analyzed by the technique of analysis of variance on all studied parameters using statistical
software “Statistix 8.1”. Significant differences between means of treatments were calculated using
LSD test for the LSD ≤ 0.05.
77
RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS
Plant Height (cm)
Data regarding plant height in 2014 and 2015 and its mean (Table 28) showed that transplanting dates
and nitrogen level significantly (p < 0.05) affected plant height in both years. Year as source of variation
was also found significant. All the interaction were non-significant for plant height. Maximum plant
height of 61.08 cm was recorded when transplanting was done on 15th November. Plant height
decreased when transplanting was delayed and minimum plant height of 57.49 cm were produced in
15th January transplanting. Bulbing started when temperature begin to increase and the required
minimum day length of the specific cultivar is met. Thus when same variety is sown at different times
at the same locality bulbing will start more or less at the same time. Earlier sown plants, therefore, will
have longer vegetative growth, larger plants with more leaves as compared to late sown plants
(Brewster, 2008).
Table 28: Effect of on transplanting date and cultivars on plant height (cm) during the year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 58.76 a 63.40 a 61.08 a
30th December 58.15 a 62.04 ab 61.1 b
15th December 56.96 ab 61.38 abc 59.17 bc
1st January 56.06 b 61.06 bc 58.56 c
15th January 55.31 b 59.67 c 57.49 d
LSD(0.05) 1.99 2.13 0.96
Nitrogen Levels
75 kg ha-1 55.32 c 60.16 b 57.74 c
100 kg ha-1 56.38 bc 60.44 b 58.41 c
125 kg ha-1 57.84 ab 61.86 ab 59.85 b
150 kg ha-1 58.65 a 63.57 a 61.11 a
LSD(0.05) 1.78 1.90 0.85
Year 57.04 b 61.51 a 59.26
Interactions
D × N ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
78
Likewise, minimum plant height of 57.74 cm was recorded when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75
Kg ha-1 and was found to increase with increases in nitrogen level. Maximum plant height was noted in
above optimal nitrogen of 150 kg ha-1 application treatment. These results are in conformity with the
finding of Vachhani and Patel (1993) that plant height, number of leavesplant-1, bulb weight, size and
onion yield were maximum with the application of 150 kg N ha-1 while Pandey and Ekpo (1991)
reported that application rate of 160 kg N ha-1 produced maximum plant height of 63.9 cm. Abdissa et
al, (2011) stated that increase in height could be attributed
to its involvement in the synthesis of amino acids, as they link together and form proteins and make up
metabolic processes needed for plant growth.
The correlation coefficient Table 37 revealed that plant height has significant positive correlation with
number of leaves per plant (0.158), bulb diameter (0.310), bulb weight (0.316) non-significant but
positive correlation with bolting percentage (0.064), Stem thickness (0.116), total yield ton/ha (0.054)
and marketable yield (0.089) while its interaction with percent cull was non-significant and negative (-
0.140). Sharma et al (2015) found positive association of plant height with number of leaves/plant, bulb
diameter, bulb weight and total yield ton ha-1.
Number of Leaves Plant-1
Data pertaining to number of leaves per plant in 2014 and 2015 and its mean has been summarized in
Table 29. Different transplanting dates and nitrogen level significantly (p < 0.05) influenced number of
leaves per plant. Year effect on number of leaves per plant was found non-significant. Maximum
number of leaves per plant of 12.46 were recorded in 15th November transplanting and minimum
number of leaves per plant of 10.05 were produced when transplanting was delayed for about two
months on 15thJanuary. Cramer (2003) observed that earlier sowing produced larger plants with more
leaves compared to later seeding in a growing season. Sawant et al., (2002) found that plant height and
the number of leaves have significantly affected by sowing dates. On the other hand, Bosekeng and
Coetzer (2013) stated that sowing date did not influence plant height and leaf number significantly over
a period of two years, however, early sowing dates in one year resulted in maximum plant height.
Similarly, minimum number of leaves per plant were noted when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75
Kg ha-1 and maximum number of leaves per plant were found in 150 Kg ha-1 nitrogen application
treatment. According to the findings of Vachhani and Patel (1993) plant height, number of leaves plant-
1, bulb weight, size and onion yield were highest with the application of 150 kg N ha-1. Bungard et al,
(1999) argued that nitrogen is a constituent of
79
Table 29: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on the number of leaves plant-1 during 2014 and
2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 12.37 a 12.55 a 12.46 a
30th December 12.31 a 12.52 a 12.41 a
15th December 11.47 ab 11.51 ab 11.49 b
1st January 10.81 bc 10.95 bc 10.88 c
15th January 10.08 c 10.02 c 10.05 d
LSD(0.05) 1.11 1.32 0.54
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 11.48 a 11.26 a 11.37 b
100 kg ha-1 11.16 a 10.99 a 11.08 b
125 kg ha-1 11.03 a 11.75 a 11.39 b
150 kg ha-1 11.96 a 12.03 a 12.00 a
LSD(0.05) 0.99 1.18 0.42
Year 11.39 11.51 11.45
Interactions
D × N ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
many fundamental cell components and it plays an essential role in all living tissues of the plant. No
other element has such an effect on promoting vigorous plant growth. Abdissa et al., (2011) claimed
that N fertilizer significantly affect number of leaves per plant in onion. They reported about 8% increase
in number of leaves over check when 92 kg N ha-1 was added. The results of Nasreen et al, (2007)
showed that application of 120 kg nitrogen ha-1 significantly increased the number of leaves per plant
and further addition of N to 160 kg ha-1 inclined to decrease it. The interactions of D × N, Y × N, Y × D
and Y × D × N all were found non-significant.
Stem Thickness (mm)
It is obvious from Table 30 that maximum stem diameter of 17.37 mm were produced in 15th November
transplanting while minimum stem diameter of 15.31 mm produced when transplanting was delayed to
15th January. Muhammad et al., (2016) also reported that early transplanting resulted thick neck of bulbs.
80
Table 30: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on stem thickness (cm) year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 16.87 a 17.83 a 17.37 a
30th December 16.62 a 17.73 a 17.18 ab
15th December 16.03 ab 17.11 ab 16.57 bc
1st January 15.64 ab 16.52 bc 16.08 c
15th January 14.87 b 15.74 c 15.31 d
LSD(0.05) 1.44 1.19 0.74
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 14.96 b 16.74 a 15.85 b
100 kg ha-1 15.98 ab 16.83 a 16.41 b
125 kg ha-1 16.00 ab 17.03 a 16.51 b
150 kg ha-1 17.60 a 17.38 a 17.23 a
LSD(0.05) 1.29 1.06 0.66
Year 15.94 17.00 16.47
Interactions
D × N ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
Pandy et al., (1992) found that neck thickness problem was more in early (June) sowing onion. Results
of this study also confirm the finding of Boyhan et al., (2009) that early transplanting reduces the bulb
quality by producing thick neck bulbs. In the same way minimum stem thickness of 15.85 mm were
recorded when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75 Kg ha-1 while 150 kg ha-1 nitrogen application
produced the thickest stem of 17.23 mm plants. Stem thickness over the year were found non-
significant. All the interactions for stem thickness were found non-significant. Similar results were
reported by Jilani (2004) and Muhammad et al., (2016) that increasing nitrogen fertilizer increasing
neck thickness. As neck develop from the base of the leaves and early transplanted produce more and
larger leaves compared to later transplanting. Thus, early transplanting produce thick neck.
81
Bulb Diameter (mm)
It is clear from the data (Table 31) that maximum bulb diameter of 69.45 mm was recorded in early
transplanting 15th November whereas minimum bulb diameter of 55.68 mm was noted when
transplanting was delayed to 15th January. According to Bosekeng and Coetzer (2013) bulb diameter
was significantly influenced by both cultivar
Table 9: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on bulb diameter (mm) in year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 65.11 a 73.79 a 69.45 a
30th December 64.53 a 72.16 a 68.34 b
15th December 60.36 b 68.93 b 64.65 c
1st January 55.61 c 65.03 c 60.31 d
15th January 51.17 d 60.19 d 55.68 e
LSD(0.05) 3.62 4.65 1.08
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 54.70 c 64.27 d 59.38 d
100 kg ha-1 57.65 bc 67.00 c 62.46 c
125 kg ha-1 60.37 b 68.53 b 64.51 b
150 kg ha-1 64.72 a 72.07 a 68.40 a
LSD(0.05) 0.79 1.34 0.96
Year 59.36 a 68.02 a 63.55
Interactions
D × N ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
and sowing date and earlier sown crop produced the largest bulbs. Sawant et al., (2002) reported that
early planting produced maximum polar and equatorial diameter and hence, produced large size bulbs.
An ascending trend was observed in bulb diameter when the level of nitrogen were increased. Minimum
bulb diameter of 59.38 mm was recorded when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75 Kg ha-1and the
diameter increased to 68.40 cm when the level of nitrogen was increased to 150 kg ha-1. Bulb diameter
between the years was non-significant. Bulb diameter is a main character that predicts its marketability
and usage of crop. Variations in bulb diameter are mostly due to variation in the genetic makeup of
82
varieties but is also affected by environment and management practices (Yang et al., 2004). Onion bulb
size can be increased by application of nitrogen during the growing period (Rice et al., 1993). Results
of a field experiment of Abdissa et al., (2011) showed that regardless of the rate of application, nitrogen
fertilization increased bulb diameter and average bulb weight by about 12 and 21.5%, respectively over
the control. According to their findings nitrogen fertilization significantly increased bulb diameter
without affecting bulb length. nitrogen application up to 120 kg ha1 increase bulb diameter (Nasreen et
al., 2007; Yadav et al., 2003). Bulb length, however, reported to increase with increased in nitrogen
fertilization (Yadav et al., 2003; Reddy et al., 2005).
The interactions of transplanting dates × N level, year × N level, year × Transplanting dates and year ×
Transplanting dates × N level all were found non-significant.
Bulb Weight (g)
Transplanting dates and nitrogen levels significantly (p < 0.05) affected bulb diameter and weight in
both years. Small difference in the weather elements (Fig 2 and 3). resulted no significant difference
over the two growing seasons (Table 32). It is understandable from the table that early transplanting on
15th November produced maximum bulb weight of 206.17 g whereas 15th January transplanting formed
minimum bulb weight of 166.04 g. More than 80 % of the bulb dry matter is added during the first few
weeks from the start of the bulb formation. The final size of the bulb, however, is closely related to the
size of the plant when it starts bulbing. So anything that affects how large a plant is before bulbing affects
the bulb size and yield after bulbing. In this study early transplanting and increase in the levels of
nitrogen fertilizer produced large size plants at bulbing and hence, resulted maximum bulb diameter and
weight at maturity. .Temperature, irrigation, nutrition, weeds and pest control and environmental factors
also contribute to bulb diameter and weight. Plants gained more height with more numbers of leave and
produced bigger size bulbs because of high temperature in 2014-15 than 2013-14. Sawant et al., (2002)
reported that early planting produced maximum polar and equatorial diameter and hence, produced
large size bulbs. Bosekeng and Coetzer, (2013) reported that delayed sowing significantly decreased
average bulb fresh mass while early sown plant produced the largest bulbs. Correspondingly, minimum
bulb diameter of 177.33 g was observed when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75 Kgha-1 and
maximum bulb weight of 203.60 g was recorded when nitrogen level was increased to 150 kg ha-1. All
the interactions for bulb weight were non-significant at 5% level of probability. Bulb weight is a key
parameter that adds towards the final yield and also determines the suitability of an onion variety for
salad purpose. Abdissa et al., (2011) reported that nitrogen fertilizer significantly increased bulb weight.
Increase in nitrogen fertilizer up to 69 kg nitrogen ha-1 increased bulb weight by about 26% while further
83
increase did not resulted increase in bulb weight (Abdissa et al., 2011). From the result they concluded
that increase in bulb weight to nitrogen could be attributed
Table 310: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on bulb weight (g) in year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 203.75 a 208.58 a 206.17 a
30th December 197.08 ab 200.67 ab 198.88 b
15th December 185.50 bc 189.42 bc 187.46 c
1st January 174.83 c 188.58 bc 181.71 c
15th January 158.00 d 174.08 c 166.04 d
LSD(0.05) 14.94 18.72 7.26
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 172.00 c 182.67 b 177.33 c
100 kg ha-1 177.87 bc 183.13 b 180.50 c
125 kg ha-1 188.73 ab 192.80 b 190.77 b
150 kg ha-1 196.73 a 210.47 a 203.60 a
LSD(0.05) 5.12 12.17 6.49
Year 183.83 192.27 188.05
Interactions
D × N ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
to the increase in plant height, number of leaves, leaf length, and extended physiological maturity in
response to the fertilization all might have increased assimilate production and allocation to the bulbs.
Increase in the levels of the nitrogen caused a linear increase in fresh mass of the bulbs (Resende et al.,
2014).
Bolting Percentage
Bolting is untimely inflorescence development in onion seeded / transplanted for bulbs departing from
normal life cycle.
Transplanting dates and nitrogen levels significantly (p < 0.05) affected bolting percentage during both
years (Table 33). Though year effect was not significant yet, bolting percentage was higher in 2013-
14 because low winter temperature than 2014-15. It is evident from the results that maximum
84
bolting percentage of 53.92 was recorded in early transplanting on 15th November followed by 50.54 %
on 1st December transplanting. Premature seed stalk development was not observed in 15th January
transplanting. Madisa (1994) reported that onion plants sown late did not bolt because when low
temperatures responsible for bolting prevailed, the plants were still small and had not yet reached
reproductive stage. Agic et al., (2007) found that bolting was enhanced by early sowing while cultivars
differs in bolting tendency in their study. When seedlings are transplanted early, the onion plants will
grasp the sensitive size for bulbing when temperature are still low, the plants will bolt instead of making
bulbs. Both cultivar and environment influence the phenomenon of bolting and, thus, it is challenging
to give the exact date for transplanting to reduce bolting and increase yield at the same time (Cramer,
2003). Sowing should be adjusted in such a way to minimize plants exposure to cold spell at sensitive
plant size to avoid bolting. (Khokharet al., 2007b, Cramer, 2003). Sowing dates are, therefore, important
factor that needs to be considered while avoiding bolting.
Table 33: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on bolting percentage in year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 54.25 a 53.58 a 53.92 a
30th December 51.41 a 49.67 a 50.54 b
15th December 31.83 b 24.75 b 28.29 c
1st January 20.75 c 16.08 c 18.42 d
15th January 00.00 d 00.00 d 00.00 e
LSD(0.05) 4.52 4.08 2.91
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 47.47 a 43.40 a 45.43 a
100 kg ha-1 33.07 b 33.07 b 33.07 b
125 kg ha-1 27.33 c 23.73 c 25.53 c
150 kg ha-1 18.73 d 15.07 d 16.90 d
LSD(0.05) 4.04 3.65 2.60
Year 31.65 28.81
Interactions
D × N * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
85
Likewise, bolting percentage was maximum 45.43% when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75 Kgha-
1 and decreased as the level of nitrogen increased and was minimum 16.90% when nitrogen was given
at the rate of 150 kgha-1. Thus bolting percentage was decreased 28.53% when nitrogen application was
increased from 75-150 kg ha-1.Bolting percentage between the years was non-significant. Rabinowitch
(1990) termed onion as nitro-neutral plant whose flowering time is unaffected by nitrogen. A few
studies, however, indicates that nitrogen affect the
flowering process in onion (Brewester, 1983; Peterson, 1984). Brewester (1983) found that low nitrogen
in nutrient solution speeded up flowering. Low carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C/N) favors vegetative growth
and high C/N ratio favors reproductive growth in horticultural plants (Dennis, 1984; Díaz-Pérez et al.,
2003). The C/N ratio determines whether onion plants to be vegetative or initiate flowering
(Rabinowitch, 1990). Díaz-Pérez et al., (2003) found that bulb N content increased with increasing
nitrogen fertilizer and bolting decreased steadily with increasing bulb and shoot N contents. Nitrogen
fertilizer modify plant’s C/N ratio. Increasing N fertilizer rates likely decrease C/N ratio and decrease
the bolting incidence. Appropriate nitrogen fertilizer at the time when onion plant at the transition stage
from vegetative to reproduction stage is very important. Application of second dose of N fertilizer
should be applied just before the onset of bulbing to lower C/N ratio and avoid bolting.
Figure 18: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and nitrogen fertilizer for bolting percentage.
Abdissa et al., (2011) reported that percentage of bolters per plot decreased by about 11 and 22% in
response to the application of 69 and 92 kg nitrogen ha-1, respectively over the control. According to the
findings of Yamasaki and Tanaka (2005) low nitrogen enhanced bolting in bunching onion (Allium
fistulosum L.) exposed to low temperature for 35 days. Díaz-Pérez et al., (2003) suggested that low
nitrogen fertilizer application increased bolting and reported that bolting incidence decrease steadily
with increase nitrogen fertilization rates up 197 kg.ha1.
73
66
.5
59
.67
59
.33
51
.67
50
48
.17
36
35
.17
28
.33
26
18
.5
18
14
.67
11
8.6
7
0 0 0 0
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
N1 N1 N2 N2 N1 N3 N3 N1 N4 N2 N4 N3 N2 N4 N3 N4 N1 N2 N3 N4
D1 D2 D2 D1 D3 D2 D1 D4 D1 D3 D2 D3 D4 D3 D4 D4 D5 D5 D5 D5
% B
olt
ing
Nitrogen level & Transplanting dates
86
All the interactions except transplanting dates and nitrogen were found non-significant. It is evident
from the interaction of transplanting dates and nitrogen (Figure 17) that maximum bolting percentage
was in D1 × N1 (73.0) followed by (66.5) in D2 × N1. Minimum bolting percentage of 8.67 was recorded
in D4 × N4. No bolting was observed when transplanting was delayed to 15th January irrespective of the
nitrogen level applied.
Days to Maturity/Harvesting
Data concerning to physiological maturity/harvesting is depicted in Table 34. Days to harvesting
between the two growing seasons were non-significant at 5% level of probability. The interactions were
found non-significant. Both transplanting dates and nitrogen levels significantly influenced days to
maturity. In this study early transplanting on 15th November took 12.13 more days than almost 2 month
late transplanting on 15th January treatment. However, maturity was earlier in early transplanting.
Table 34: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on days to maturity in year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Dates
15th November 174.17 a 177.58 a 175.88 a
30th December 171.58 a 175.58 ab 173.58 b
15th December 169.00 ab 172.50 abc 170.75 c
1st January 164.75 bc 169.75 bc 167.25 d
15th January 161.17 c 166.33 c 163.75 e
LSD(0.05) 6.61 6.46 1.27
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 163.87 b 167.67 b 165.77 d
100 kg ha-1 167.27 ab 172.13 ab 169.70 c
125 kg ha-1 169.60 ab 172.87 ab 171.23 b
150 kg ha-1 171.80 a 176.73 a 174.27 a
LSD(0.05) 5.91 5.77 1.14
Year 168.13 a 172.35 a 170.24
Interactions
D × N ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
87
According to Salter and James (1975) early sown plant resulted in earlier bulb maturity while later
seeded crop resulted in later maturity of the crop (Almanza-Sandoval and Wall, 2000). Cramer in (2003)
also reported delay in maturity with delay in seeding dates. Minimum days 165.77 to maturity were recorded
when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75 Kg/ha-1 and the maturity was prolonged for 8.5 days when the rate of
nitrogen was increased from 75 Kg ha-1 to 150 kg ha-1. Abdissa et al., (2011) found that N fertilization, regardless
of the rate, prolonged physiological maturity by about 6 days over the control.
Yield (ton ha-1)
Statistical analysis of the data relating to yield ton ha-1 (Table 35) revealed that transplanting dates and
nitrogen levels significantly (p<0.05) affected yield ton ha-1 in 2014 and 2015. The yield in 2014-15,
though, non-significant was little higher than yield in 2013-14. Because of high air temperature in 2014-
15, plants were taller with more number of leaves that produce large bulbs and more yield.. All the
interaction for yield ton ha-1 were found non-significant at 5% level of probability.
Table 35: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on total yield (ton ha-1) in year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 36.45 a 39.17 a 37.81
30th December 34.89 a 38.00 a 36.45
15th December 29.74 b 31.79 b 30.77
1st January 23.40 c 26.38 c 24.89
15th January 18.19 d 20.25 d 19.22
LSD(0.05) 2.75 2.86 1.46
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 23.46 d 25.33 c 24.39 d
100 kg ha-1 26.89 c 29.47 b 28.18 c
125 kg ha-1 29.94 b 31.67 b 30.80 b
150 kg ha-1 33.85 a 38.00 a 35.92 a
LSD(0.05) 2.46 2.56 1.30
Year 28.53 a 31.12 a 29.83
Interactions
D × N ns ns ns
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
88
Maximum yield of 37.81 ton ha-1 was produced by early transplanting on 15th November. Late
transplanting on 15th January produce minimum yield of 19.22 tonha-1. Similar results has been reported
by Patil et al., (2012) that early transplanting (15th November) of onion significantly produce maximum
yield. They recorded a yield of 37.5 ton ha-1in second season when transplanted on 15th November,
while lowest yield of 14.3 ton ha-1in first season when transplanted on 15th January. In the same way
low nitrogen level at the rate of 75 Kgha-1 produce minimum yield of 24.39 ton ha-1and maximum yield
of 35.92 ton ha-1 was recorded when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 150 kg ha-1. According to the
findings of Vachhani and Patel (1993) plant height, number of leavesplant-1, bulb weight, size and onion
yield were highest with the application of 150 kg N ha-1. Total and marketable yield increased by about
5.74 and 4.06 ton respectively at the application of nitrogen at the rate of 69 kg ha-1. Cizauskas et al., (2003) also
reported somewhat similar results that application of 60 kg N ha-1 gave highest bulb yield of onion. Different
researcher at different times reported increase in bulb yield in response to nitrogen fertilization (Singh et al., 1989;
Patel and Patel, 1990; Pandey and Ekpo, 1991; Vachhani and Patel, 1993b; Patel and Vachhani, 1994).
Percentages of Cull
Cull is split, double, diseased and bolters which is culled and discarded from marketable product. Data
relating to % cull has shown in Table 36. It is clear from the table that transplanting date and N level
significantly (p<0.05) influenced % cull while it remained non-significant between the years. Maximum
cull of 55.71% was recorded in early transplanting on 15th November and minimum produce 12.80%
went to cull in late transplanting on 15th January. Farmers in Malakand division tend to transplant early
in November to capture early market. This practice increased the incidence of bolting and that make the
bulbs unmarketable. Kandil et al., (2013) found maximum total culls were resulted from early
transplanting date (15th November) in both seasons. In this study yield loss in early transplanting was
due to bolting which decrease with delay in transplanting. In very late transplanting very small bubs
contributed to percent cull. Poor crop management and environmental factors also play a part in
unmarketable produce. Bolting incidence was higher in 2013-14 because low winter temperature
than 2014-15.
89
Table 36: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on percent cull in year 2014 and 2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 56.68 a 54.73 a 55.71 a
30th December 45.97 b 44.06 b 45.01 b
15th December 33.92 c 30.43 c 32.18 c
1st January 21.25 d 17.77 d 19.51 d
15th January 13.35 e 12.26 d 12.80 e
LSD(0.05) 5.73 5.85 2.33
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 55.30 a 48.39 a 51.85 a
100 kg ha-1 35.96 b 33.09 b 34.52 b
125 kg ha-1 25.34 c 27.91 b 26.63 c
150 kg ha-1 20.34 c 18.01 c 19.18 d
LSD(0.05) 5.12 5.23 2.08
Year 34.24 a 31.85 a 33.04
Interactions
D × N * * *
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - *
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
The nitrogen application at the rate of 75 Kg ha-1 contributed maximum to percent cull and percent cull
was minimum when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 150 kg ha-1. Similar results has been reported
by Jilani et al., (2004) that % cull was maximum at control treatment while minimum when nitrogen
was applied at the rate of 160 kg ha–1. Díaz-Pérez (2003) reported that loss in marketable yield was a
combination of bolting and bulb decay and was minimum at 162 kg N application ha–1. In this study %
cull in low nitrogen application is due to bolting while in higher nitrogen application is due to bulb
decay. This confirm the finding of Díaz-Pérez (2003) who stated that yield losses at minimum nitrogen
rate was due to bolting while at higher nitrogen rate it was due to bulb decay.
All the interactions except D × N and Y × N were found non-significant. Significant interaction of D ×
N and Y × N has been shown in Figure 18 and 19 respectively.
90
Figure 19: mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and nitrogen level for percentage of cull.
It is concluded from the Figure18 that maximum % cull (79%) has been recorded in D1N1 followed by
D2N1 (66.71%) combination. Minimum produce went to cull in D5N4 combination. Interaction of Y ×
N (Figure 19) showed that maximum produce were culled in Y2N1 (55.3 %) followed by Y1N1 (48.4
%) while minimum (18.0 %) in Y1N4 combination.
The correlation coefficient Table 37 showed that % cull has strong positive correlation with bolting
percentage (0.475) and significantly negative correlation with marketable yield ton/ha (-0.738). Thus,
bolters as occurred in early transplanting and in low N application contributes to cull and as the bolting
increased amount of the cull increased. In late transplanting very small bubs contribute to unmarketable
yield.
Figure 20: Mean data on interaction of year and nitrogen level for percent cull.
79
.58
66
.71
57
.41
57
.05
51
50
.41
37
.49
36
.78
35
.43
30
.22
30
.21
22
.71
19
.18
19
.1
18
.73
14
.8
12
.41
10
.11
9.6
6
7.2
1
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
N1 N1 N2 N1 N2 N3 N3 N1 N4 N2 N4 N3 N2 N1 N4 N2 N3 N3 N4 N4
D1 D2 D1 D3 D2 D1 D2 D4 D1 D3 D2 D3 D4 D5 D3 D5 D4 D5 D4 D5
Per
cen
t C
ull
Nitrogen level & Transplanting dates
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
N1 N2 N3 N4
Per
cen
t C
ull
Nitrogen level
Year 1 Year 2
91
Marketable Yield (ton ha-1)
Data pertaining to marketable yield ton ha-1 affected by transplanting date and nitrogen levels has
presented in Table 37. Statistical analysis of the data revealed that transplanting date and nitrogen levels
significantly influenced marketable yield tonha-1at 5% level of probability. Year as a source of variation
was not significant. The D× N interaction was significant (p<0.05) while the remaining interactions
were found non-significant. Maximum marketable yield of 21.60 ton ha-1 was recorded in D3 i.e., 15th
December followed by 20.82 ton ha-1 in D2 and minimum 16.95 tonha-1 was recorded in late
transplanting treatment D5. Marketable yield increased with increase in nitrogen application and
maximum 28.46 ton ha-1 was produced when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 150 kg ha-1. Minimum
marketable yield 10.34 tonha-1 was recorded when nitrogen was applied at the rate of 75 kgha1. Abdissa
et al.; (2011) found that nitrogen significantly increased total and marketable bulb yield of onion. Total
and marketable yield increased by about 5.74 and 4.06 ton respectively at the application of nitrogen at
the rate of 69 kg ha-1. Muhammad et al., (2016) also reported increase in marketable yield with increase
in N fertilizer. Similar results has also been presented by Maier et al., (1990) that marketable yield was
significantly increased with increase in nitrogen fertilizer. The results of this study are in agreement with
finding of Díaz-Pérez (2003) who reported that total and marketable yield was minimum at low nitrogen
rate 102 kg ha-1 and highest at 146 kg nitrogen ha-1. Nitrogen application beyond 146 kg ha-1 had no
significant effect on either total or marketable yield.
Figure 20: Mean data on interaction of transplanting dates and N level for marketable yield ton/ha.
32
.28
30
.41
29
.02
28
.14
25
.48
23
.57
22
.45
21
.39
20
.11
19
.39
19
.1
18
.45
17
.07
15
.43
15
.31
12
.92
11
.47
10
.41
10
.36
6.5
6
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
N4 N4 N4 N4 N3 N3 N4 N3 N2 N3 N2 N3 N2 N2 N2 N1 N1 N1 N1 N1
D2 D3 D1 D4 D3 D2 D5 D4 D3 D1 D4 D5 D2 D5 D1 D4 D5 D3 D2 D1
Mar
ket
able
yie
ld t
on
ha-1
Transplanting dates & Nirtrogen level
92
Environmental factors also contribute to marketable yield. As bolting incidence and consequently
percent cull was higher in 2013-14 because low winter temperature than 2014-15. This higher
incidence of bolting resulted for lower marketable yield in 2013-14.
The D× N interaction showed that maximum marketable yield was produced by mid transplanting dates
(15th December) and high level of nitrogen application. Early and late transplanting and low nitrogen
application gave low marketable yield. Maximum marketable yield of 32.82 ton ha-1 has been recorded
in D2N4 combination followed by 30.41 ton ha-1 in D3N4 combination, while, minimum of 6.56 tonha-1
was produced by D1N1 combination.
Table 37: Effect of transplanting dates and nitrogen levels on marketable yield ton ha-1 in year 2014 and
2015.
Row Labels 2014 2015 Mean
Transplanting Date
15th November 17.25 bc 17.89 b 17.57 b
30th December 20.23 ab 21.42 ab 20.82 a
15th December 21.23 a 21.97 a 21.60 a
1st January 19.57 ab 21.21 ab 20.39 a
15th January 16.06 c 17.83 b 16.95 b
LSD(0.05) 3.27 3.59 1.51
Rate of N Fertilizer
75 kg ha-1 10.56 d 10.13 d 10.34 d
100 kg ha-1 17.03 c 17.78 c 17.40 c
125 kg ha-1 20.65 b 22.67 b 21.66 b
150 kg ha-1 27.24 a 29.67 a 28.46 a
LSD(0.05) 2.93 3.22 1.35
Year 18.87 20.06 19.47
Interactions
D × N ns ns *
Year × D - - ns
Year × N - - ns
Year × D × N - - ns
D = Transplanting dates N=Nitrogen levels *-significant at P =0.05 ns- non- significant at P =0.05
93
Correlation co-efficient analysis
The correlation coefficient Table 38 revealed that plant height has significant positive correlation with
number of leaves per plant (0.158), bulb diameter (0.310), bulb weight (0.333) total yield tonha-1 (0.279)
and marketable yield (0.264)non-significant but positive correlation with bolting percentage (0.064),
Stem thickness (0.116), while its association with percent cull was significant and negative (-0.186).
Sharma et al(2015) found positive association of plant height with number of leaves plant-1, bulb
diameter, bulb weight and total yield ton ha-1.Singh et al., (2010), Mahanthesh et al., (2008), Aliyu et
al., (2007), Gurjar and Singh, (2006) all presented the same findings.
Number of leaves per plant showed positive correlation with bolting percentage (0.058), bulb diameter
(0.361), bulb weight (0.024), total yield tonha-1 (0.044) and marketable yield tonha-1 (0.095) while its
association with stem thickness (-0.067) and percent cull (-0.193) was negative. Bulb diameter has
positive correlation with bulb weight (0.505) total yield tonha-1 (0.463) and marketable yield tonha-1
(0.420) while its association with percent cull (-0.118) was negative. Bulb diameter has strong and
positive correlation with the total bulb yield of onion signifying that the increased in individual bulb size
is key to maximize onion productivity per unit area (Abdissa et al., 2011).The results of Abdissa et al.,
(2011) showed that mean bulb weight was positively and strongly correlated with bulb length and
diameter suggesting that N fertilization increased bulb weight by improving bulb length and diameter.
Sharma et al., (2015) reported similar results that total yield had positive and significant correlation with
plant height, number of leaves/plant, equatorial diameter of bulb average weight of bulb and marketable
bulb yield. Bolting percentage has positive correlation with stem thickness (0.149) bulb diameter
(0.092), yield tonha-1 (0.172), percent cull (0.417) and negative correlation with bulb weight (-0.038)
marketable yield (-0.118). Total yield ton ha-1has negative correlation (-0.323) with % cull and positive
correlation (0.809) with marketable yield ton ha-1.Percent cull has strong positive correlation with
bolting percentage (0.475) and significantly negative correlation with marketable yield tonha-1 (-0.738).
Thus, bolters as occurred in early transplanting and at low N application contributes to cull and as bolting
increased amount of unmarketable yield increased. In late transplanting very small ungraded bubs
contribute to unmarketable yield.
94
Table 38: Phenotypic correlation coefficient among yield and yield related characters in onion.
Plant
Heigh
t
No. of
leaves
plant-1
Bolting
percentage
Stem
Thick
ness
Bulb
Diameter
Bulb
weight
Yield
tons/h
a
Percen
t Cull
Marketabl
e Yield(t/h)
Plant Height 1 0.158 0.064 0.116 0.310* 0.333* 0.279* -0.186* 0.264*
No.of leaves
plant-1
1 0.058 -0.067 0.361* 0.024 0.044
-0.193* 0.095
Bolting
percentage
1 0.149 0.092 -0.038 0.172* 0.417* -0.118
Stem
Thickness
1 0.054 -0.212* -0.143 0.279* -0.232*
Bulb
Diameter
1 0.505* 0.463* -0.188* 0.420*
Bulb weight 1 0.694* -0.410* 0.626*
Yield
tons/ha
1 -0.323* 0.809*
Percent Cull 1
-0.791*
Marketable
Yield
1
Summary conclusios and recommendations
Summary
In experiment no. 3 seedlings were transplanting at five different dates (15th Nov, 1st Dec, 15th Dec, 1st
Jan and 15th Jan) four level of nitrogen fertilizer (75, 100, 125 and 150 kg ha-1) were applied with the
objective to determine its influence on inflorescence development in onion bulb crop. Bolting
percentage decreased gradually with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Maximum bolting
percentage was recorded in early transplanting and declined with delay in transplanting. Bolting
incidence did not occurred in very late, 15th January, transplanting irrespective of the rate of nitrogen
applied. Plant height, stem thickness, bulb diameter and weight and total yield ton ha-1 increased with
increase in nitrogen fertilizer and conversely showed a downward trend with delay in transplanting.
Different rates of nitrogen fertilizer didn’t significantly influenced number of leaves plant-1. However,
early transplanting exhibited significantly more leaves than late transplanting. Early transplanting took
maximum 175.88 days to maturity than late transplanting (163.75) days. Maturity was delayed with
increase in nitrogen fertilizer. Percent cull decreased with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer.
Marketable yield ton ha-1 was maximum at mid transplanting date (15th December) and with maximum
rate of nitrogen fertilizer. The correlation co-efficient analysis revealed that marketable yield ton ha-1
95
has positive correlation with plant height, number of leaves plant-1, bulb diameter, bulb weight, total
yield ton-1 and negative correlation with stem thickness bolting percentage and percent cull. Bolting
percentage has positive association with percent cull.
Conclusions
1. Bolting percentage decreased gradually with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Maximum
bolting percentage was recorded in early transplanting and declined with delay in transplanting.
No bolting was observed in very late, 15th January, transplanting irrespective of the rate of
nitrogen applied. Percent cull decreased with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer.
Marketable yield ton ha-1 was maximum at mid transplanting date, 15th December and with
maximum rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Marketable yield ton ha-1 has positive correlation with plant
height, number of leaves plant-1, bulb diameter, bulb weight, total yield ton ha-1 and negative
correlation with stem thickness, bolting percentage and percent cull.
2. Marketable yield increased from 10.34 to 28.46 ton ha-1 when nitrogen application was
increased from 75 to 150 kg ha-1.
3. Bolting decreased by 28.53% when nitrogen application was increased from 75 to 150 kg ha-1
Recommendations
1. Transplanting should be done from December 15 to January 15 since it will produce maximum
marketable yield with low bolting percentage and minimum cull in the north of West Pakistan.
Very early transplanting increases bolting and very late transplanting produces small bulbs and
low yield.
2. 125-150 Kg nitrogen ha-1 should be applied. Low nitrogen fertilizer increases bolting. Similarly,
avoid over fertilization as it also encourages bulb decay.
3. 90:60:60 Kg ha-1is the common recommendation of NPK for onion here in Pakistan. In current
study 125-150 kg nitrogen ha-1 produced maximum marketable yield and minimum bolting
percentage. Hence, research should be carried out to determine the amount of P and K when N
was increased from 90 Kg ha-1 to 125-150 Kg ha-1.
96
Chapter 6:
OVERALL SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
Premature flower stalk development in onion bulb crop deviating from normal life cycle was called
bolting. Bolting makes the bulbs fibrous, lightweight and thus reduces its quality. Bolting is one of the
major production constraints in all onion growing areas in Pakistan. Three field trials were conducted
with the aim to prevent onion bulb crop from bolting and produce quality onion bulbs.
Study was conducted at Agricultural Research Institute, Mingora, Swat, a picturesque district in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan from November to June 2013-14. Experiments were repeated at the
same location in the next growing season of 2014-15. The experimental site, is 906 m above sea level
located in the Hindu Kush range at 34.3- 35.53° North Latitude and 71.5-72.5° Longitude in the north
of west of Pakistan. Climate is warm temperate. Temperature ranges from 25 to 35 oc. Temperature
drops in winter as low as -4oc with snow and frost. In summer temperature rises sometimes above 40oc.
Average rainfall ranges from 740-1200 mm. Soil is silt loam with pH ranges from 5-5.6.
In the experiment titled “effect of transplanting dates and seedling age on premature bolting in onion
bulb crop” seedlings of 45, 60 and 75 days in nursery were transplanted on 5 different dates (30th
November, 15th December, 30th December, 15th January and 30th January) to study its effect on
premature bolting in onion. Transplanting dates and seedling age exerted significant effect on different
growth and yield parameters studied. Plant height, number of leaves at bolting, stem thickness, days to
maturity, bub diameter, bulb weight and total yield decreased with delay in transplanting as well as
increasing seedling age. On the other hand bolting and cull percentage decrease with delay in
transplanting and increased with increase in seedling age. Maximum marketable yield (tons ha-1) was
recorded when 60 days old seedlings were transplanted on15th December. The correlation co-efficient
analysis data revealed positive correlation between marketable yield (0.671 ton ha-1) and bulb diameter
(0.381). Non- significant positive correlations of marketable yield were recorded with bulb weight
(0.173 gm), number of leaves at bolting (0.097), stem thickness (0.091) and plant height (0.106). The
association of marketable yield with bolting percentage (-0.381) and percent cull (-0.552) was
significantly negative.
In the second study three commercial cultivars ‘Swat-1’, ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’ were
transplanted on five different dates (25th November, 10th December, 25th December, 10th January and
25th January). Apparently none of the cultivars showed resistance to bolting however, they varied in
their susceptibility to bolting. Cultivar Swat-1 took significantly maximum 78.67 days to bolting
97
initiation and recorded minimum bolting percentage 12.51 compared to ‘Saryab Red’13.75 and
‘Chiltan-89’ 17.32. Early transplanting took less 108.06 days to bolting initiation. Bolting percentage
was maximum 34.52 at early transplanting and reduced with delay in transplanting from 25th November
to 25th December. In all cultivars bolting has not been recorded at late, (10th and 25th January)
transplanting irrespective of the cultivar. Compare to ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’, ‘Swat-1’ has
maximum plant height 65.58 cm, number of leaves per plant 10.64, stem thickness 15.43mm, bulb
diameter 60.08 cm, bulb weight169.08 g, and days to maturity 168.37, total and marketable yield 32.94,
25.07 ton ha-1 respectively. Plant height 61.24cm, number of leaves per plant 10.96, stem thickness
17.24 cm, bulb diameter 63.08 cm, bulb weight 149.31g, and days to maturity 167.89, total yield 31.07
ton ha-1 was maximum at early transplanting and decreased with delay in transplanting. Cultivar Swat-
1 produced maximum marketable yield 25.07 ton ha-1than ‘Saryab Red’ and ‘Chiltan-89’. Marketable
yield was maximum at mid transplanting date (25th December); attributed to less bolting compared to
early transplanting. Unmarketable yield at early transplanting was largely due to bolting while at late
transplanting it was due to small ungraded bulbs.
In the third experiment seedlings were transplanting at five different dates (15th Nov, 1st Dec, 15th Dec,
1st Jan and 15th Jan) four level of nitrogen fertilizer (75, 100, 125 and 150 kg ha-1) were applied to onion
bulb with the objective to determine its influence on inflorescence development in onion bulb crop.
Bolting percentage decreased gradually with increase in the rate of Nitrogen fertilizer. Maximum bolting
percentage was recorded in early transplanting and declined with delay in transplanting. Bolting
incidence did not occurred in very late, 15th January, transplanting irrespective of the rate of nitrogen
applied. Plant height, stem thickness, bulb diameter and weight and total yield ton ha-1 increased with
increase in nitrogen fertilizer and conversely showed a downward trend with delay in transplanting.
Different rates of nitrogen fertilizer didn’t significantly influenced number of leaves plant-1. However,
early transplanting exhibited significantly more leaves than late transplanting. Early transplanting took
maximum 175.88 days to maturity than late transplanting (163.75) days. Maturity was delayed with
increase in nitrogen fertilizer. Percent cull decreased with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer.
Marketable yield ton ha-1 was maximum at mid transplanting date (15th December) and with maximum
rate of nitrogen fertilizer. The correlation co-efficient analysis revealed that marketable yield ton ha-1
has positive correlation with plant height, number of leaves plant-1, bulb diameter, bulb weight, total
yield ton-1 and negative correlation with stem thickness bolting percentage and percent cull. Bolting
percentage has positive association with percent cull.
It is challenging to control bolting and increase yield at the same time. Delay transplanting decrease
bolting incidence and yield as well. Bolting resistance cultivars can be planted earlier. Presently, bolting
98
resistant cultivar is not available in this country. Research should be initiated to develop bolting resistant
cultivar or produce resistance in available cultivars through phenotypic recurrent selection.
Transplanting should be delayed in such a way to avoid plants receiving cold temperature at sensitive
stage to minimize bolting. Increasing transplant age at nursery can creased bolting and vice versa.
Likewise, chances of bolting incidence decline with increasing the level of nitrogen fertilizer. Therefore,
correct transplant age (50-60 days) and ample nitrogen fertilizer of 125-150 Kg ha-1also reduced the
incidence of bolting.
Conclusions
1. It is very difficult to give exact date for transplanting to control bolting and increase yield
simultaneously as it is cultivar and environment dependent.
2. A 15 days delay in transplanting from 15th November to 1stDecember caused reduction in
bolting from 53.92% to 33.63 %. A further 15 days delay in transplanting from 30th November
to 15thDecember caused reduction in bolting from 33.63% to 22.83 %. Likewise, 15 days delay
from 15 December to 30th December decreases bolting from 22.83% to 12.41%. Moreover, 15
days delay in transplanting from 30th December to 15th January reduced bolting percentage from
12.41% to 6.57%. Bolting was not observed on 30th January transplanting.
3. Younger seedlings take more days to pass the juvenility and enter the reproductive stage, thus,
more likely to escape the cold temperature responsible for bolting. Older seedlings (more than
60 days) took less days to transition phase and initiate inflorescence development upon exposure
to low temperature.
4. Bolting percentage decreased from 30.81 to 9.86% when age of transplant was reduced from
75 days to 60 days. Bolting incidence further declined from 9.86% to 4.60% when 45 days old
seedlings were transplanted.
5. Marketable yield increased from 10.34 to 28.46 ton ha-1 when nitrogen application was
increased from 75 to 150 kg ha-1.
6. Bolting decreased by 28.53% when N application was increased from 75 to 150 kg ha-1
7. Plant height, number of leaves at bolting, stem thickness, days to maturity, bolting percentage,
bulb diameter, weight and percent cull decreased with delay in transplanting and increasing
seedling age. Early transplanting and older seedling increased the incidence of bolting.
Maximum marketable yield ton ha-1was recorded in mid transplanting date (30th December)
and 60 days old seedlings.
99
8. Cultivar Swat-1 took significantly maximum days to bolting initiation and had minimum
bolting percentage compared to Saryab Red and Chiltan-89. Early transplanting took less days
to bolting initiation. Bolting percentage was maximum at early transplanting and reduced with
delay in transplanting from 25th November to 25th December in all cultivars. Bolting was not
recorded in late transplanting (10th and 25th January) irrespective of the cultivar. Compared to
Saryab Red and Chiltan-89, Cultivars Swat-1 produced maximum marketable yield ton ha-1.
Marketable yield was maximum at mid transplanting date (25th December) attributed to less
bolting and percent cull compared to early transplanting. Unmarketable yield at early
transplanting was largely contributed by bolting while at late transplanting it was due to small
ungraded bulbs.
9. Bolting percentage decreased gradually with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Maximum
bolting percentage was recorded in early transplanting and declined with delay in transplanting.
No bolting was observed in very late, 15th January, transplanting irrespective of the rate of
nitrogen applied. Percent cull decreased with increase in the rate of nitrogen fertilizer.
Marketable yield ton ha-1 was maximum at mid transplanting date, 15th December and with
maximum rate of nitrogen fertilizer. Marketable yield ton ha-1 has positive correlation with plant
height, number of leaves plant-1, bulb diameter, bulb weight, total yield ton ha-1 and negative
correlation with stem thickness, bolting percentage and percent cull.
Recommendations
1. Transplanting should be done from December 15 to January 15 since it will produce maximum
marketable yield with low bolting percentage and minimum cull in the north of West Pakistan.
Very early transplanting increases bolting and very late transplanting produces small bulbs and
low yield.
2. Seedling age also influence the incidence of bolting. Larger plants switched from juvenile stage
to reproductive stage earlier when temperature gets low and start bolting instead of bulbing.
Fifty to sixty days old seedlings gave maximum marketable yield and minimum bolting.
3. 125-150 Kg N ha-1 should be applied. Low nitrogen fertilizer increases bolting. Similarly, avoid
over fertilization as it also encourages bulb decay.
4. 90:60:60 Kg ha-1is the common recommendation of NPK for onion here in Pakistan. In this
research 125-150 kg N ha-1 produced maximum marketable yield and minimum bolting
percentage. Hence, research should be carried out to determine the amount of P and K when N
was increased from 90 Kg ha-1 to 125-150 Kg ha-1.
100
5. Further research should be carried out particularly, in controlled environment to confirm finding
of this research.
6. Bolting resistant variety should be used. Though, there is no bolting resistant variety in Pakistan
‘Swat-1’ has comparatively less bolting incidence among the existing cultivars. Research work
should be initiated to develop bolting resistant variety or produce bolting resistance in existing
cultivars though phenotypic recurrent selection.
101
Chapter 7:
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APPENDICES
Experiment wise ANOVA tables are given below:
Experiment 1: Effects of Sowing dates and seedling age on premature bolting in onion bulb crop.
Appendix 1.1 Analysis of Variance Plant Height.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 87.75 87.754 2.53 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 138.59 34.647
DOS 4 251.77 62.944 9.06 *
AOS 2 232.43 116.216 16.72 *
DOS*AOS 8 2.03 0.254 0.04 ns
Year*DOS 4 5.69 1.423 0.20 ns
Year*AOS 2 59.42 29.712 4.27 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 5.92 0.739 0.11 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*AOS 56 389.22 6.950
Total 89 1172.83
CV (Year*Rep) 10.51,
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 4.71
Appendix 1.2 Analysis of Variance Table for Number of leaves at bolting stage
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 0.069 0.0694 0.26 Ns
Error Year*Rep 4 0.061 0.2653
DOS 4 46.767 11.6917 24.27 *
AOS 2 46.439 23.2194 48.19 *
DOS*AOS 8 1.200 0.1500 0.31 ns
Year*DOS 4 0.153 0.0382 0.08 ns
Year*AOS 2 0.622 0.3111 0.65 ns
Year*DOS*A
OS
8 1.781 0.2226 0.46 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DO
S*AOS
56 26.981 0.4818
Total 89 125.072
CV (Year*Rep) 7.20,
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 9.70
119
Appendix 1.3 Analysis of Variance Table for Leaf Area.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 146.23 146.230 1.37 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 426.75 106.688
DOS 4 2555.54 638.885 12.58 *
AOS 2 128.56 64.280 1.27 ns
DOS*AOS 8 114.53 14.316 0.28 ns
Year*DOS 4 442.76 110.689 2.18 ns
Year*AOS 2 158.05 79.024 1.56 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 179.74 22.467 0.44 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*AOS
56 2843.55 50.778
Total 89 6995.71
CV (Year*Rep) 14.17,
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 9.78
Appendix 1.4 Analysis of Variance Table for Bulb Diameter.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 0.0903 0.0903 0.32 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 1.1405 0.2851
DOS 4 65.9449 16.4862 79.18 *
AOS 2 7.9075 3.9538 18.99 *
DOS*AOS 8 2.4875 0.3109 1.49 ns
Year*DOS 4 0.5223 0.1306 0.63 ns
Year*AOS 2 0.3093 0.1547 0.74 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 0.7348 0.0919 0.44 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*A
OS
56 11.6594 0.2082
Total 89 90.7965
CV (Year*Rep) 9.04
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 7.73
120
Appendix 1.5 Analysis of Variance Table for Days to Physiological Maturity.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 33.6 33.61 0.93 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 144.5 36.12
DOS 4 10416.1 2604.02 98.70 *
AOS 2 70.2 35.10 1.33 ns
DOS*AOS 8 79.5 9.93 0.38 ns
Year*DOS 4 116.6 29.14 1.10 ns
Year*AOS 2 48.8 24.41 0.93 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 106.2 13.27 0.50 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*AOS
56 1477.5 26.38
Total 89 12492.9
CV (Year*Rep) 3.61
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 3.08
Appendix 1.6 Analysis of Variance Table for Stem thickness.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 0.053 0.0532 0.07 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 3.034 0.7585
DOS 4 41.029 10.2573 10.60 *
AOS 2 15.234 7.6168 7.87 *
DOS*AOS 8 8.666 1.0833 1.12 ns
Year*DOS 4 0.047 0.0117 0.01 ns
Year*AOS 2 0.001 0.0004 0.00 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 0.038 0.0048 0.00 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*AOS
56 54.186 0.9676
Total 89 122.288
CV (Year*Rep) 5.31
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 6.00
121
Appendix 1.7 Analysis of Variance Table for Bolting Percentage.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 5.2 5.23 0.23 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 89.9 22.49
DOS 4 12799.2 3199.81 234.30 ns
AOS 2 11540.4 5770.19 422.51 *
DOS*AOS 8 6542.5 817.82 59.88 *
Year*DOS 4 23.6 5.91 0.43 ns
Year*AOS 2 80.5 40.27 2.95 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 161.3 20.16 1.48 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*AOS
56 764.8 13.66
Total 89 32007.6
CV (Year*Rep) 31.41
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 24.48
Appendix 1.8 Analysis of Variance Table for yield ton ha-1.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 100.28 100.28 1.38 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 291.59 72.90
DOS 4 7552.17 1888.04 189.08 *
AOS 2 303.23 151.61 15.18 *
DOS*AOS 8 93.43 11.68 1.17 ns
Year*DOS 4 50.33 12.58 1.26 ns
Year*AOS 2 8.72 4.36 0.44 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 69.00 8.63 0.86 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*AOS
56 559.20 9.99
Total 89 9027.94
CV (Year*Rep) 28.42
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 10.52
122
Appendix 1.12 Analysis of Variance Table for Cull Per ha.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 1.38 1.375 0.22 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 25.06 6.266
DOS 4 1360.38 340.095 220.19 *
AOS 2 374.16 187.080 121.12 *
DOS*AOS 8 258.56 32.321 20.93 *
Year*DOS 4 15.45 3.863 2.50 ns
Year*AOS 2 3.59 1.797 1.16 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 12.16 1.520 0.98 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*AOS
56 86.49 1.545
Total 89 2137.24
CV (Year*Rep) 52.11
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 25.87
Appendix 1.13 Analysis of Variance Table for Marketable Yield ton ha-1.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 64.99 64.994 2.22 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 116.97 29.242
DOS 4 1966.68 491.670 74.03 *
AOS 2 459.07 229.534 34.56 *
DOS*AOS 8 337.18 42.148 6.35 *
Year*DOS 4 6.03 1.508 0.23 ns
Year*AOS 2 8.66 4.329 0.65 ns
Year*DOS*AOS 8 78.07 9.759 1.47 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*AOS
56 371.94 6.642
Total 89 3409.60
CV (Year*Rep) 22.96
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*AOS) 10.94
123
Experiment 2: Bolting in onion bulb crop as influenced by Cultivars and transplanting dates
Appendix 2.1 Analysis of Variance Table for Plant Height.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 326.04 326.04 8.19 *
Error Year*Rep 4 159.25 39.81
VAR 2 2427.16 1213.58 223.89 *
DOS 4 382.87 95.72 17.66 *
VAR*DOS 8 22.18 2.77 0.51 ns
Year*VAR 2 6.51 3.25 0.60 ns
Year*DOS 4 40.54 10.14 1.87 ns
Year*VAR*DOS 8 21.24 2.66 0.49 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 303.55 5.42
Total 89 3689.33
CV (Year*Rep) 10.83
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 4.00
Appendix 2.2 Analysis of Variance Table for Number of Leaves Plant-1.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 10.0668 10.0668 8.87 *
Error Year*Rep 4 4.5404 1.1351
VAR 2 25.0642 12.5321 48.40 *
DOS 4 32.4084 8.1021 31.29 *
VAR*DOS 8 1.7069 0.2134 0.82 ns
Year*VAR 2 0.3496 0.1748 0.68 ns
Year*DOS 4 1.8093 0.4523 1.75 ns
Year*VAR*DOS 8 0.2927 0.0366 0.14 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 14.4996 0.2589
Total 89 90.7379
CV (Year*Rep) 10.63
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 5.08
124
Appendix 2.4 Analysis of Variance Table for Days to Physical Maturity.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 518.40 518.400 6.75 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 307.02 76.756
VAR 2 1974.96 987.478 296.81 *
DOS 4 1309.07 327.267 98.37 *
VAR*DOS 8 20.60 2.575 0.77 ns
Year*VAR 2 20.07 10.033 3.02 ns
Year*DOS 4 8.49 2.122 0.64 ns
Year*VAR*DOS 8 13.71 1.714 0.52 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 186.31 3.327
Total 89 4358.62
Grand Mean 162.76, CV (Year*Rep) 5.38, CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 1.12
Appendix 2.5 Analysis of Variance Table for Days to bolting initiation.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 490 490.0 16.11 *
Error Year*Rep 4 122 30.4
VAR 2 6321 3160.6 329.20 *
DOS 4 274228 68557.0 7140.76 *
VAR*DOS 8 4404 550.5 57.34 *
Year*VAR 2 3 1.7 0.18 ns
Year*DOS 4 332 83.0 8.65 *
Year*VAR*DOS 8 178 22.2 2.31 *
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 538 9.6
Total 89 286616
Grand Mean 67.512,
CV (Year*Rep) 8.17,
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 4.59
125
Appendix 2.6 Analysis of Variance Table for Stem thickness.
Source D
F
SS MS F P
Year 1 8.513 8.5131 15.64 *
Error Year*Rep 4 2.178 0.5445
VAR 2 8.515 4.2574 15.68 *
DOS 4 98.863 24.7157 91.05 *
VAR*DOS 8 2.066 0.2582 0.95 ns
Year*VAR 2 0.405 0.2024 0.75 ns
Year*DOS 4 1.042 0.2606 0.96 ns
Year*VAR*DOS 8 0.961 0.1202 0.44 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 15.201 0.2714
Total 89 137.744
CV (Year*Rep) 4.65
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 3.28
Appendix 2.7 Analysis of Variance Table for Bolting Percentage.
Source D
F
SS MS F P
Year 1 17.1 17.12 0.91 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 75.5 18.88
VAR 2 374.4 187.21 21.93 *
DOS 4 16188.9 4047.21 474.13 *
VAR*DOS 8 393.2 49.16 5.76 *
Year*VAR 2 0.2 0.11 0.01 ns
Year*DOS 4 94.6 23.66 2.77 *
Year*VAR*DOS 8 6.6 0.83 0.10 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 478.0 8.54
Total 89 17628.6
CV (Year*Rep) 29.91
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 20.11
126
Appendix 2.8 Analysis of Variance Table for Bulb Diameter.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 198.0 198.00 0.45 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 1762.5 440.63
VAR 2 4852.8 2426.41 219.68 *
DOS 4 8353.2 2088.31 189.07 *
VAR*DOS 8 308.5 38.57 3.49 *
Year*VAR 2 10.7 5.35 0.48 ns
Year*DOS 4 19.4 4.86 0.44 ns
Year*VAR*DOS 8 41.1 5.14 0.47 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 618.5 11.05
Total 89 16164.9
CV (Year*Rep) 41.96
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 6.64
Appendix 2.9 Analysis of Variance Table for Bulb Weight.
Source D
F
SS MS F P
Year 1 537.045 537.0 2.49 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 862.725 215.7
VAR 2 125918 62959.1 740.80 *
DOS 4 53613.3 13403.3 157.71 *
VAR*DOS 8 15070.8 1883.8 22.17 *
Year*VAR 2 0.40372 0.2 0.00 ns
Year*DOS 4 35.7016 8.9 0.11 ns
Year*VAR*DOS 8 48.3554 6.0 0.07 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 4759.34 85.0
Total 89 200846
CV (Year*Rep) 12.53
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 7.87
127
Appendix 2.10 Analysis of Variance Table for yield ton ha-1.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 93.23 93.23 2.91 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 127.97 31.99
VAR 2 2638.11 1319.06 248.57 *
DOS 4 1778.21 444.55 83.77 *
VAR*DOS 8 95.94 11.99 2.26 *
Year*VAR 2 3.63 1.82 0.34 ns
Year*DOS 4 56.19 14.05 2.65 ns
Year*VAR*DOS 8 17.41 2.18 0.41 ns
Error
Year*Rep*VAR*DOS
56 297.17 5.31
Total 89 5107.87
CV (Year*Rep) 22.06
CV (Year*Rep*VAR*DOS) 8.99
Experiment 3: Flowering initiation in onion bulb crop as influenced by transplanting dates and nitrogen
fertilizer
Appendix 3.1 Analysis of Variance Table for Plant height.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 597.19 597.194 8.32 *
Error Year*Rep 4 287.10 71.775
DOS 4 183.61 45.901 16.44 *
N 3 203.70 67.902 24.32 *
DOS*N 12 20.02 1.669 0.60 ns
Year*DOS 4 3.94 0.984 0.35 ns
Year*N 3 5.30 1.767 0.63 ns
Year*DOS*N 12 13.36 1.113 0.40 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*N
76 212.20 2.792
Total 119 1526.42
CV (Year*Rep) 14.29
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*N) 2.82
128
Appendix 3.2 Analysis of Variance Table for Number of Leaves Plant-1.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 0.305 0.3050 0.01 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 106.475 26.6188
DOS 4 101.509 25.3773 28.64 *
N 3 13.353 4.4511 5.02 *
DOS*N 12 1.534 0.1278 0.14 ns
Year*DOS 4 0.297 0.0743 0.08 ns
Year* N 3 4.325 1.4418 1.63 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 1.858 0.1548 0.17 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 67.350 0.8862
Total 119 297.006
CV (Year*Rep) 45.02
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*N) 8.21
Appendix 3.3 Analysis of Variance Table for Leaf Area.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 265.19 265.192 2.75 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 386.15 96.538
DOS 4 488.90 122.225 44.01 *
N 3 208.09 69.362 24.98 *
DOS* N 12 38.93 3.244 1.17 ns
Year*DOS 4 16.17 4.041 1.46 ns
Year* N 3 20.67 6.891 2.48 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 18.64 1.553 0.56 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 211.06 2.777
Total 119 1653.80
CV (Year*Rep) 14.11
CV (Year*Rep*DOS* N) 2.39
129
Appendix 3.4 Analysis of Variance Table for Stem Thickness.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 29.512 29.5120 1.46 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 80.766 20.1914
DOS 4 67.946 16.9864 10.23 *
N 3 28.546 9.5154 5.73 *
DOS* N 12 1.962 0.1635 0.10 ns
Year*DOS 4 0.308 0.0769 0.05 ns
Year* N 3 8.147 2.7156 1.64 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 1.827 0.1523 0.09 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 126.157 1.6600
Total 119 345.170
CV (Year*Rep) 27.23
CV (Year*Rep*DOS* N) 7.81
Appendix 3.5 Analysis of Variance Table for Days to Maturity.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 533.41 533.41 0.46 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 4644.33 1161.08
DOS 4 2262.03 565.51 115.22 *
N 3 1125.09 375.03 76.41 *
DOS*N 12 28.37 2.36 0.48 ns
Year*DOS 4 16.30 4.08 0.83 ns
Year* N 3 15.09 5.03 1.02 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 28.37 2.36 0.48 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 373.00 4.91
Total 119 9025.99
CV (Year*Rep) 20.02
CV (Year*Rep*DOS* N) 1.30
130
Appendix 3.6 Analysis of Variance Table for Bulb Diameter.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 2249.87 2249.87 5.08 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 1772.62 443.15
DOS 4 3151.44 787.86 222.66 *
N 3 1287.83 429.28 121.32 *
DOS* N 12 29.79 2.48 0.70 ns
Year*DOS 4 10.68 2.67 0.75 ns
Year* N 3 24.61 8.20 2.32 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 35.80 2.98 0.84 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 268.92 3.54
Total 119 8831.57
CV (Year*Rep) 33.05
CV (Year*Rep*DOS* N) 2.95
Appendix 3.7 Analysis of Variance Table for Bulb Weight.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 2133.6 2133.63 0.40 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 21602.5 5400.62
DOS 4 23287.9 5821.97 36.49 *
N 3 12631.0 4210.32 26.39 *
DOS*N 12 2340.5 195.04 1.22 ns
Year*DOS 4 862.0 215.51 1.35 ns
Year* N 3 466.3 155.43 0.97 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 2019.7 168.31 1.06 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 12124.2 159.53
Total 119 77467.7
CV (Year*Rep) 39.08
CV (Year*Rep*DOS* N) 6.72
131
Appendix 3.8 Analysis of Variance Table for Bolting Percentage.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 240.8 240.8 4.05 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 238.0 59.5
DOS 4 48738.9 12184.7 476.20 *
N 3 13168.1 4389.4 171.54 *
DOS*N 12 4867.8 405.7 15.85 *
Year*DOS 4 211.9 53.0 2.07 ns
Year* N 3 81.2 27.1 1.06 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 344.0 28.7 1.12 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 1944.6 25.6
Total 119 69835.5
CV (Year*Rep) 25.52
CV (Year*Rep*DOS* N) 16.73
Appendix 3.9 Analysis of Variance Table for Yield ton ha-1
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 200.08 200.08 1.83 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 437.84 109.46
DOS 4 5885.99 1471.50 229.27 *
N 3 2110.13 703.38 109.59 *
DOS*N 12 53.73 4.48 0.70 ns
Year*DOS 4 6.05 1.51 0.24 ns
Year* N 3 27.74 9.25 1.44 ns
Year*DOS* N 12 16.90 1.41 0.22 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*
N
76 487.79 6.42
Total 119 9226.24
CV (Year*Rep) 35.08
CV (Year*Rep*DOS* N) 8.49
132
Appendix 3.10 Analysis of Variance Table for Percent Cull.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 170.6 170.57 0.25 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 2697.0 674.25
DOS 4 30013.2 7503.31 456.20 *
N 3 17674.1 5891.36 358.19 *
DOS*N 12 2741.6 228.47 13.89 *
Year*DOS 4 27.2 6.79 0.41 ns
Year*N 3 338.9 112.96 6.87 *
Year*DOS*N 12 108.9 9.08 0.55 ns
Error
Year*Rep*DOS*N
76 1250.0 16.45
Total 119 55021.5
CV (Year*Rep) 78.58
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*N) 12.27
Appendix 3.11 Analysis of Variance Table for Marketable Yield ton ha-1.
Source DF SS MS F P
Year 1 42.64 42.64 0.20 ns
Error Year*Rep 4 865.34 216.33
DOS 4 412.55 103.14 14.97 *
N 3 5194.66 1731.55 251.27 *
DOS*N 12 365.23 30.44 4.42 *
Year*DOS 4 6.22 1.56 0.23 ns
Year*N 3 37.84 12.61 1.83 ns
Year*DOS*N 12 20.88 1.74 0.25 ns
Error Year*Rep*DOS*N 76 523.73 6.89
Total 119 7469.08
CV (Year*Rep) 75.56
CV (Year*Rep*DOS*N) 13.49
135
Figure 24 The author collecting the data
Figure 25 Three seedling ages 45, 60 and 70 days used in the trial
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