rationality, parapsychology, and artificial intelligence
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City University of New York (CUNY) City University of New York (CUNY)
CUNY Academic Works CUNY Academic Works
Theses and Dissertations Hunter College
Fall 12-21-2016
Rationality, Parapsychology, and Artificial Intelligence in Military Rationality, Parapsychology, and Artificial Intelligence in Military
and Intelligence Research by the United States Government in the and Intelligence Research by the United States Government in the
Cold War Cold War
Guy M. LoMeo CUNY Hunter College
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RATIONALITY,PARAPSYCHOLOGY,ANDARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCEINMILITARYANDINTELLIGENCERESEARCHBYTHEUNITEDSTATES
GOVERNMENTINTHECOLDWAR
By
GuyLoMeo
Submittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthedegreeof
MasterofArtsinHistoryofScience,HunterCollegeTheCityUniversityofNewYork
December21,2016
ThesisSponsor:
December21,2016 DanielMargócsyDate Signature
December21,2016 JonathanRosenbergDate SignatureofSecondReader
2
TABLEOFCONTENTS
TableofContents.................................................................................................................................................2ListofFigures........................................................................................................................................................3Chapters
1. IntroductionofThemesandtheHistoryofParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligence...............................................................................................................................................4Section1–ParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceinHistory................................15
2. TheOriginsofState-SponsoredResearchintoParapsychologyandArtificial
IntelligenceintheColdWar..........................................................................................................27Section1–Parapsychology’sOriginsintheEarlyColdWar...........................................34Section2–ComputingResearchInvolvingArtificialIntelligence................................46
3. Parapsychology,ArtificialIntelligence,andtheHypeCycleinColdWar
Research.................................................................................................................................................54Section1–HypeCyclesandParapsychology........................................................................57Section2–TheHypeCyclesofArtificialIntelligence........................................................65Section3–TheFateofParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceattheEndof
theColdWar.............................................................................................................70
4. Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................80
5. Bibliography.........................................................................................................................................84PrimarySources.................................................................................................................................84SecondarySources.............................................................................................................................88
3
LISTOFFIGURES
1. PatPrice’ssketchofcraneatthesecretSovietR&DsiteatSemipalatinsk..............282. DrawingreproducedfromCIAsatellitephotograph..........................................................283. TheFiveMainPhasesoftheHypeCycle..................................................................................58
4
CHAPTER1-INTRODUCTIONOFTHEMESANDTHEHISTORYOFPARAPSYCHOLOGYANDARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE
Scientificdevelopmentsinthetwentiethcenturyprogressedatanexponentialrate.
Whileitmaybeeasytoseethatsomeofthosepursuitswerenefariousinnature,itismore
difficulttotrytoidentifywhichpursuitswererationalandwhichwerenot.More
problematicstillisthetaskofdefiningtheveryconceptofrationality.Rationalityislargely
subjective,meaningdifferentthingstodifferentpeopleorgroups.TheperiodoftheCold
Warwasexpressiveofthisconundrum,asmuchofthestate-sanctionedresearch
throughouttheperiodthatwasconsideredrationalatthetime,inthatcontext,wasnot
consideredsobeforeorafter.
Thefirsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyislitteredwithexamplesofscientificresearch
thatseriouslyquestionedrationalityasitwasthenunderstood;itreachedsuchadegree
thatbythetimeoftheColdWar,theverydefinitionoftheconceptwasalsocalledinto
question.1Theseedsforthiscanbeseenincertaintypesofresearchcarriedoutby
governmentsduringtheSecondWorldWar,whichareknownthroughouttheworldas
horrific,suchasthoseconductedbytheThirdReich.Yet,therationalityofthoseobjectives
isoftennotconsideredtosuchanextent.Theideaofapproachingwarsorconflictswith
theconceptofrationalityactingastheguidingforcebehindthedecision-makingprocess
1PaulEricksonetal.,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind:TheStrangeCareerofCold
WarRationality(Chicago:TheUniversityofChicagoPress,2013),1-4.
5
onlybeganwiththeonsetoftheColdWar;thestrategiesutilizedbythemilitaryin
previous‘hot’warsprovedtobeinapplicable.Inaway,itcanbesaidthattheColdWar
manifestedasenseofrationalitythatwaswhollyitsown.
ThetermCold-Warrationalitydoesnotrefertoaspecific,acceptedconceptof
rationality,butrathertheattemptsmadebyscholarstoformulateauniversalsystemof
rationalbehaviorintheperiodoftheColdWar.Thisgrandioseundertakingwasnecessary
astherationalproceduresthatguidedtheartofwarthroughouttheprecedingworldwars
wereinapplicableintheunchartedwatersoftheColdWar.Initiatedbynationalsecurity
analystsandnuclearstrategists,thiscampaignwas“summonedintobeinginordertotame
theterrorsofdecisionstooconsequentialtobelefttohumanreasonalone,traditionally
understoodasmindfuldeliberation.Inthatimpliedgapbetweenreasonandrationalitylay
thenoveltyofCold-Warrationality.”2Itwasespeciallyconcernedwiththemostoptimalor
appropriatewaytomakedecisionsininternationalrelations,butwasalsosupposedto
filterdownandworkwithmuchmoremundanesituations,suchasafamily’sdomestic
relationsunderasingleroof.
Proponentsofthisnewconceptualizationsoughtto“articulateapurerationality,
validindependentlyoftheproblemstowhichitwasapplied,andthereforevalidfor
everyoneandalways.”3Thereweremanydifferenttheoriesadvancedthatclaimed
superiorityoveritscompetitors,noneofwhichwereeverawardedthattitle.Thetaskof
2Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,2.3Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,2.
6
constructingthistypeofrationalityspannedtheperiodroughlyfrom1945tothemid-
1980sandinvolvedpartiesoriginatingfromdiverseareasofsociety,including“sharp
minds,powerfulpoliticians,wealthyfoundations,andmilitarybrass.”4Thealliance
betweentheUnitedStatesgovernment,privateindustry,andacademiawillbeathemeI
examinethroughoutthispaper.Oneofthemostprominentoftheseinstitutions,andone
whosereportswillbeaprimaryfocusinthisstudy,istheRandCorporation(Researchand
DevelopmentCorporation).TheideaofcounteringmaneuversmadebytheSovietUnion
throughtheuseofsystematicrationaldecision-makingwasamajorfactorinthe
authorizationofcontroversialscientificresearchprojectsthatwerenotrationalendeavors
atthetime.Twoexamplesofsuchprojects,andtheonesthatIwillanalyze,are
government-sponsoredresearchintoparapsychologyandartificialintelligence.
Theoverarchingpositionofthescientificcommunityatthetimewasthatbothareas
fellontheirrationalsideofthedebate.AstheColdWarprogressedandfinancialsupport
forthesefieldsgrew,theperspectiveonartificialintelligence’sstatusbegantoshift,while
parapsychologyremainedonthefringes,aplaceitoccupiestothisday.Whatbeganasa
projectthatwasquixotic,shadowy,andindistinct,evolvedintoonethatbecamemoreand
morerefinedtoreflecttheprinciplesthatwerebeingdevelopedregardingColdWar
rationality.ThelifeofthesetwodisciplinesprovidesalensthroughwhichColdWar
rationalitycanbeglimpsed.However,thephrase“ColdWarrationality”itselfisa
misnomer,asitimpliesthattherewasaconsensusonwhatexactlythatmeant.Infact,the
4Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,3.
7
termwasneverdefinedinasingularfashion.Rationalitywouldbebetterunderstoodby
analogizingittoanamoeba-typeorganism,i.e.,amorphousandconstantlyalteringits
appearancetomeetnewchallenges.5
Whatisseenasrationalvariesbetweensocietiesandtimeperiods.Logically,
rationalityinthepresentshouldbemoresoundandsensiblethantherationalityofpast
eras.Thismaybeatrendoverlongperiodsoftime;however,sometimesthereare
stretcheswhereirrationalityreignssupreme.Rationalityandirrationalityarehardto
defineconceptsandinterpretationschangeastimepasses.Inaway,thesetermsare
subjectivebecausenotallsocietiesusethepreceptsoflogicinthesameway.Forthis
reason,rationalityshouldbeexaminedinthecontextofwhatevertimeperiodisunder
investigationratherthanpurelyasalinearprogression.
AnexampleofanepochwherethissituationplayedoutistheColdWar,where
unprecedentedthreatscreatedavolatilesituationthatmadeitextraordinarilydifficultto
drawthelinebetweenwhatwasrationalandirrational.Thesecircumstancesresultedin
thedevelopmentofstate-fundedresearchintoparapsychologyandartificialintelligence.
Theformer,forinstance,representsaparadoxthatwasthedrivingforcebehindthisstudy.
Parapsychology,especiallyinthelastfewcenturies,hasbeenanareaofcontention
amongacademics.Ithasbeenviewedasapseudosciencebyestablishedscientists.
Surprisingly,fromtheresearchcampaignsintoitssupposedexistenceintheeighteenth
centurybypeoplelikeFranzAntonMesmer,tothisveryday,theoverarchingviewhas
5Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,1-4.
8
changedverylittle.6Yet,foraperiodofseveraldecadesinthetwentiethcentury,all
previousscholarshiponthesubjectwascastasideandmillionsofdollarswerefunneled
intoprojectsthatdidnotattempttoproveitsreality,butratherassumedit,andattempted
tomakesuchphenomenaapplicableinamilitaryandintelligencegatheringsetting.Asa
result,itcanbesaidthatparapsychologywasanintegralpartofthezeitgeistthatwasCold
Warrationality.
Toputtheparadoxintheformofaquestion,howcouldphenomenathatwere
considerednonexistentbythescientificeliteforquitealongtime,suddenlybecome
possible,andevenprobable,intheeyesofagovernmentthatwouldconsideritselfthe
mostcogentoneontheplanet?Aswillbemadeclearinthenextchapter,thegovernment’s
firstencounterwithpseudoscientificdoctrineswasaresultofparanoiacoupledwithapre-
emptivestrikestrategy.Putmorecolloquially,theinitiationofparapsychologicalresearch
canbedescribedasamassiveexampleoftheplatitude“bettersafethansorry.”Although
notnearlyonthesamelevelasparapsychology,thesamequestioncouldberaised
concerningresearchintoartificialintelligence.
ArtificialIntelligence,orAI,wasontheperipheryofmainstreamsciencewhenthe
conceptwasfirstintroduced,andwasmuchmoremundanethanmodernsciencefiction
wouldhavethepublicbelieve.Nevertheless,thefundamentalissueremains:withsomuch
conventionalscientificresearchthatcouldhavebeensponsoredbythegovernment,what
compelledthemtofinancethesecontroversialresearchprojectsthroughouttheColdWar?
6DavidRayGriffin,“ParapsychologyandPhilosophy:AWhiteheadianPostmodern
Perspective,”JournaloftheAmericanSocietyforPsychicalResearch87,no.3(July1993):217-88.
9
Theanswerisneitherexplicitnorelementary,butpartofawiderphenomenarevolving
aroundtheaforementionedconceptofrationality,whatitwas,andwhatitwasnot.In
ordertoproperlyexplicatethequandarysurroundingthesetwodisciplines,abrief
historiographyfromtheeighteenthcenturytotheirdevelopmentsinthemid-tolate
twentiethcenturywillshedlightonhowtheseunorthodoxenterprisesenteredanarena
normallyreservedforprojectsthatrepresentthecuttingedgeofscientificand
technologicalexploration.Theconceptofrationalitywillinformthisstudyasitprovidesa
contextthroughwhichColdWarscientificpursuitscanbescrutinized.Theuseof
rationalitytoevaluateparapsychologyandartificialintelligencewillalsoaidininterpreting
thereasoningbehindthedecisionsmadebyofficialswhenitcametofundingor
terminatingtheseprograms.
Bothoftheseconceptshavebeenaroundsincetheearliestperiodofrecorded
historyandcanbelocatedinalmostanycivilization.Asdisparateasthesetwofieldsare,
therearesomesignificantsimilaritiesbetweenthem.Firstandforemost,bothhavebeen
metwithahigh,thoughunequal,degreeofoppositionfromcriticsinthepastaswellasthe
present.Antagonismtowardparapsychologyhastraditionallybeenmuchmorevirulent
thanthattowardartificialintelligence.Oneexplanationforwhythisissoisbecause
parapsychologicalphenomenahasbeenintricatelytiedtodeeplyingrainedbeliefsystems
inwaysartificialintelligencehasneverexperienced.Onecanfindextrasensoryperception
andrelatedphenomenadescribedintextsrangingfromtheSumeriancuneiformtablets,to
ancientSanskritliterature,totheJudaic,Christian,andIslamicholybooks.Thefarther
10
backinhistoryonegoes,themoreabstracttheseconceptsare,buttheyarepresentand
pervasivenonetheless.
Parapsychologicalprocessesareattheheartofmanyreligiousandspiritual
experiences,fromtelepathiccommunicationtodisplaysofpsychokinesis.Prophetshave
claimedtohavenonverbalcommunicationwiththeirdeities,whileothersituationsclearly
describepsychokinesisbeingperformedbyfiguresofsuchsignificanceasMoses,Elijah,
andJesusChrist.7Tobeclear,theseareonlyindicativethatsuchconceptualizationswere
presentthousandsofyearsbeforethepresenttime,notthatthoseeventsactuallytook
place.Sincereligionandsciencearealmostalwaysatodds,thefactthatparapsychology
hoverssomewhereinthemiddleaddsskepticismamongscientists.Thoughnotas
prevalentinspiritualliteratureasparapsychology,artificialintelligencehasalonghistory
rootedinsimulation,art,andmechanicalintelligence.Oneofthemorefamiliarexamples
wouldbetheGolemofJewishtradition,acreaturemadeanimatefromwhollyinanimate
parts.Asecularexampleofartificialintelligenceinhistorywouldbethehomunculusthat
startedtogainattractionintheearlymodernperiod.
Whilebothfieldshavelongbeenconsideredindependentofeachotherbytheir
respectiveresearchers,theyarelinkedtogetherinauniquefashion.Thepointof
convergenceisthefieldofpsychologyproper.Oneofthemaingoalsofpsychologyisto
mapthewaythemindfunctions.Parapsychologyattemptstodojustthat,focusingonthe
phenomenathatorthodoxpsychologydoesnotconsider.Parapsychologiststrytoidentify
7JStaffordWright,“ParapsychologyandtheChristian,”TheChurchman67,no.2(March1953):89-98.
11
unknownprocessesthatpermitextrasensoryperceptiontooccur.Parapsychology
essentiallypicksupwherepsychologyleavesoff.Thefieldofartificialintelligencestrivesto
dothesamething,buthasitssightssetonanalternativeendgame.OneofAI’sprinciple
goalsisequippingmechanicalandelectronictechnologywiththeabilitytothink,act,and
respondinthesamewayasthehumanmind.Simplyput,thegoalofAIresearchisto
automatethehumanmind’shighermentalfacultiesinanonhuman.However,theobjective
downthelineistogobeyondthisandcreateanintelligentmachinethatissuperiortothe
humanmind.8Althoughpsychologyproperinformsbothofthesedisciplinesandprovides
acontextthroughwhichtheycanbeviewed,itisnotofteninvokedbyresearchersineither
fieldasevidencefortheirtheories.Thisisbecauseitdoesnotassistinexplainingoneofthe
mostproblematicaspectsofthistypeofcontroversialresearch:reproducibility.The
desideratumofbothdisciplinesisathoroughlyexplainable,replicableunderstandingof
whatagenciesareresponsiblefor,orplayapartin,certainprocessesofthemind.
Forinstance,parapsychologistsinthetwentiethcenturyhaveoftensoughtto
explainpsychicphenomenaintermsofquantumphysics,citingtheexoticnatureofnon-
localityonthesubatomiclevel.Quantumphysicsisnotusedasanexplanation,butasan
oversimplifiedprecedentsetterfor“actionatadistance.”9Despitetheircompatibility,or
lackthereof,theideawastoapplythecuttingedgeofhardscience,physics,toasoft
8PamelaMcCorduck,“BrassforBrain,”inMachinesWhoThink:APersonalInquiryIntotheHistoryandProspectsofArtificialIntelligence,25thed.(Natick,MA:A.K.Peters,2004),3-36.
9ChrisClarke,“ANewQuantumTheoreticalFrameworkfor
Parapsychology,”EuropeanJournalofParapsychology23,no.1(2008):3-30.
12
science,psychology,inanattempttoexplainitinscientificterms.Likewise,proponentsof
artificialintelligencetriedtomergethehardscienceswiththesoft,onlyintheopposite
direction.Artificialintelligenceasafieldisanoutgrowthofelectronicandcomputer
technology.Artificialintelligence,firstandforemost,isonlyapplicableinamachine;it
requiresapieceofhardware.Endowingthathardwarewitha“brain”ofhumanlevel
intelligenceisthegoalofAI.Thatpieceofthepuzzleiswhatweasmachineorcomputer
userswouldunderstandassoftware.
Artificialintelligenceresearcherssoughttoincorporatethepsychologicalprocesses
ofthehumanbraininthesoftwarethatisthebrainofacomputer.Whereas
parapsychologyusedhardscienceinitssearchforanswersinasoftscience,artificial
intelligencetriedtoutilizethesoftscienceofpsychologyinitsquesttoformalizeor
mathematizetheprocessesofthebrainformachineintelligence.Inadditiontothese
parallels,intheircurrentincarnations,theyshareacommonperceptionbythegeneral
public:theyareeitherwhollyendorsedordownrightcondemned.Whilethoseopinions
mayormaynotberootedinascientificframeofthought,scientistsseemtobejustas
polarizedonthesubjectaswell.10Theseperspectivesshedlightonthecontemporary
rationaleofsociety,althoughtheydonotdefinewhatrationalityis.
Parapsychologyisuniqueamongthenumerous“pseudoscientific”doctrines
becauseithasgarneredsomemeasurablelegitimacyincertaincirclesofscientists,albeit
outsidethemainstream.Eventhoughitisnotseenaslegitimatebyorthodoxscience,itis
10NoAuthorListed,“AnticipatingArtificialIntelligence,”NatureInternationalWeeklyJournalofScience532,no.760(28April2016):413.
13
notcondemnedwiththesameincendiarylanguageas,say,cryptozoologyorastrology.
Parapsychologyhas,infact,actuallycreatedalittlenicheforitselflocatedbetween
conventionalscienceand“pseudoscience,”somedescribingitasaproto-science.Itis
interestingthatthecontroversysurroundingparapsychologyhasnotbeensettledafter
morethanacenturyofseriousresearch,whenmostotherunorthodoxideasfadeaway
muchsooner.Moreinterestingisthatparapsychologyseemstogothroughcyclesof
interestanddisinterest.
Themid-tolatetwentiethcenturycanbeseenastheacmeofparapsychological
researchbecauseofthewaytheresearchwasconductedandbywhom.Thevalidityof
reportsandexperimentspriortothetwentiethcenturyaredifficulttoassesssincethere
areoftentoomanyquestionsleftunanswered.However,attheturnofthecentury,credible
andcompelling,thoughnotconclusive,researchwasbeingcarriedoutbyamultitudeof
countriesaroundtheglobe.Theimpetusforthisinquiry,aswellasforAI,wassimilarto
thatofmanyotherscientificandtechnologicalbreakthroughs:war.Inordertoanalyzewhy
bothdisciplinesgainedcurrencyinsomecirclesandnotothers,onemustlookatthe
historicalandsociologicalfactorsthatgeneratedthedominantviewpointofeachresearch
community.
Acomprehensiveexaminationoftheirrespectivehistorieswouldspanseveral
volumes.Forthatreason,thisstudywillfocusontheresearchcarriedoutatthebehestof
theUnitedStatesgovernment.Ratherthanstressingthetechnicalaspectsoftheresearch,
thespotlightwillbedirecteduponthepersonagesandinstitutionsinvolved.Interestingly,
14
thereareseveralcharactersandestablishments,suchastheRandCorporation,thatfigure
prominentlyinrationalityresearchandeitherESPorAI.Examplesofexperiments,
especiallythoseinparapsychology,willbediscussedinpassingsoastoprovidethereader
withwhatisneededtounderstandaparticularargument.
Theaimofthisanalysisisnottogivecredibilitytoonefieldovertheother;such
wouldbeafutiletasksincebothfields“survived”theColdWar,andarestilltheobjectof
governmentresearch.Rather,thegoalistouncoverthekeyplayersandseehowtheories
ofColdWarrationalityinfluencedtheirdecisionsinseeingparapsychologyasfactor
fiction.Allofthephenomenathatfigureinthedisciplineofparapsychologyareintricately
entangledwithoccultism.Orthodoxsciencemayhavethrownoccultpracticesintothe
wastebinofpseudosciencelongago,butthesamecannotbesaidforthegeneralpublic,or
evenforgovernmentandcorporateleaders.
Withregardtothetwentiethcentury,this‘greatdivide’wasoneofthemainreasons
governmentresearchintotheparanormalwasabletoreachunprecedentedlevels.This
goesforboththeUnitedStatesandothercountries.Almostwithoutexception,boththe
UnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionresearchedthepracticalapplicationsofparapsychology,
whilethecivilianresearchcommunitiesexaminedit“inthenameofscience.“Thiswill
becomeclearasIconductanexegesisofthereportsanddocumentation.Whilethemain
focusofthisthesisistheColdWar,governmentinvolvementbegandecadesearlier.These
previousforaysintotheparanormalpavedthewayfortheprojectsoftheColdWar.
15
Section1–ParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceinHistory
ParapsychologicalresearchintheWestcanbetracedbackquiteaway.Phenomena
associatedwithparapsychologycanbewitnessedinsomeremarkablyoldtexts.
ExtrasensoryperceptionisutilizedatapivotalmomentintheancientIndianSanskritepic,
theMahabharata,whenShakuni,theprinceofGandharaKingdom,cheatedinadicegame
byusingadiethathecouldcontrolwithhismind.11Scientists,ofcourse,disregardthisas
anexampleofevidenceforthephenomena’sreality.Toomuchtimehaspassedtoevaluate
thoseclaims;thus,animaginarylinemustbedrawntoseparatewhatcanandcannotbe
consideredrelevant.Whatcanbeconstruedasgermanetothisstudycanbelabeled
experimentalparapsychology,whichisunderstoodaspsychicresearchconductedina
modernsetting,asinalaboratory.
SomehistoriansidentifyFranzAntonMesmerasthefirsttodealwiththe
phenomenainthisway,whileotherscontendthatitbeganinthenineteenthcentury.Still
othersciteJ.B.Rhineastheinitiator.Acursoryexaminationoftheselinkswillbefruitful
becausetheyrepresenttheearliestinstancesofdebatethatservetoinformthegeneral
scientificcommunityonparapsychologyinamodernsetting.Towardtheendofthe
eighteenthcentury,FranzMesmerdevelopedhistheoryforwhathecalled“animal
magnetism”:unlikemineralmagnetism,whichhadcorporealeffects,animalmagnetism
determinedhealth,wellbeing,andothermysteriousmechanisms.Inthebeginning,Mesmer
11JohnD.Smith,trans.,“TheHall:TheGamblingMatch,”inTheMahābhārata,PenguinClassics(NewDelhi:Penguin,2009),121-63.
16
wouldusemagnetsonapatient,wavingthembytheafflictedarea,forexample,to
manipulatethefluidinthepatients’bodyandthusrelievetheillness.Afterawhile,he
forewentthemagnetsandjustusedhandstostrokethepatientwhereitwasnecessary.
Hewasquitepopularforhis“medicine”andwasevenknowntosucceedwhenthe
conventionalremediesofthetimefailed.Thisimperceptiblephenomenonenthralled
Mesmer’scontemporaries.AsrelayedbyRobertDarnton,itwasunderstoodinasimilar
fashionaswas“Newton'sgravity,madeintelligiblebyVoltaire;Franklin'selectricity,
popularizedbyafadforlightningrods…andthemiraculousgasesoftheCharlieresand
MontgolfieresthatastonishedEuropebyliftingmanintotheairforthefirsttimein
1783.”12ThelinkbetweenMesmer’sworkandthefieldofparapsychologylayinthenature
ofbothoftheirmechanisms.Theconduitthroughwhichthedevice(magnet)usedto
deliveritscureisimperceptibletoregulartestingequipment.Mesmerthoughthehad
discoveredanotherforceinnature,equivalenttogravityorelectromagnetism.The
problemwasthatthisforce,asitwaspresented,seemedonthesurfacetoviolatethe
principleofcausality,butitdidnot.Oneofthereasonswhyitattainedaminordegreeof
reputabilitywasbecauseitwasbuiltuponthesamepremiseasNewton’slawofgravity,
whichalsotheorizedthatactionatadistancewasatplay.Whatmademattersworsefor
thishypotheticalforcewasthatscientistscouldnotreplicatehisexperimentstoa
12RobertDarnton,MesmerismandtheEndoftheEnlightenmentinFrance
(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,1968),10,accessedMay12,2016,http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/283547.html.
17
successfuldegree.Replicabilityisasignificantprincipleinscientificexploration,even
thoughitsusefulnessisstillbeingdebated.13
AcommissioninitiatedbyKingLouisXVItestedMesmer’sideasin1784.The
commission,whichfamouslyincludedsuchprominentfiguresasBenjaminFranklinand
thechemistAntoineLavoisier,wereassignedthetaskofinvestigatingthepurportedreality
ofamagneticfluid,thehypotheticalconduitthroughwhichMesmer’scureworked.
Unsurprisingly,theverdictwasthatthefluiddidnotexistandthatthephenomena
witnessedcouldbeattributedtomoremundanecauses.However,thiswasonlyhalfthe
story,asthecommissionhadsecretlydistributedareportthatdetailedtherealmotivation
behinditsfindings,whichwerethephenomena’sapparent“moraldangers.”14This
confidentialassessmentstressedthe“moraldangersofthemagnetictherapywheremost
ofthepractitionersweremen,mostofthepatientswerewomen,andwheresomuch
stimulationbytouchwasinvolvedandsomuchexcitementgenerated.”15Whilethereisno
doubtthattherewasjustificationforconcern,especiallyifthetreatmentoccurredbehind
closeddoors,itisalsoevidentthattheconclusionsofthecommissionweremotivatedby
morethanthescientifictheoriesunderinvestigation.Hadthatworrisomeperspectivebeen
presentfromtheoutset,thereisagoodpossibilitytheirpriorbiashadnegativelyaffected 13ArturoCasadevallandFerricFang,“ReproducibleScience,”InfectionandImmunity78,no.12(September27,2010):4972-75,accessedOctober1,2015,http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2981311/
14Darnton,MesmerismandtheEndoftheEnlightenmentinFrance,64n.10,accessed
May28,2016,http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/283547.html.15JohnBeloff,Parapsychology:AConciseHistory(NewYork:St.Martin’s,1993),20.
18
theirobjectivity.Thistheme,whichrecursthroughouttheliteratureonmost
pseudosciences,isclearlypalpablewithregardtoparapsychology.Thisbias,ofcourse,is
twofold,andgoesforthosewhoareproponentsofparapsychology,aswell.Forthetime
being,itisimportanttoemphasizethateventhoughmesmerismdidnotfadeaway,the
officialconsensusontheissuehadbeensetforposterity.
OneofthedefiningturningpointsforparapsychologyintheWestinthenineteenth
centurywasthefoundingoftheSocietyforPsychicalResearch(SPR)onFebruary20,1882,
inLondon.TheSocietyforPsychicalResearchwasthefirstlearnedinstitutionofitskind,
withamissionstatementto“examinewithoutprejudiceorprepossessionandinthe
scientificfacultiesofman,realorsupposed,whichappeartobeinexplicableonany
generallyrecognizedhypothesis.”16Whilestillalittlewaysofffromcontemporary
experimentalparapsychology,itisthefirstinstancewhereresearcherstriedtodisentangle
purportedpsychicalphenomenainanorganizedway.
OneofthemajorimpetusesfortheinaugurationoftheSPRwasthegrowthand
spreadofSpiritualism,whichhadgainedanunprecedentedfootholdintheupperechelons
ofsociety.WhatmakestheSPRsignificantisnotsomuchthephenomenaitstudied,orthe
fruitsofthatresearch,butratherthewayitwentaboutobtainingthatinformation.
AccordingtoprofessorAlanGauld,apsychologistandparapsychologistknownfor
uncoveringfraudinparapsychologicalexperiments,theresearchconcerned“thatlarge
bodyofdebatablephenomenadesignatedbysuchtermsasmesmeric,psychical,and
16JohnBeloff,Parapsychology,65.
19
‘spiritualistic’”andwasconducted“inthesamespiritofexactandunimpassionedenquiry
whichhasenableSciencetosolvesomanyproblems.”17Whetherthiswasupheldin
practiceisupfordebate,butthenotionofresearchingthephenomenainthesamewayas
othermorereputablefieldscanbeconsideredoneofthefirstgreatattemptsat
transitioningpsychicalresearchfromthenon-scientifictothescientificsideofthe
demarcationproblem,evenifitwasnotunderstoodinthoseterms.
Eventually,theSPRbranchedoutandevenhadasisterorganizationintheUnited
StatescalledtheAmericanSocietyforPsychicalResearch(ASPR),foundedin1885,which
lookedintothesamepurportedphenomenaonthissideoftheAtlantic.TheASPRwasthe
sourceofthemostprogressiveinvestigationsofparapsychologyintheUnitedStatesuntil
thetimeofJosephBanksRhineintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Inabroad
way,thisexemplifiestheonlychangesparapsychologyexperiencedfromthenineteenthto
thetwentiethcentury,ashifttowardinstitutionalorganizationandprofessionalismwhen
conductingexperiments.Inasimilarfashion,enquiriesintomachineintelligencebecame
morewidespreadandsystematicinthesametimeperiod.
Oneoftheaspectsofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencethatmadethemso
enthrallingtoeighteenth-andnineteenth-centuryaudienceswasthattheirproposed
methodofoperationwasimpalpabletothefive-sensesandindistinguishablefromthe
othersupernaturalandoccultforcesthatcaptivatedthemindsofpeopleatthetime.
Althoughitmaybeeasytoseehowparapsychologyfitsthatdescription,earlyworkin
17AlanGauld,TheFoundersofPsychicalResearch(London:Routledge&K.Paul,
1968),167.
20
machineintelligencehadthesameinexplicableunderpinnings.Artificialintelligencewas
becomingmanifestthroughtheworksofinventorssuchasJacquesVaucansonandPierre
Jaquet-Droz,whose“DefecatingDuck”and“Lady-Musician,”respectively,becamefocal
pointsintheeighteenthcenturybecausetheywereportrayalsofmechanicaldeviceswith
life-likecapabilities.Sospellbindingwerethesecontraptionsthatpeopleoftenspententire
weeks’worthofwagesinordertowitnessthemysteriousmachinesatwork.18Researchers
haveidentifiedcorrelationsbetweenthesekindsofdevicesandtheonesscientistsare
incorporatingartificialintelligenceintotoday.AccordingtoProfessorJessicaRiskin,
artificialintelligenceengineerstoday"’haveanextraordinaryamountincommonwiththe
people…fromthe[eighteenth]andearly[nineteenth]century’.LikeVaucanson,they
believethatnewtechnologiesmightletthembridgethegapbetweenmachinesandlife--a
beliefthathasledmodernresearcherstobuildartificialinsects,fish,gorillasandeven
people."19ThecommonalitiesalsoextendtoearlyAIandparapsychology.
Mesmerhasaninterestingdoppelgangerinthesphereofmachineintelligence,the
creatoroftheTurk,WolfgangVonKempelen.LikeMesmer,Kempelenwascapitalizingon
themysteriesofthetime,butratherthanwithaninvisiblefluidheawedhisaudienceswith
hissupposedautomaton.ThemajordifferencebetweenthetwowasthatKempelenwas
18EtienneBenson,“ScienceHistorianExaminesthe18th-CenturyQuestfor
'ArtificialLife',”StanfordUniversity,October24,2001,accessedJune9,2016,http://news.stanford.edu/news/2001/october24/riskinprofile-1024.html.
19Benson,“ScienceHistorianExaminesthe18th-CenturyQuestfor'ArtificialLife',”accessedJune9,2016,http://news.stanford.edu/news/2001/october24/riskinprofile-1024.html.
21
uncoveredasafraudwhowillfullydeceivedthemasses.Variousformsofautomatawere
particularlypopularintheeighteenthcenturyandKempelensoughttoexploitthe
“automatoncraze”followingthesuccessofVaucanson’sworks.20Hecreatedadevicecalled
TheTurkthatpurportedlywasabletoplayagameofchessagainstahumanopponent,
makingmovesdependentuponthosemadebytheopponent,ratherthanonesthatwere
simplypredeterminedorpreprogrammed.Initiallythegadgetdefiedexplanationand
garneredinterestfromsuchhistoricalgiantsasNapoleon;however,soonitwasdiscovered
tohavebeentheresultoftrickery.AlthoughKempelenexhibitedTheTurkwith“allofthe
internal-mechanism-displayingpageantryoftheera’sotherfamousautomatonsandwould
attimesmakeashowofwindingupthedevice,theTurkwasactuallyamerepuppet.”21
Kempelen’sTurkmarkedthebeginningofthedeclineinpublicamusementwith
automaton-typedevices.BothKempelenandMesmerreflecttheneedinthescientific
communitytostayvigilantandnotgetsweptupinpublicfervor.
Inconjunctionwiththeinitiativetodevelopmachineswithhuman-levelcapabilities
wastheconceptofbuildingthemtoperformhumanfunctions.Ratherthanimitatingthe
bodilyfunctions,asthedefecatingduckdid,inventorsbegantobuildmachinesthatcould
performmorepracticalfunctions,suchastheworkperformedbyhumans.Thoseavenues
ofinnovationbecamemorewidespreadinthenineteenthcenturyandtheycloselyalign
20MinsooKang,SublimeDreamsofLivingMachines:TheAutomatonintheEuropeanImagination(Cambridge,Mass.:HarvardUniversityPress,2011),7.
21“TheMechanicalTurk,”HarvardUniversityPress|Blog,August29,2011,
accessedJune18,2016,http://harvardpress.typepad.com/hup_publicity/2011/08/the-mechanical-turk.html.
22
withthetypeofartificialintelligenceresearchthatwillbethefocusofthisstudy.Bythe
middleofthenineteenthcentury,sophisticatedapparatus,suchasCharlesBabbage’s
DifferenceEngine,establishedthatmechanizedmachinescouldperformtasksotherwise
onlyachievablebyhumanlabor.Thesetasks,however,wereperceivedtobesimpleand
onlymadeuseofahuman’slowestmentalfaculties.22Themachinedidnotthinkinorderto
reacttoasituation,butfollowedpreprogrammedrules.Certaininformationinputtedinto
themachinecorrespondedwithaspecificoutput.Theassociationwasbuiltinanddidnot
requirethought.Astraightforwardexampleofthiswouldbetheuseofmoderncalculators,
whichperformmathematicalequationsbaseduponrulesratherthanreason.
Reasonisrecognizedasoneofmankind’shighermentalfacultiesandthusfarits
programmabilityhaseludedscientists.Asaresult,manyscientistshavecontendedthat
machinescannotbreakthatthreshold,whichessentiallyisseenasthedemarcationpoint
betweenhumanityandothercreatures.Likeparapsychology,thedriveforartificial
intelligencehasstimulatedeffortstomapthefunctionsofthemind,thepathittakesto
reachdesiredoutcomes,andhowtheuseofrationalityisintegraltothatprocess.These
undertakingshaveachievedlimitedsuccess.Unlikeparapsychology,however,this
conundrumhasnotledtoitsbeingconsideredapseudoscience,butascienceyettobe
understood.Withrelationtothemind,artificialintelligenceattemptstocreatearational
entitywhileparapsychologyattemptstouserationalitytocreateaworkingmodelfor
22SethBullock,“CharlesBabbageandtheEmergenceofAutomatedReason,”inTheMechanicalMindinHistory,ed.PhilHusbands,OwenHolland,andMichaelWheeler(Cambridge,MA:MIT,2008),27-37,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.
23
perceivedirrationalmentalprocesses.Therelationshipbetweenthebrainandrationality
isunambiguousinbothinstances;itisjustexpressedindifferentways.
WhileBabbage’sandothercontemporaries’machineswerebynomeansintelligent,
theirperformancesweresuperiortothatoftheirhumancounterparts.Thiswasthecase
fortworeasons:theyworkedfasterthanhumanscouldandperformedcalculations
flawlessly,thuseliminatinghumanerror.23InconjunctionwiththeIndustrialRevolution,
theseprogrammablemachineswereintroducedintotheworkplaceandsoonlosttheir
appealtothepublic.Despitetheirincreasingregularity,modificationscontinuedapaceand
advancementsinawidearrayoffields,notablymathematicsandelectricalengineering,
fromthelatenineteenthcenturytothemiddleofthetwentieth,radicallyalteredtheway
humansandmachinesinteracted.24
Thisbriefhistoricalbackgroundillustratessomeofthecommonalitiesbetween
thesetwoseeminglydistinctfields.Bothparapsychologyandartificialintelligencewere
alluringtoscientistsandlaypeoplebecausethemechanismthroughwhichthey“worked
theirmagic”wasconcealedfrompublicviewandpublicawareness.Despiteendless
hypotheticalmodels,parapsychologyproponentsnevercameanyclosertohammeringout
thefinerdetailsofhowitfunctionswithintherationalmind.Artificialintelligencewas
23Bullock,“CharlesBabbageandtheEmergenceofAutomatedReason,”inThe
MechanicalMindinHistory,29,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.
24PhilHusbands,OwenHolland,andMichaelWheeler,“Introduction:The
MechanicalMind,”inTheMechanicalMindinHistory,4,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.
24
similarinthat,althoughpeoplewereawareoftheleversandgearswithinthemechanical
machinesthatcausedmovement,theydidnotknowhowthatmovementwascausedin
termsofananimatingforcewithrationalguidance.
TouseBabbage’smachinesasanexample,itwascommonknowledgeatthattime
thatmachinescouldsimulatehumanbehaviorandeffectivelyperformmeniallabor.What
wasgroundbreakingwasthetransitionfromsimulatingmeniallabortocognitive
functioning.25Havingamachinethatcouldessentially“think”onitsown,givenavarietyof
situations,wasunheardofandwasconsideredquitemiraculous.Peopledidnotknowhow
apurelymechanicaldevicecouldthinkorcarryoutmentalprocesses.Thequestionsthat
neededtobeanswered,suchastheconduitthroughwhichtheseprocessesweretotake
place,werealsothesamequestionsbeingruminateduponintherealmofparapsychology.
Neitherdisciplinehasbeenabletosatisfactorilycomeupwithatheoryoranswerthatcan
beexperimentallytested,butthatisnotduetoalackofeffort.Instead,contemporary
scientists,workingonbehalfoftheUnitedStatesgovernment,havebeenconducting
researchintobothfieldsforthebetterpartofacentury.However,itonlybegantofully
takeshapefromaroundthetimeoftheColdWar,whichisthefoundationfortheprimary
focusoftheargument:officialUnitedStatesgovernmentsupportforresearchinthefields
ofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencethroughouttheColdWar.
25Bullock,“CharlesBabbageandtheEmergenceofAutomatedReason,”inThe
MechanicalMindinHistory,29-30,accessedFebruary11,2016,http://site.ebrary.com/lib/huntercollege/reader.action?docID=10214161&ppg=30.
25
Tooversimplify,theColdWarmadethedividebetweenconventionalwarfareand
unconventionalwarfaremuchmoreobscurethanithadpreviouslybeen.Indeed,themost
desirousoffensiveanddefensivestrategiessoughtafterwerethosethatgaveonesidethe
upperhandovertheotherwithoutnecessarilyhavingbootsontheground.These
sentimentsalonewerenotthesolemotivationbehindthegovernment’sinvolvementwith
parapsychologyandartificialintelligence,buttheallurethatthesedisciplinesprovidedfor
fightingawarfromadistancewastoogreattoneglectwhentheydidarise.
Succinctlyput,theexceptionalnatureoftheColdWarinconjunctionwiththe
ambiguousnessofrationalitycreatedasituationthatpermittedunorthodoxconcepts,like
parapsychologyandartificialintelligence,tobeevaluatedinwaysthatwereuntetheredto
priordogma.ThesenewresearchinitiativesnotonlyspannedthelengthoftheColdWar,
butalsooutlivedit.Bytracingtheevolutionoftheseprojects,thispaperwillargueseveral
points.Thenextchapterwillfirstexaminethepost-1945worldandthewayitwasthrust
intoasituationwheretherelationshipbetweenthegovernmentandthefringesofscientific
inquirybecamemoreentangledthaneverbefore.Secondly,Iwillarguethattheinitial
decisionsmadepertainingtofringeresearchwerelargelytheresultofthegeopolitical
atmosphereratherthanbecauseofthe‘science.’Oncethatisestablished,the
parapsychologyandartificialintelligenceprogramsinthefirstdecadesoftheColdWarwill
beanalyzedandshowntobebothrationalandirrationaldependingonthewaytheywere
understood.ThethirdchapterwillevaluatethesecondhalfoftheColdWarandhowthese
projectsprogressedinawaythatcouldnothavebeenanticipated.Itwillalsoconsiderthe
26
financialaspectsofeachprogramandhowthemoneyawardedtothemdoesnotaccurately
indicatethelevelofactualsupport.Lastly,Iwillexameachprojectinrelationtotheendof
theColdWarandwhethertheywerecontinuedorterminated,withparticularscrutinyon
howthatinformstheprocessofthe‘hypecycle,’aconceptualizationthatwillbeintroduced
anddiscussedatlengthtowardtheendofthepaper.
27
CHAPTER2–THEORIGINSOFSTATE-SPONSOREDRESEARCHINTOPARAPSYCHOLOGYANDARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCEINTHECOLDWAR
WhiletheUnitedStateswasthepioneerincomputerandAItechnologyintheCold
War,theparapsychologyprogramwasaresponsetoperceivedadvancesmadeinthatfield
bytheSovietUnion.ThatresponsewaslargelytheresultoftheRandCorporationstudyled
byDr.JanusIrving,whichsuggestedthattheUnitedStatesshouldnotfallbehindin
researchregardingextrasensoryperception.Withoutthatprovocation,therewouldhave
beennoimpetustoevenarousethethoughtsofaparapsychologistlikeAndrijaPuharich.
Ineffect,itwasarationalmovetooverlookthesupposedirrationalityof
parapsychologybecausenotdoingsocouldpossiblyhavemadethecountryvulnerableif
theSovietsdidinfactmakeprogress.ExtremeexampleswouldbeaRussiantelepathically
readingstatesecretsorpsychokineticallydetonatingabombintheUSfromsafelywithin
Sovietborders.Whilesuchscenariosmightsoundlikesciencefiction,theywerethekinds
ofapplicationssomethoughtparapsychologycouldhavemilitarily.Althoughmaterials
fromtheSovietUnionhavenotbeenmadeavailable,apicturedrawnbyoneofthepsychics
usedbytheUnitedStatesGovernmentwillgivethereadersomeperspectiveonhow
precisethesemethodscouldbe,ifneededinamilitarysetting.Figure1isasketchmadeby
aCIApsychicofalocationtowhichhehadonlybeengivengeographiccoordinates.Figure
2isareproductionofanactualphotographofthoseexactcoordinates.Thedrawing,which
28
isagantrycrane,isremarkablyaccurateandillustratesoneofthehypothetical
applicationsofparapsychologyinwarfare,especiallyinlocationswhereobtaining
photographicintelligenceisdangerousorimpossible.
Ontheothersideofthespectrum,artificialintelligenceresearchwasconductedfor
muchthesamereason.Fromthebeginning,theideaofamachineexhibitingintelligence
rivalingthatofahumanbrainwasunderstoodasirrational.Criticscitednumerous
practicallimitationstothekindsoftasksthatamachinecouldintelligentlyundertake,such
astheastronomicalamountofpre-loadeddatathatneedstobeatthemachine’sdisposalto
carryouteventhesimplestassignments.HubertDreyfusjuxtaposedthiswiththe
intelligenceandcommonsenseofayoungchild.ThefactthattheleadingluminariesinAI
couldnotcreateamachinetomatchthecommonsenseofafouryear-oldchildwasseenas
Figure1:PatPrice’ssketchofcraneatthesecretSovietR&DsiteatSemipalatinsk.
Figure2:DrawingreproducedfromCIAsatellitephotograph.(Soastonotdivulgeactualqualityofsatellitetechnology.)
29
evidencethatAIwasanirrationalendeavor.However,aswithparapsychology,itwaseasy
toimaginethemilitaryapplicationsforafullyrealizedartificialintelligence.
Despitethedrawbacksitenduredupuntilthatpoint,theprospectofcreatinga
successfulartificialintelligencewasnotyetdampenedbyitsimmediatefailures.
Parapsychologistshadnotpresentedtheworldwithanythingnewintermsof
developmentsoutsideofrefinedresearchproceduresandprotocols.Verylittlehad
changedregardingthereportingofthephenomena,whichmadeitmoredifficulttoget
establishmentscientiststobecomeinterested.But,artificialintelligencewasstilla
relativelyyoungdiscipline,sofailureswerenotperceivedinthesamewayasfailureswere
inparapyschologicalstudies.Electronictechnologyhadnotbeeninvestigatedfor
thousandsofyearsanddidnothavethedeeplyrootedoppositionthatparapsychologyhad.
Thisisoneofthekeydifferencesthathelptoexplainwhy,thoughbothwereirrational,
artificialintelligenceresearchwasestablishedoutofitsowninherentpotentialwhilethe
programsinparapsychologywerelaunchedinreactiontoresearchintoextrasensory
perceptionbytheSovietUnion.
TherationalityaspectofColdWarresearchwasdebatedmuchmore
comprehensivelyinthedevelopmentofartificialintelligencethanitwasinparapsychology
circles.Itseemsasthoughtherewasareal,livelydebateovertherationalityofartificial
intelligence,directlyaffectingitspossiblefuture.Incontradistinction,ColdWarresearch
intoparapsychologyneverreachedthesamelevelofdialoguethatAIdid.Intermsof
orthodoxscience,therewasneveranyreasontohaveadiscussionoveritsrationality
30
becausethathadbeendonenumeroustimesinthepast,andtheprecedenthadbeenset.
Governmentresearch,atleastwhathasbeendeclassified,didnotmakeanydiscoveries
thatscienceproperwouldconsidergroundbreakingorworthinvestigating.Whileitmust
beacknowledgedthatthemostexplosiveinformationaboutagivensituationisgenerally
whatiskeptclassified,speculationaloneisnotenoughtofueladiscussionamong
conventionalscientists.Despitetheseshortcomingsforbothartificialintelligenceand
parapsychology,federalfundingcontinuedunabatedthroughtheearlyColdWar.Itwasnot
untilthe1970sthatanothershiftingovernmentsupportfortheseprogramsisdiscernible.
ThischapterwillestablishthegeopoliticalatmospherefromWorldWarIItothe
mid-1960s,andhowthatcontextsetthestageforthedevelopmentofresearchin
pioneeringfieldsrangingfromperceivedpseudoscienceslikeparapsychologytothe
seeminglyunfathomablesuchasartificialintelligence.Examinationsofthesediverse
disciplineswerenotauthorized“inthenameofscience,”butweretheresultofcomplex
deliberationssurroundingtheconceptofrationality:howitinformeddecision-makingand
howtouseittorespondtothemaneuveringsoftheSovietUnion.Theindeterminatestatus
ofrationalityatthetimehadsignificantanddirecteffectsonthegovernment’sresponseto
certainperceivedthreats.26Thesethreats,whichwerebothrealandimagined,werethe
primarymotivationbehindstudiesintorationalityandthesubsequentdevelopmentofthe
programsinquestion.
26Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,5.
31
Thedawnofthetwentiethcenturywitnessedanexponentialgrowthofresearch
intoparapsychologyandartificialintelligenceacrosstheUnitedStatesandEurope.Yet,the
historiesofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencerarely,ifever,crossedpathsdirectly.
Ifaconnectionhastobemade,themosttangiblerelationshipwouldhavebeenthroughthe
variousinstitutionsandthinktanksthatstudiedbothdisciplinesintermsofpracticality
andusefulnessinconjunctionwiththeirproposedrationality,suchastheRand
Corporation.Mostoftenthesestudieswerecommissionedatthebehestofthemilitaryand
intelligencesectorsofthegovernment.PriortotheColdWar,parapsychologywaslargely
theprerogativeofcivilianscientists,whilethegovernmentalwayshadahandinthe
developmentofcomputertechnology.
State-sponsoredparapsychologyresearchintheearlyyearsoftheColdWarhadits
antecedentsinthepsychologicalwarfareprogramsfromthebeginningofthetwentieth
century.27Theintelligencecommunityandthemilitaryhadbeeninvestigatingthe
practicalusesofpsychologicalwarfareinthisperiodandmanyofthereportsarestill
classified.Althoughanexaminationofthesepreliminaryprogramsisoutsidethescopeof
thisstudy,itissignificanttonotethatthepsychologicalwarfareresearchbegantotakeon
newcharacteristicsfromthelate1940son.Coincidentally,andcontrarytopopularbelief,
researchershaveidentifiedthisexacttimeframeasthestartingpointforthemodern
conceptionofartificialintelligence.BothparapsychologyandAIresearcherswere
27ChristopherSimpson,“DefiningPsychologicalWar,”inScienceofCoercion:
CommunicationResearchandPsychologicalWarfare,1945-1960(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1996),3-74.
32
attemptingtobridgethegapbetweenscience,warfare,andtheburgeoningstudyof
rationalityinthecontextoftheColdWar.
ThestartoftheColdWarusheredinaneraofunprecedentedanxietyandparanoia
onaglobalscale.Nopotentialweaponorresearchendeavorwasseenastoofar-fetchedor
tooirrationalfortheUSSRtoconsider.Indeed,theverynatureoftheColdWarcalledinto
questiontheartofwarmorethaneverbefore.Withoutatraditionalfrontline,theColdWar
catalyzedtheemergenceofunconventionalapproachesgearedtowardbreechingenemy
defenses,apracticethathadrootsinWorldWarII.Suchtacticsplayed“asignificantrolein
U.S.foreignpolicyduringtheearlyColdWaryears,oftenintheformofcovertparamilitary
operationsledbytheCentralIntelligenceAgency.”28Asaresult,thegovernment,not
wantingtobecaughtoffguardbyanotherSputnik-typeevent,couldnotbrushoff
informationthatitotherwisewouldnotentertain,suchasreportsdescribingtheutilization
ofmindcontrolandextrasensoryperception.29Althoughmultiplereasonshavebeengiven
forwhythegovernmentstartedlookingintoparapsychology,thedetailthatremains
constantisthatitwasaresponsetoworkbeingconductedbytheSovietUnion.As
previouslynoted,theUnitedStateswasthepioneeringforceinthedevelopmentof
artificialintelligence.WiththeSovietUnionspearheadingresearchintoparapsychology,it
28JosephL.Voteletal.,“UnconventionalWarfareintheGrayZone,”JointForce
Quarterly80(January1,2016):101-9.29MichaelJ.NojeimandDavidP.Kilroy,“TheSputnikCrisisandtheNuclearAge,”
inDaysofDecision:TurningPointsinU.S.ForeignPolicy(Washington,DC:PotomacBooks,2011),77-94.
33
isclearthatbothsuperpowerswereinacompetitiontomastermindunorthodoxoffensive
anddefensiveweaponsintheColdWar.
IntheUnitedStates,researchrevolvedaroundwhatmethodologieswerefeasible,
nomatterhowbizarretheymighthaveseemed.Manyoftheintellectualelitesinthe
countryatthetimecontemplatedthisveryquestion,wonderingwhererationalitybegan
andended.Thisquestionofrationalitywasquitebroad;itsstudywasnottheresultof
wantingtoframeparapsychologyandartificialintelligenceasreasonable.Instead,those
fieldsmaterializedasaresultofthevacuumleftbyhavingtoomanydifferenthypotheses
ofrationality,noneofwhichwasdefinitive.Putanotherway,thestudyofrationalityinthe
ColdWarmadeclearthattheveryideaofrationalitywasanartificialconstruct.The
inabilitytodevelopaformulaoralgorithmforuniversalrationalbehaviormeantthatthere
wasnorubricwithwhichtoevaluatehowtoproceedinagivensituation.
Thereweremanyattemptstocreateasystemofthisnature,notallofwhich
includedalgorithmsormathematicsingeneral.Theyincludedsuchconceptsasgame
theory,prisoners’dilemma,nuclearstrategy,operationsresearch,groupthink,Bayesian
decisiontheory,systemsanalysis,rationalchoicetheory,andexperimentalsocial
psychology.Thislistisbynomeansexhaustive,butitrepresentsamajorpartofthe“loose
andsomewhatmotleyconglomerate…[that]definedthefieldofcontestationaboutwhat
rationalityshouldbeundertheradicallyalteredconditionsoftheColdWar.”30The
relevanceliesinnothoweachtheoryofrationalityfailed,butthattheydidfail.Notasingle
30Erickson,HowReasonAlmostLostItsMind,4.
34
theoryadvancedcouldbeuniversallyappliedtoalldecision-makingsituations.This
influencedUnitedStatespolicyregardingparapsychology.Sinceparapsychologyhad
alwaysbeenconstruedasirrationalbyorthodoxscience,itshouldhavebeenbrushedoffas
outlandishandawasteofvaluableresources.However,withtheconceptofrationalityin
anuncertainstate,theUnitedStatesdecidedthatparapsychologicalresearchwasactually
rational,giventhestateofglobalaffairs.
Section1–Parapsychology’sOriginsintheEarlyColdWar
InitialinvestigationsintoparapsychologybythegovernmentduringtheColdWar
grewoutofstandardpsychologicalwarfareoperationsfromtheprecedingworldwars.
Psychologicalwarfarewasnotanewweaponinthemilitary’sarsenalinthetwentieth
century,buthadexistedsincetheearliestrecordedconflicts.TheUnitedStatesmade
extensiveuseofpsychologicalwarfareinthetwentiethcentury,mostnotablyinLatin
AmericaandSoutheastAsia,whichhasbeenextremelywelldocumented.31
Psychologicalwarfarebecameintertwinedwiththefieldofcommunications,
makingthisacademicdisciplinefertilegroundforliteratureregardingpsychological
manipulation.Althoughgovernmentfundingofuniversityresearchisastandardpractice,
whatmakesthisparticularareaunique,thoughsimilartocomputertechnologyintermsof
control,isthat“[m]ilitary,intelligence,andpropagandaagenciessuchasthe[DoD]andthe
31Simpson,“AcademicAdvocates,”inScienceofCoercion,42-51.
35
[CIA]helpedbankrollsubstantiallyallofthepost-WorldWarIIgeneration’sresearchinto
techniquesofpersuasion,opinionmeasurement,interrogation,politicalandmilitary
mobilization,propagandaofideologyandrelatedquestions.”32Ineffect,thegovernment
heldamonopolyovercommunicationsresearchthroughitsfinancialsponsorship.The
governmentdidnottellthescientistswhattheycouldandcouldnotsay,butitcould
influencewhichscientists’statementswereseenasauthoritativeandwhichwerenot.
Thestudyofpsychologicalwarfarewascompoundedbytherumorsof
parapsychologicalstudiesintheSovietUnion.TheSovietsopenedthedoortotheworldof
extrasensoryperceptionfirst.Awarenessofthisraisedcuriositywithintheintelligence
community’spsychologicalwarfareresearch,whichwascomplementedbyitsown
exposuretoawidevarietyofpseudoscientific,occult,andparanormalthemes,especiallyin
SoutheastAsia.
TheSovietUnion’sresearchintoparapsychologyreachedWesternintelligence
agenciesthroughvariouschannels,somemorereputablethanothers.Twoofthemore
prominentconduitsweretheslowleakofinformationonparanormalresearch33andSoviet
displaysofpsychicalcoercionintheformofshowtrials,whichweredesignedtoinfluence
publicopinion.34TheyhadbeenusedunderdifferentcircumstancesintheSovietUnionin
32Simpson,ScienceofCoercion,1-2.33FloraLewis,SpecialtoTheNewYorkTimes."EmigreTellsofResearchinSovietin
ParapsychologyforMilitaryuse."NewYorkTimes(1923-CurrentFile),Jun19,1977.http://search.proquest.com/docview/123111711?accountid=27495.
34U.S.NationalCouncilforSovietandEastEuropeanResearch,ProceedingsofCongressandGeneralCongressionalPublications,TheOccultinModernRussianandSoviet
36
the1930sintheMoscowTrialsandevenearlierthanthat,buttheseearlierdemonstrations
wereneversuspectedtohaveusedparapsychologicalmanipulation.35Bythe1960s,the
streamofinformationfromtheSovietbloconESP-relatedresearch,inadditiontotheir
publicdisplaysofmanipulatedindividuals,werelargelyresponsiblefortheUnitedStates’
studyoftelepathy,clairvoyance,andotherrelatedphenomena.
Thefirstsignificantdocumenttoappearwithrespecttopossibleapplicationsof
unconventionalpsychologicalphenomenaoccurredinthelate1940s,whentheColdWar
wasinitsearlystages.TheSovietshadbeenexceptionallyproductiveintheir
interrogationsofpoliticaldissidents,extractingconfessionsinwaysthatdefiedthelogicof
Westernintelligence.Theyreceivedadmissionsofguiltfrompeoplewhoseeminglyshould
nothavebeeneasily“broken”,whichpromptedenquiriesintothepossibleinfluenceof
someunknownpsychologyprocessonprisoners.ThemostfamouscaseisthatofJosef
Mindszenty,aHungarianarchbishop,cardinal,andleaderoftheCatholicChurchin
Hungary.
CardinalMindszentywasknowntobeastaunchanti-communist.Priortohisarrest
inDecember1948onchargesoftreasonandconspiracytooverthrowtheHungarian
government,hewrotealetterstatinganyconfessionorrelatedstatementswouldbe
Culture,byBerniceGlatzerRosenthal,99thCong.,2dsess.,open-filereport,U.S.GeologicalSurvey,pt.806-03(Washington,DC:GovernmentPrintingOffice,1993),13-18.
35WilliamChase,“StalinasProducer:TheMoscowShowTrialsandtheConstruction
ofMortalThreats,”inStalin:ANewHistory,ed.SarahDaviesandJamesR.Harris(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,2005),226-48.
37
completelyfalse.Indeed,evenPresidentTrumancalledthetriala“sickeningsham.”36
However,knowingthatitwasfraudulentdidnottranslateintoknowinghowtheSoviet
accomplishedthefeat.Thatvoidinintelligenceproveddifficulttofill.Asaresult,“the
cardinal’strialkick-startedfearsintheUSAthatthe‘Reds’hadmasteredtheartofmind
control–paranoidsuspicionsthatonlygrewintheyearsthatfollowed.”37
Thesecircumstancesareoftencitedbyresearchersasthegenesisofwhatwould
eventuallybecometheCIA’sinfamousMK-ULTRAproject,overshadowingkeyelements
involvingtheuseofparapsychology.TheobviousanswertohowtheSovietsreceivedthe
cardinal’sconfessionisthroughtorture.Withthatestablished,thequestionbecame,by
whatmeans?WeretheyimplantingideasintoMindszenty’sheadtelepathically?Werethey
creatingphysicaltraumathroughsomepsychokineticprocess?Asludicrousasthismay
seem,itcameoutyearslaterthattheSovietswereworkingonthisverytacticwitha
parapsychologicallygiftedwomannamedNinaKulagina.38
DocumentaryfootageofhercaneasilybefoundonYouTubewhichshowsher
performingmanyseeminglyimpossiblefeats.Thevideos,releasedbytheSovietUnionat
theFirstMoscowInternationalConferenceofParapsychologyin1968,mighthavebeen
fictitiousandmadeforpropagandapurposes,butthatinformationhasnevercometolight.
36MichaelOtterman,AmericanTorture:FromtheColdWartoAbuGhraibandBeyond(Carlton,Vic.:MelbourneUniversityPress,2007),15.
37Otterman,AmericanTorture,15.38Dr.MontagueUllman,“PKintheSovietUnion,”inResearchinParapsychology,ed.
WilliamG.Roll,RobertL.Morris,andJ.D.Morris(Metuchen,N.J:ScarecrowPress,1974),120-25.
38
Theveracityofthevisualevidencewouldhavenobearingontheargumentbeingmade
becausewhethertheywererealorfakedoesnotdetractfromthefactthat,intheabsence
ofabsoluteknowledge,thegovernmentcouldnotdismissthepossibilitythattheywere
legitimateandthattheSovietswereinvestigatingthephenomena.
A1949RandCorporationmemorandumexaminedtheuseofhypnoticsuggestion
andotherpsychologicalmanipulationtechniquesintheSovietUniontoelicitfalse
confessions.39Thisreport,authoredbyeminentYalepsychologistIrvingL.Janis,concluded
withaseriesofrecommendationsthatinfluencedthementalityoftheintelligenceand
militarycommunitiesfordecadestocome.Janisassertedthatthe“successfuluse…would
representaseriousthreattodemocraticvaluesintimeofpeaceandwar.Inaddition,it
mightcontributetothedevelopmentofunconventionalmethodsofwarfare,whichwillbe
widelyregardedasimmoral.”Hewentontosaythatthe“resultsofscientificresearchin
thefieldunderdiscussionwouldobviouslylendthemselvestooffensiveaswellas
defensiveapplications.”40Thedocumentleavesonewiththeimpressionthat,althoughthe
existenceofsuchphenomenaisnotwholeheartedlyaccepted,enoughevidencewasthere
towarrantfurtherinvestigation.Thiswasqualifiedbythedeclarationthatsuch
unorthodoxapproachescouldyieldoffensiveaswellasdefensiveapplications,andthatit
wouldbewisetokeepupwithSovietresearchincaseofabreakthrough.
39JanisLesterIrving,“AretheCominformCountriesUsingHypnoticTechniquestoElicitConfessionsinPublicTrials?”SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation,1949.http://www.rand.org/pubs/research_memoranda/RM161.
40Irving,“AretheCominformCountriesUsingHypnoticTechniquestoElicit
ConfessionsinPublicTrials?”19-20.
39
ThefactthatthedocumentoriginatedwiththeRandCorporationissignificant
becauseRandwasalsothesourceformuchofthetheorizingonrationality,andthe
influenceofthelatterontheformercanbeseeninthesuggestedcourseofaction.The
realityofthephenomenaitselfwasnotthecoreissue.Thereportwasnotmeanttovalidate
theexistenceofparanormalprocesses,butrathertosubstantiatetheexistenceofaSoviet
paranormalprogram.HadspeculationabouttheSovietUnion’suseofparapsychologynot
arisen,theUnitedStateswouldnothavehadanydesiretoconductitsownresearch.
Scienceproperhadlongconsideredparapsychologytobeirreconcilablewithestablished
beliefs.Itwasseenasirrational.Thatviewremainedlargelyunchangedatthetimeofthe
ColdWar.ThegoaloftheRANDCorporationwastotrytosynthesizeparapsychologywith
thesebeliefsinawaythatwouldallowESPtobeanalyzedasobjectivelyaspossible.
RAND’scadreofelitescientistsandintellectualshadthetaskoftryingtomakesenseofa
theoreticallyimpossibleweaponbeingdeployedfromanenemythatwasdelvinginto
subjectsthathadnopriorcounterpartorcomparableprogramintheUnitedStates.
Fromalogisticalstandpoint,thematerialandfinancialsupportrequiredtostarta
researchprogramdesignedtoexaminethepossibleusesofextrasensoryperceptionfar
outweighedanypotentialbenefitsthatcouldhaveresulted.Atleast,thatis,untilwordofa
Sovietprogrambegantospread.Parapsychologywasseenasirrationaltoinvestigatein
andofitself,butcrossedthethresholdintorationalterritorywhenitwasbelievedthe
USSRhaddevelopedaweaponpreviouslyunknownintheWest.Unfortunately,butnot
consequentially,thesmokinggunevidenceforSovietpsychicalcoerciontechniquesnever
40
turnedup.Forinstance,afteranumberofyears,JosefMindszentybrokehissilenceonthe
issueandquelledthecolorfulrumorsthathadbeencirculatingsincehisconfession.He
statedthattheSovietshadkepthimawakefortwenty-ninedaysstraightandthatnothing
paranormaltookplace.41
DiscussionsaboutColdWarparapsychologyusuallycitethemostpopularcases;as
aresult,someofthemoreintriguingcharactersareomitted,suchasDr.AndrijaPuharich,
bornHenryKarelPuharić.PuharichwasbornonFebruary18,1918,inChicago,toCroatian
immigrantsfromtheAustro-HungarianEmpire.Puharichissignificantforseveralreasons,
notleastofwhichisthathisfootprintcanbeseenfromthebeginningofthegovernments’
parapsychologicalresearchprogramsallthewaytotheirrenewedinitiativesinthetwenty-
firstcentury.Hisbiographyreadslikeasciencefictionnovel,completewithtalesofcontact
withextraterrestrialbeingsandcommunicationwithancientEgyptiandeities,yethewas
takenquiteseriouslybytheUnitedStatesgovernment,before,during,andafterthese
supposedeventstookplace.42
Puharichembodiedtheconvergenceofalltheelementsthataidedininitiatingthe
parapsychologicalresearchprograms:hehadadeepinterestintheoccult,hewasintheUS
ArmyMedicalCorpsinvolvedinspecializedpsychologicalresearch,andhewasawell-
establishedacademician.Hewaseducatedinthefieldofmedicineanddidpost-graduate
41Otterman,AmericanTorture,197.42JosephHanlon,“UriGellerandScience:ANewScientistSpecial
Investigation,”NewScientist,October17th,1974,170-89.
41
workinphilosophy.Puharich’sexpertknowledgeinascientificfieldandinphilosophywas
vitaltohisparanormalresearch.Hewasalsoaninventorofmedicaldevicesandobtained
severalpatentsforhiscreations,theesotericnatureofwhichcanbegleanedfromtheir
titles:“MethodandApparatusforImprovingNeuralPerformanceinHumanSubjectsby
Electrotherapy”and“MethodandApparatusforSplittingWaterMolecules.”Otherswere
lessexotic,suchasmethodsforimprovinghumanhearing.Theseexamplesshowhis
aspirationtoenhancehumanperceptionbeyondthefivesenses;itiseasytoseewhy
certainsectorsofthegovernmentwouldbeinterestedinsuchcapabilities.
Puharich’ssignificancealsoliesinthefactthathewasoneofthefirstscientiststo
introducethemilitarytothepracticalapplicationsofextrasensoryperception.According
toPuharich,hehadbeencarryingoutresearchonpsychicabilitiesfortheUnitedStates
Navyfor‘ProjectPenguin’asearlyas1948.43Inanotheraccount,hestatedthatheleftthe
militaryin1948,whichaddstohismystique.Regardlessofthatepisode,whatisknownis
thathepresentedapapertoaPentagonbriefingonNovember24,1952,entitled,"Onthe
PossibleUsefulnessofExtrasensoryPerceptioninPsychologicalWarfare."44Thelecture,
presentedtoofficialswithintheResearchBranchoftheOfficeoftheChiefofPsychological
43Geraldo.Episodeno.3,firstbroadcastOctober2,1987insyndication.44JohnWilhelm,“PsychicSpying?TheCIA,thePentagonAndtheRussiansProbe
TheMilitaryPotentialofParapsychology,”WashingtonPost,August7,1977.
42
Warfare,apparentlygeneratedmuchinterestandcuriosityinthesubject,forarrangements
weremadeforPuharichtobereinstatedintotheArmysoonthereafter.45
WhatcamenextforPuharichwassocaptivatingthatitwouldguideandshapehis
workfortheremainderofhislife.OnNewYear’sEve,1952,Puharichwaswithhis
laboratoryassistantHankJackson,whenathirdman,aDr.Vinod,enteredatrancestate
andbegantocommunicatewithotherworldlybeings.Thereareseveralpointsthatare
significantinthecontextofthisexamination.Parapsychology,aswasstatedabove,wasfor
themostpartunderstoodasapseudosciencebythemajorityofthescientificcommunity.
Intryingtoexplicatethefactorsthatcontributedtothecreationofintelligenceandmilitary
parapsychologystudies,amajorcharacteristicfoundamongthemostvocaladvocatesof
theresearchwasabeliefintheparanormal.PeoplelikePuharich,andlaterthescientistsat
StanfordResearchInstitute,weretheclosesttheUnitedStatesgovernmentcametohaving
agroupcomparabletothosedoingparapsychologyresearchintheSovietUnion.
Puharich’scloserelationshipwiththemilitarythroughouttheColdWarwaspartlya
resultofhisinterdisciplinaryexpertiseinparapsychology,engineering,andmedicine.
Ratherthanseparatinghispersonalconvictionsfromhisresearchintotheseareas,he
integratedthem.Puharichbelievedhewasincommunicationwithanintelligentforce,and
heallowed“it”toguideandshapehisresearch.Forexample,afterbeingtoldbythe
intelligentsupernaturalforcethat“weshallnegateandrevisepartofyourwork,bywhichI
45AndrijaPuharich,TheSacredMushroom:KeytotheDoorofEternity(GardenCity,
N.Y.:Doubleday,1974),10-12.
43
meantheworkaspresentedbyyou,”Puharichreplied,“Itishelpfultohaveyourguidance.”
Then,aftertalkingabouttheLorenz-EinsteinTransformationequation,thevoiceaffirmed
that“[t]hewholegroupofconceptshastoberevised.Theproblemofpsychokinesis,
clairvoyance,etc.,atthepresentstageisallright,butprofoundlymisleading–permitusto
saythetruth.”46Unfortunately,afullreferenceortranscriptofwhattranspiredwasnever
madepublic.Whetheronebelieveshisaccountsaregenuineornotisofnoconsequence
herebecausePuharichwascompletelyovertakenbythesepurportedexperiences.
Sincethecontentdirectlyfocusesonparapsychologicalprocesses,whichwasoneof
hisspecialties,itfollowsthathewouldhaveworkedtoincorporatethisnewinformation
intohisownresearch.Indeed,afterafewweeksof“conversations”throughthemedium,
Dr.Vinod,Puharichperceivedtheseexchangestobeprofoundandtheinformationhewas
receivingtobenothingshortofsupremewisdom.Hecommentedthat“itwasadeeply
movingexperience,andwereallybelievedeverywordthatweheardbasedpurelyonthe
internalevidence.ThiswasinterruptedinFebruary1953whenIhadtoserveasacaptain
intheU.S.ArmyduringtheKoreanWar.”47Despitebeingwell-acquaintedwiththe
paranormal,thiseventforeverchangedhisperceptionofthenatureofreality.
Fromthenon,Puharich’scareerwouldcommingleconventionalresearchontheone
hand,suchashiselectronicinventions,andgovernmentextrasensoryperceptionresearch
46AndrijaPuharich,“Introduction,”inUri:AJournaloftheMysteryofUriGeller
(GardenCity,NY:AnchorPress,1974),1-10.47Puharich,“Introduction,”inUri,1-10.
44
ontheother.PuharichwasarguablythemostsignificantpersoningettingtheUnited
Statesgovernmenttoinvestigateparapsychology.Onequestionthatpeoplemayaskis
why,withhisbizarrebackground,thegovernmenttookPuharichseriouslyinthefirst
place.Althoughthisquestionhasmanyanswers,themostpertinentonegiventhecontext
ofthisessay,maybetoseeitasamicrocosmofthemajorargumentofthisthesis:the
questionofrationality.Justasparapsychologyandartificialintelligencethemselveswere
initiallygivenextrascrutinyinthefaceofmountingobjections,thegovernmentalsocasta
widernetamongtherealmofscientists.Inadditiontobelieversinaliens,thegovernment
alsoemployedscientologistsandrun-of-the-millpsychics.Insomecases,thegovernment
evenexposedcritiquesagainstthemasnothingmorethanpreconceivedprejudicesagainst
thephenomenawrappedinaveilofobjectivity.48Onedocument,abriefingreportissued
bytheDefenseIntelligenceAgencytitled“RecentAdversePublicityonParapsychological
Research,”isshortbutindicativeofthegovernment’sperspectiveonthesecharacters.
Theauthorofthedocument,whosenamehasbeenredacted,suspectsthatthesole
intentoftheskepticswastodebunkthephenomena,evenifthatmeantmanipulation.The
reportrelayshowthereareclaimsthat“parapsychologicalresearchers…weretakeninby
trickery,andthatmostifnotallparapsychologicalresearchissuspect”butthat“these
48Authorredacted,RecentAdversePublicityonParapsychologicalResearch(U)(CIA-
RDP96-00788R001100360001-1)(Washington,DC:DefenseIntelligenceAgency),March11,1983.
45
claimsareinfactgrossdistortions.”49ThedocumentwasauthorizedbyDr.JackVerona,a
renownednuclearphysicistandtheheadoftheScientificandTechnicalIntelligence
DirectorateoftheDIA,andwasintendedforinternaldistributionsoastocreateadivide
betweenpublicperceptionandtheviewsheldbyofficialsingovernment.Althoughthe
documentdoesnotmentionPuharichbyname,itisacleardefenseoftheresearchheand
otherswereconductingonbehalfofthemilitaryandintelligencecommunities.
Asidefromhisfringepursuits,thesheernumberofpatentsPuharichobtained
showedthathewasnomadman,andgavecredencetohisabilitytoconductresearchin
controversialareas.Toplacetheexampleinthewidercontextofthisanalysis,Puharich’s
worldviewwassuchthatthedistinctionbetweenwhatwasscienceandwhatwas
pseudosciencewasconsiderablylessstarkthanthatofascientistwithorthodoxviews.In
effect,hewasabletoincorporatetheseideassuccessfullybecausehisviewofwhatwas
rationalwasmoreinclusive.Puharich’suniquepositionasascientistwhobelievedthat
parapsychologywasarationalendeavormadetheideaofutilizingthephenomenamore
palatabletothoseinchargeofdirectingpolicy.Hisspecificcontributionstothe
government’sinvestigationsintoparapsychologyduringtheColdWarcannotbe
overstated.Aswillbeshowninthefollowingchapter,hispresencecouldbefeltin
governmentresearchlaboratorieslongaftertheColdWar.
49Authorredacted,RecentAdversePublicityonParapsychologicalResearch(U)(CIA-RDP96-00788R001100360001-1)(Washington,DC:DefenseIntelligenceAgency),March11,1983.
46
Section2–ComputingResearchinvolvingArtificialIntelligence
Itisimpossibletoexaminetheroleofartificialintelligencewithoutfirstexplicating
thecloserelationshipbetweenthefieldofcomputingandthefederalgovernment.
ResearchintoelectroniccomputingduringtheColdWarinvolvedscientistsfromthree
domains:academia,privateindustry,andthegovernment.Thesedivisions,however,easily
becameblurredasscholarsoftenmovedbetweeneachrealm,pendingsecurityclearance.
Inthisway,researchersforartificialintelligencemirroredscientistslikePuharichinthat
theywereabletomoveinandoutofthepublicandprivatesectorswithrelativeease.
Asidefromagroupofscientistshailingfromdiversebackgrounds,thedevelopmentof
electroniccomputingtechnologyinthetwentiethcenturywouldnothavereachedthe
degreeitdidhaditnotalsobeenforthecontinuousfinancialsupportoftheUnitedStates
government.Forthisreason,manyoftheinnovationsincomputertechnologysinceWorld
WarIIcanbetracedbacktofederalsponsorship.
Severalexplanationshavebeengivenforwhygovernmentsupportwas
indispensableinthisarea,especiallyforlong-termgoals.First,thegovernmentwaspoised
tofundresearchthattendedtocomplementratherthanpreempttheworkinuniversities
andprivateindustry.Aswithallareasofscientificresearch,certaininitiativesareavoided
forreasonsthathavenothingtodowithscience.Forexample,aprivatecorporationmay
resistconductingresearchinanareathatcouldpotentiallyreducetheprofitabilityof
currenttechnologiesbymakingthemobsolete.Thisincludestedious,long-term,
47
fundamentalresearchwheretheimmediatebenefitscannotbeprojectedorknown.50
Althoughtheywereneverwithouttheircritics,artificialintelligenceandparapsychology
gainedlegitimacyasaresultofthepatronageoftheDepartmentofDefense.Thishelped
reducesomeoftheresistancefrompartiesoutsidethepublicsectortogetinvolvedin
researchthatmightormightnotyieldresults.
Similartoparapsychology,theallureofutilizingcomputertechnologyinwar,both
hotandcold,wasenoughofanincentivetostimulategreateffortinmakingthetechnology
operational.Itisatthispointthatthehistoryofartificialintelligenceandstandard
computingresearchdiverge,sincecomputersreachedadegreeoffunctionalitythat
permittedthemtoperformsimplecalculations.Federalfundinginthefieldofcomputing
fromtheendofWorldWarIItothe1970sfacilitatednothingshortofarevolutionin
electronictechnology.Howeverambitiousthisendeavor,thecreationofanartificially
intelligentmachinewashardlymorethanathought,letaloneapracticalgoal;theconcept
itselfwasonlyspeculateduponafewyearsearlier.Althoughtheperiodgenerallythought
toinauguratethefieldofartificialintelligenceisthemid-1950s,theconceptioncanactually
betracedbackmorethanadecadeearlier.Accordingtoartificialintelligencepioneer
DonaldMichie,AlanTuringhadbeenruminatingonthepotentialityofmachines
50“ExecutiveSummary,”inFundingaRevolution:GovernmentSupportforComputing
Research(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1999),1-15,accessedJanuary7,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/1.
48
functioningonthelevelofthehumanbrainasfarbackas1941,albeitusingdifferent
phraseology,callingitmachineintelligence.51
Despitethecoalescenceofthemostarticulateintellectualsandextraordinary
resources,artificialintelligencewasjustnotarationalaimatthetime.Oneofthemost
elementaryproblemsencounteredbyresearcherswaswhatcouldandcouldnotbe
programmedintoamachine.SimilartothetasksperformedbytheDifferenceEngineinthe
timeofCharlesBabbageacenturyearlier,electroniccomputerscouldperformindividual,
specificfunctions,suchasmathematicalequations,butcouldonlyperformonetaskata
time.Bothquestionsandanswerswererecordedintothemachinefromtheoutset,and
whenquestionswereasked,thecomputeressentiallymadetheassociation.Ifthe
computerwasneededtocarryoutadifferenttask,itwouldhavetobeprogrammedfor
thatbeforehand.Thisbecameburdensome,especiallyinrelationtowaroperationswhen
datawasneededinrealtime.Detractorssawtheinabilitytomultitaskasasignificant
impedimenttocreatingartificialintelligence.
HubertDreyfuswasoneofthemostvocalcriticsofartificialintelligenceintheearly
yearsoftheColdWar.InhismonographWhatComputer’sStillCan’tDo:ACritiqueof
ArtificialReason,Dreyfusidentifiesthesheermagnitudeofrawinformationneededto
makethesimplestdecisionsasoneofthemostimpenetrableroadblocksinthecreationof
artificiallyintelligentmachines.Alsoamonghisobjectionswasthefactthatthehuman
51JackCopeland,“TheTuringTest,”inStudiesinCognitiveSystems,ed.JamesMoor,
vol.30,TheTuringTest:theElusiveStandardofArtificialIntelligence(Dordrecht:KluwerAcademicPublishers,2003),1-22.
49
brain,withmoredataaboutaparticularsituationatitsdisposal,reachesasolutionfaster
thanonewithlessinformation.Butamachinetakeseverlongertoreachasolutionthe
moreinformationithas.Therationaleforthiscritiquewasthatamachinewouldtakea
protractedamountoftimetoprocessinformationwhensearchingforthemostoptimal
outcome,whileahumanbrainunconsciouslyorinstinctivelygoesthroughthesearching
processimperceptiblyfast.Itwasthismechanism,arguedDreyfus,whichcouldnotbe
formalizedintoanalgorithm.Nomatterhowmuchinformationwasregisteredintoa
computer’smemory,endowingitwiththeproficiencyorcommonsenseofevenayoung
childwaswhateludedscientists.52Dreyfus’significancealsoliesinthefactthathewasa
consultantfortheRandCorporationwhenhiscritiquewaspublished,atimewhenRand
wasspearheadingartificialintelligenceresearch.Nevertheless,proponentsofartificial
intelligence,especiallywithintheorganizationlikeSimonNewellandJohnCliffordShaw,
werenottobedissuaded.
Withmillionsofdollarsinfinancialincentivecomingfromgovernmentcontracts,
researcherswerenotatalossforresources.Theprimaryfunderoftheseresearchprojects
inthefirstthreedecadesoftheColdWarwasARPA,laterrenamedDARPA(Defense
AdvancedResearchProjectsAgency).Muchofthefundingwasawardedtouniversities,
suchasStanfordUniversityandtheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology(MIT),with
additionalcontractsgoingtoprivatecorporations,suchasInternationalBusinessMachines
52HubertL.Dreyfus,“IntroductiontotheMITPressEdition,”inWhatComputersStill
Can'tDo:ACritiqueofArtificialReason(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1992),ix-lii.
50
Corporation(IBM)andRadioCorporationofAmerica(RCA).DARPAwasinvolvedwith
artificialintelligenceresearchfromtheverybeginningandwasthecatalystforinnovations
incomputertechnology,rangingfromthecyberneticstothepredecessorofthemodern
Internet,theARPANET.DARPAisoneofthemainreasonsartificialintelligencewas
researchedtotheextentitwas.DueinparttothecreationoftheInformationProcessing
TechniquesOffice(IPTO),it“radicallychangedthescaleofresearchinAI,propellingit
fromacollectionofsmallprojectsintoalarge-scale,high-profiledomain.”53Indeed,the
UnitedStateswas,asitisnow,thegloballeaderinAIresearch.
Incontrasttoparapsychology,theUnitedStateswasapioneeringforceinartificial
intelligence.Advancesinelectronicsandcomputingtechnologywereoccurringatan
exponentialrate,anditwasbelievedthatartificialintelligencewouldbecomeareality
downtheline.Thegovernmenttookontheburdenoflayingthefoundationanddoing
preliminary(costly)researchinareasthatwereunappealingtoindustryandacademiaby
themselves.Forinstance,oneoftheinitialimpetusesforartificialintelligenceresearchwas
theestablishmentofauniversal,digital,symboliclanguagethatcouldbeunderstoodby
anymachine.TheseenquiriesweredirectlyrelatedtorationalitystudiesattheRand
Corporation.Decision-makingtoolsderivedfromtheseeffortsweretheresultofartificial
intelligenceresearchandfromthedebateoverrationality.Theveryideaofartificial
53“DevelopmentsinArtificialIntelligence,”inFundingaRevolution,198-225,accessedJanuary7,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/9.
51
intelligencerestedonthenotionthatthemachinemakingthedecisionwoulddosobased
onsomeformofrationaldeliberation.
Sinceartificialintelligenceincorporatesmanydifferentdisciplines,researchwas
pursuedinavarietyoffields.Forthisreason,theSURprogramwouldbeusedtorepresent
DARPA’sprogressinartificialintelligence.Inadditiontotranslatingwords,theaimwasto
havetheprocesscarriedoutautomatically,asclosetoreal-timeaspossible.Oneofthe
fundamentalaspectsofSURwastheconstructionofauniversalformulaforrationality,asit
wasconsideredessentialtoasuccessfulspeechrecognitionprogram.
Sincedefiningrationalitywasahighlycontestedsubjectatthetime,artificial
intelligenceresearchersattemptedtomakethetypeofrationalitytheywereconcerned
withdistinctfromtherationalitydebateingeneral.OneoftheproponentsofthiswasAllen
Newell,whousedthephrase“knowledgelevel”todescribethetypeofrationalitythey
wereafter.Hehypothesizedthattherewasalevelofknowledgeabovesimplesymbol
recognition,whichfunctionedasthecomponentthatchosethebestoptiontocompletea
givengoal.54ThiscanbeseenasaresponsetotheskepticismofcriticslikeDreyfus.
Thereneededtobeamechanismthatcouldreducetheperiodbetweenquestion-
and-answerinthesymbol-basedsystemasnewinformationwasadded,ratherthan
increaseit.Knowledgewasconceptualizedtobea“competence-likenotion,beinga
54AllenNewell,“TheKnowledgeLevel,”ArtificialIntelligence18,no.1(1982):87-
127.
52
potentialforgeneratingaction”andwas“intimatelylinkedwithrationality.”55Theideawas
thattherewasahigherorderfunctionthatcouldwadethroughallpossibleanswersto
reachthebestanswerpossible.
ResearchersatDARPAworkedonthisproblemfortheSURprogram,butwerenot
successful.Althoughseeminglysimpleinscope,thisprojectwouldprovetobe
tremendouslydifficulttocomplete.Infact,itprovedtobesuchacomplexundertakingthat
itwasnearlyabandonedinthe1960s,anddidnotbecomefullyrealizedforoverthree
decades.56Theinabilityofresearcherstocreateanalgorithmtotranslatelanguages,inthis
caseCyrillictoEnglish,providedcriticslikeDreyfuswithammunitionfortheirarguments
againstAI’srationalfoundations.
Nevertheless,DARPAandtheRandCorporationcontinuedtoworktogetheron
problemsrelatedtoartificialintelligence.Failuredidnotnecessarilyleadtoditchingthe
project.Itissignificanttonotethatthesameattitudewasmaintainedthroughoutthe
courseoftheColdWarwithparapsychologyaswell;botheffortsofferedjustenoughto
keeptheinterestofthegovernmentpiqued.SinceoneofthecoretenetsofDefense
DepartmentsponsorshipincomputertechnologyduringtheColdWarwaspreliminary
research,itwasgenerallyunderstoodthattheresearch’sutilizationwouldnotbereadily
knownuntilitwasneeded,or“required.”Asaresult,theleadingAIresearchers,including
55Newell,“TheKnowledgeLevel,”87-127.
56PhilipKlahrandD.A.Waterman.ArtificialIntelligence:ARANDPerspective.
SantaMonica,CA:RANDCorporation,1986.http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P7172.html.
53
JohnMcCarthy,MarvinMinsky,andSimonNewell,“view[ed]theirinstitutions’research,
duringthefirst10to15yearsofDARPA’sAIfunding,asessentiallyunfetteredby
immediateapplications.”Inotherwords,formuchoftheearlyColdWar,substantial
progressdidnothavetobedemonstratedforthefundingtocontinue.
Parapsychologywasaffordedthesameluxury.Justlikeanyotherscience,itwas
requiredtopassrigoroustesting.Sincethemilitarybegantohavenewobjectivesinmind
forartificialintelligence,“thenatureofDARPA’ssupportchangedradically—froman
emphasisonfundamentalresearchatalimitednumberofcentersofexcellencetomore
broad-basedsupportforappliedresearchtiedtomilitaryapplications—bothreflectingand
motivatingchangesinthefieldofAIitself.”57Undoubtedly,thegovernmenthaditssights
setonmilitaryapplicabilityfromtheverybeginning,buttheoverttransitionwouldhave
far-reachingeffects.
57“DevelopmentsinArtificialIntelligence,”inFundingaRevolution,205,accessed
January7,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/6323/chapter/9.
54
CHAPTER3–PARAPSYCHOLOGY,ARTIFICIALINTELLIGENCE,ANDTHEHYPECYCLEINCOLDWARRESEARCH
AstheEastandWestenteredthethirddecadeoftheColdWar,the
UnitedStatesgovernment’sperspectiveontheviabilityoftheresearchprojects
underinvestigationbegantoshift.Thiswas,inpart,aresultofthechangingstateof
theColdWarinthelate1960sthroughthe1970s.AlthoughtheUnitedStatesand
theSovietUnionneverdeployedtroopsoneachother’slandorofficiallydeclared
war,thereweredeadlybattlesthatwerefoughtwiththesupportofboth
superpowers.TheVietnamWarisoneoftheconflictsthatwasbornoutofthis
tedioussituation.TheUnitedStatessupportedSouthVietnamandtheSoviets
backedtheNorth.ThisproxywarleftmillionsofVietnamesemaimedordeadandit
createdamassiveplatformforanti-warsentimentswithintheUnitedStates.Inturn,
theUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionenteredastateofdétente.Détentewas
consideredaneasingofrelationsbetweentheEastandtheWest,atleastintermsof
armedconflict.
ThenucleararmsracethatdominatedtheearlypartoftheColdWar
exacerbatedratherthanquelledfearsovernuclearwar.MutuallyAssured
Destruction(MAD)wasaconceptthatwaspromotedinanattempttogettheidea
outthatnuclearwarwasinnoone’sbestinterest.Anothereffortthatillustratedthe
gravityofthesituationwastheDoomsdayClock,createdbyscientistsinorderto
55
showhowclosetheworldwasperceivedtobefromglobalcatastrophe.Midnight
representednuclearwarwiththeSovietUnion.Thesymbolicclock,initiallysetto7
minutestomidnight,wasmovedascloseas2minutesawayfromworldwide
annihilation.TreatiessuchastheNuclearNonproliferationTreatyandthe
AntiballisticMissilesTreatyweresignedinanefforttosteerawayfromthearms
race.Withtheprospectofhurlingnuclearbombsateachotherbecamemore
remote,lessdevastatingmilitarymeasureswereaffordedmoreconsideration
amonggovernmentofficials.Amongthesewereparapsychologyandartificial
intelligence.
Thehypecycle,whichwillbediscussedinthefollowingsection,isaconcept
thatisusedtodescribetheriseandfallofcertaintechnologiesorfieldsofresearch.
Itisinstructiveinthisstudybecausebothartificialintelligenceandparapsychology
experiencethesecyclesinsimilarways.Bothresearchinitiativesexperienceddark
andgoldenageswithinacoupleofdecades.Theirebbandflowsarerepresentative
ofwhatinformationtechnologyandgovernmentadvisoryfirmGartnerInc.calls
‘hypecycles’58.Inshort,thecyclebeginswithanewconceptenteringpublic
consciousness.Sometimes,theconceptinquestionwillexperienceaperiodoftime
whereanticipatoryoutcomesaregreatlyinflated.Thenextstageoftheprocessis
whentheforecastedresultsarenotmetintherequisitetime.Thisisfollowedbya
58“AboutGartner,”GartnerInc.,2016,accessedApril4,2016,
http://www.gartner.com/technology/about.jsp.
56
severedownturnintheviabilityoftheconcept.Lastly,thetheorysuggeststhatthe
conceptualizationisrealizedsomewherebetweencompletesuccessandtotal
failure.
Thefactormakesparapsychologyandartificialintelligencesignificantisthat
theybothgothroughthesecyclescontinuously.Eventhoughtheyhadintervals
wheretherewasalullinsupport,parapsychologyandartificialintelligenceboth
reemergedfromthoseperiodsandre-intriguedgovernmentofficialsenoughto
startnewinvestigations.
Thischapterwillanalyzehowparapsychologyandartificialintelligencewent
throughthesecyclesandthefactorsthatwentintothem.Inthe1980s,the
parapsychologyprogramwasmovedbetweendifferentintelligenceagencieswhich
sparkedamorecriticaldebateinternallyaboutitsprogressandapplicability.
Reportswerepreparedbyindependentinstitutionsthataidedinprovidingamore
objectiveperspectiveontheprograms.Thesedebateselucidatehow
parapsychologyreemergedonaregularbasis,whythegovernmentwasrationalin
itsdecisiontoinvestigateit,andwhytheseresurgencesininterestarelikelyto
continueinthefuture.Theassessmentdescribedparapsychologygoingthrough
multiplehypecycles.
Theprogressofartificialintelligencewasalsodebated,albeitinamoreopen
forum.ThesedialoguesshowhowAIwasscrutinizedbycriticsandwhyresearch
continueddespiteminimalaccomplishments.Similartoparapsychology,artificial
57
intelligenceresearchcontinuallychangedhands,whichwidenedthedebated
considerably.ThischapterwillclosebyshowingthatbytheendoftheColdWar,
bothdisciplineswereonthestagerepresentativeofdisillusionment,butneither
programwasscrappedentirely,permittingthecycletorepeatitselfinthefuture.
Section1–HypeCyclesandParapsychology
TheuseoftheconceptofthehypecyclecomesfromtheAmerican
informationtechnologyfirmGartnerInc.,anorganizationthatregularlyconsults
withgovernmentandprivateindustry.59Althoughtheyneverweighedinonthese
subjectsspecifically,thehypecycleisapplicabletobothparapsychologyand
artificialintelligence.Beforeexaminingeachprogram,itisimperativetooffera
quickoverviewofwhathypecyclesareandhowtheyplayout.Thecyclebegins
whenthereisa“technologicaltrigger,”thatis,anideaorconceptualizationfora
newtechnology.Thisisfollowedbyanunprecedentedexplosioninanticipationand
expectationforthecapabilitiesofthetechnology,usuallyexaggeratedbymedia
beyondinitialprojections.Thenextstageistheperiodofdisillusionmentwhenthe
technology,andthehypebehindit,arenotrealized.Thefinalphase,whichvaries
dependingonthetechnologyinquestion,iswhenthetechnologyexperiencesa
59“AboutGartner,”TechnologyResearch|GartnerInc.,accessedApril25,
2016,http://www.gartner.com/technology/about.jsp.
58
slightresurgence,endingwithittaperingoffsomewhereinthemiddlebetween
bothextremes.Thelifeofthehypecycleisillustratedinthisinfographic60:
Theconceptofhypecyclesisnotuniversallyacceptedbyscholars,butthe
maincriticism,leveledbyBritishcomputerscientistRichardVeryard,workstothe
advantageoftheprogramsbeingexamined.61Thetheoryofthehypecycleattempts
toarticulatetheevolutionofcertainideasortechnologiesastheygofromthe
proverbialdrawingboardtotheproductionline.Criticsassertthatthisdoesnot
portrayacycle,butratheralinearphenomenonthatgoesfrompointAtopointB.
60GartnerResearchMethodologies(Stamford,CT:Marketing
Communications,2015),7,accessedMarch12,2016,http://www.gartner.com/imagesrv/research/methodologies/methodologies_brochure_14.pdf.
61RichardVeryard,“TechnologyHypeCurve,”DemandingChange,
September16,2005,accessedMay25,2016,http://demandingchange.blogspot.com/2005/09/technology-hype-curve.html.
Figure2:TheFiveMainPhasesoftheHypeCycle
59
Interestingly,however,parapsychologyandartificialintelligencedoinfacthavea
cyclicalnature.Historicallyspeaking,parapsychologyrearsitsuglyhead
periodically,withneitherproponentsabletofullysatisfycriticsandcriticsnever
abletofullystrikeitdownandputanailinitscoffin.Likewise,artificialintelligence
experiencedmanyupsanddownsinitsshorthistory,withperiodsknownasAI
Winterswhereitsfatewasseriouslycalledintoquestion.Yetneitherdiscipline
underwentthefinalstageoftaperingoffintoanacceptablemiddleground;they
loopbacktotheinitialstagewhereenthusiasm,orhype,issomehowre-inculcated
backintothem.62Thefieldsofparapsychologyandartificialintelligencehaveyetto
breakfreefromthissystem.
Thehypecyclesofartificialintelligencearemorepronouncedthanthoseof
parapsychology.ThemostglaringreasonisbecausetheAIexperiencedseveral
cycleswithinthesecondhalfoftheColdWar.Thehypecyclesofparapsychology
takemuchlongertobecomepalpablebycomparison.Thismaybearesultofthefact
thatparapsychologyhashadamuchlongerhistoryandhasaccruedmoreliterature
overthecenturiesthatinformthedebate.Despitehavingrootsthatreachbackto
ancienthistory,artificialintelligence,initscurrentconception,isanewfield.When
researchersweremetwithseeminglyimpassableroadblocks,criticswerequickto
jumponthemasproofoftheinfeasibilityofartificialintelligence.Oneexampleof
62Dr.MichaelD.Mumford,Dr.AndrewH.Rose,andDr.DavidA.Goshin,An
EvaluationofRemoteViewing:ResearchandApplications(WashingtonD.C.:AmericanInstitutesForResearch,1995),3-47.
60
thesekindsofroadblocksistheaforementionedbarrierresearchersmetwhenthey
wereunabletomatchthetacitknowledgeofayoungchildinmachineintelligence.If
andwhensolutionswerefoundforwhicheverissueswasathand,theperspective
revertedbacktoviability.Theprocesshappenedrapidlyandsetprecedentsfor
futureresearch.
Thisback-and-forthhadbeentakingplaceinthefieldofparapsychologyfora
verylongtimeandsodebatesarenotsoeasilysettled.Thislongandcomplex
historyofalternatingperspectivesisoneofthereasons,researcherscontend,why
interestinparapsychologyflairsupafterperiodsofdormancy.Whenthecase
appearstobesettledthatitisapseudoscience,therearealwaysscientiststogo
backtotheliteratureandseesomethingofworththatwasdisregardedbythose
thatdeemedthephenomenanonexistent,causingthecycletostartoveragain.63
Thiswasoneoftheconclusionsofapanelofresearcherscommissionedto
investigatetheprogressandpossiblefutureofparapsychologicalresearchbytheUS
government.
Thestudy,“AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing:ResearchandApplications,”
wascarriedoutbytheAmericanInstituteofResearch(AIR),andwasconductedat
thebehestoftheDefenseIntelligenceAgencyafterthatagencyinheritedthe
programfromtheCIA.Todayitiscolloquiallyknownasthe“AIRReport,”andwhile
itwaswidelythoughttohavedeliveredthedeathknelltostate-funded
63Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.
61
parapsychologyresearch,inrealityitshowshowgovernment-sponsoredresearch
intoESPwilllikelyreturninthefuture,apredictionthatcametofruitioninthe
earlytwenty-firstcentury.
TheAIRReportincorporatedanextensivesectiononthehistoryof
parapsychologyandunwittinglyillustratesthehypecyclesthatparapsychology
goesthroughbyassertingthatparapsychology“hasashiftingdatabase.
Experimentaldatathatonegenerationputsforthasrock-solidevidencefor[ESP}is
discardedbylatergenerationsinfavorofnewdata.”64Thereporttraces
parapsychologybacktotheSocietyforPsychicalResearch(SPR)ofthenineteenth
centuryandhowitperiodicallyreemergedfromitsownashes.Theauthorsinclude
thisnarrativeintheirstudyinordertoshowthattheveryphenomenathatthey
werebeingaskedtoresearchhadalreadybeendoneonacyclicalbasisfor
centuries.
TheSPR’sfirstpresident,HenrySidgwick,obtainedallegedevidencefroma
setoffivesiblings,calledtheCreerysisters.Theyweretestedfortelepathyby
havingonesisterleavetheroomwhiletheresearchershowedawordorimageto
theremainingsistersintheroom.Whenthefifthsistercamebackintotheroom,
therewasagoodprobabilitythatshewouldbeabletoguessthewordorimage.
64Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.
62
Thiswasseenaslegitimateevidenceformanyyears,untilitwasdiscoveredthatthe
sistershadcheatedandusedvarioussignalstotipofftheirsibling.65
Anothersetofexperimentscarriedoutattheendofthenineteenthcentury,
byDouglasBlackburnandGeorgeA.Smith,amesmerist,wasadvancedas
unassailableevidenceofpsychicalphenomena.Theseexperimentswerealongthe
samelinesatthoseconductedontheCreerySisters,withSmithblindfoldedand
askedtonametheobjectshowntoBlackburn.TheideawasthatBlackburnwas
telepathicallycommunicatingtheinformationtoSmith.Thisdata,however,also
provedtobefraudulentasoneparticipantpublishedaconfessionin1911,detailing
howthedeceptiontookplace.66Thosewhosawpsychicalphenomenaasrealwere
notdismayedforlong,asitwouldhavebeenirrationaltotakeafewinstancesof
fraudandusethatasevidencetodiscountallotherresearch.
Parapsychology’shypecyclecontinued,asadecadeorsolaterthefamed
researcherJ.B.Rhinebeganhisexperimentsthatreallypropelledparapsychological
researchintothemodernera.Rhine’sworkillustrateshowparapsychologygoes
throughhypecycles.Italsoshowsthat,historically,criticsweremoresubjective
thanobjectiveintheirattemptstodiscreditthephenomena.Punditswereinitially
quicktoattackRhinefromadirectionthatseeminglyleftlittleroomforinterpretive
65RobertM.SchochandLoganYonavjak,TheParapsychologyRevolution:AConciseAnthologyofParanormalandPsychicalResearch(NewYork:JeremyP.Tarcher/Penguin,2008),26-28.
66SchochandYonavjak,TheParapsychologyRevolution,26-28.
63
leeway:mathematics.Thisshouldhaveservedasadeathknellbecause,touseasold
phrase,numbersdonotlie.However,thisattemptbackfired.AstheAIRreport
recounts:
BurtonCamp,thepresidentoftheInstituteofMathematicalStatistics,issuedastatementthatifthecriticsweregoingtofaultparapsychologicalresearchtheycouldnotdosoonstatisticalgrounds.Thecriticsthenturnedtheirattentiontomethodologicalweaknesses.67
Hereinliesasignificantfactorinwhyparapsychologyisstillresearched.The
picturethatthehistoryportraysisonewherecriticswillgotoextraordinarylengths
todiscreditparapsychology.Ratherthanaccountfortheirinitialrejection,which
clearlyhadnobasisinreality(accordingtoCamp),theyjumpedtoanothertactic.
Whatnevercomesupinthedebateiswhycriticstriedtousefaultymathematicsto
discreditRhine.Ratherthanbeingheldaccountable,theyjumpedtotheirnextline
ofattack,whichwashismethodology.68Moderndayresearchersseethesetactics
usedbyskepticsasjustthat,tacticstodebunkthehypotheticalphenomenano
matterwhat.Currentparapsychologicalresearcherswithinthemilitary
establishmentseethatanddonottaketheconclusionsofthosecriticsseriously.
ItdoesnotmatterherewhetherRhine’sworkprovedthevalidityof
parapsychology,butratherhowtheresearchwasattacked.Shiftingfromcritiqueto
67Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.68Mumford,Rose,andGoshin,AnEvaluationofRemoteViewing,3-47.
64
critique,hopingthatonesticks,unwittinglyshowsthatthecritics’soledesirewasto
discreditthephenomena.Peoplewhoareinterestedinparapsychologyperceived
thisasareasontocontinueinvestigations.Criticshavelongridiculed
parapsychologistsforcherry-pickingevidencethatmakesthephenomenalookthe
best,69butparapsychologistschargeskepticswiththesamecrime.70Fromthisone
caninferthatthedebateismoredeeplyideologicalratherthanrootedinscientific
progress.
Proponentsofparapsychologyalwaysseemtoviewtheretortsofcriticswith
severeskepticism,andviceversa,creatingasituationofperpetualdisagreement.
Thisideologicaldivideisoneofthemajorreasonswhyinterestinparapsychology
revivifiesovertime,asnewergenerationsofgovernmentresearcherslookintothe
debateandconcludethattheargumentsfromestablishedsciencearenotstrong,
andmoreimportantly,insufficienttopreventfurtherresearch,especiallywithinthe
UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce.71
69RichardWiseman,"'HeadsIWin,TailsYouLose':HowParapsychologists
NullifyNullResults:ParapsychologistsHaveTendedtoViewPositiveResultsasSupportiveofthePsiHypothesisWhileEnsuringThatNullResultsDon'tCountasEvidenceagainstIt.Here'sHowThisSelf-deceptiveProcessWorksandFourSuggestionstoOvercomeIt.(Report)."SkepticalInquirer34,no.1(2010):36-50.
70ChrisCarter,"“HeadsILose,TailsYouWin”,Or,HowRichardWiseman
NullifiesPositiveResults,andWhatToDoAboutIt:AResponsetoWiseman’s(2010)CritiqueofParapsychology,"JournaloftheSocietyforPsychicalResearch74(2010):156-167.
71UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce,AirForceResearchLaboratory(AFMC)AFRL/PRSP,TeleportationPhysicsStudy,byDr.EricW.Davis,AFRL-PR-ED-TR-2003-0034(Lancaster,California:EdwardsAirForceBaseCA,2004),1-55.
65
Section2–TheHypeCyclesofArtificialIntelligence
Artificialintelligenceexperiencedmanyupsanddownsthroughoutthelatter
halfoftheColdWar,reflectingthenatureofhypecycles.Severalperiodshavebeen
identifiedasAIWinters,conjuringtheimageofabarrenwastelandwheretherewas
onceathrivingindustry.72Thatwouldbeagrossmisrepresentationofwhatactually
transpired.Fundingwasnotnecessarilypulledfromprojectsrelatedtoartificial
intelligence,butwascontinuouslyreoriented,sometimesloopingbacktopreviously
discardedapproaches.Thesameheldtrueforgeneralenthusiasm.When
breakthroughswerenotforthcoming,goalswerealteredinanefforttokeepthe
researchgoing.Agoodexampleofthisisthehistoryoftheartificialneuralnetwork
(ANN).
ANN’shavefalleninandoutoffavornumeroustimesthroughoutthehistory
ofartificialintelligence,arguablyexperiencingmicrocosmicexamplesofhypecycles
itself.TheconceptofANNswasfirstintroducedbyWarrenMcCulloch,a
neurophysiologist,andWalterPitts,amathematician,intheearly1940s.Although
theoreticallypromising,initialattemptstosimulateorganicneuralnetworksfailed,
leadingtoadeclineinenthusiasm.Then,someprogresswasmadeinthelate1950s
withthedevelopmentofthe“MultipleADAptiveLINearElements”model,or
72JoelMoses,“Macsyma:APersonalHistory”(paperpresentedatthe
MilestonesinComputerAlgebraconference,StonehavenBay,RepublicofTrinidadandTobago,May1-3,2008),1-9.
66
“MADALINE”forshort,whichgavethehypotheticalneuralnetworkavery
rudimentarycapacityto‘think’.ThenANN’stookanunexpectedturn,since“despite
thelatersuccessoftheneuralnetwork,traditionalvonNeumannarchitecturetook
overthecomputingscene,andneuralresearchwasleftbehind.”73Theseexamples
showartificialintelligence’smovementsthroughvarioushypecycles.
DisillusionmentreachedapeakwithpublicationofabookbyMarvinMinsky
andSeymourPaperttitledPerceptrons:AnIntroductiontoComputationalGeometry,
whichwashighlycriticaloftheseverelimitationsthatANNshad.74Thiscoincided
withaperiodofdrasticallyreducedfundingandresearchforalmosttwodecades
untilinterestinANNswasrevitalizedinthe1980swhenJohnHopfieldfromthe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnologypresentedaninfluentialpapertotheNational
AcademyofSciences.75Newmodelshadmadeimprovementsbutthecelebration
wasshort-livedasitwasslowandineffectual.Bytheturnofthecentury,neural
73“NeuralNetworks-History:The1940'stothe1970's,”StanfordUniversity,
accessedJuly2,2016,https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/neural-networks/History/history1.html.
74GaryMarcus,“Is'DeepLearning'aRevolutioninArtificialIntelligence?,”
TheNewYorker,November25,2012,1,accessedMarch12,2016,http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/is-deep-learning-a-revolution-in-artificial-intelligence.
75“NeuralNetworks-History:The1980'stothepresent,”StanfordUniversity,accessedJuly2,2016,https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/courses/soco/projects/neural-networks/History/history2.html.
67
networkshadagainbeensidelinedinfavorofalternativeapproaches.76These
episodesrepresentthefieldofartificialintelligencegoingthroughnumeroushype
cyclesasscientistsconsistentlybecamediscouragedeachtimetheyencountereda
newimpediment.
Thisrecurredonaperpetualbasisthroughoutthe1970sandthe1980s,
causingperiodiclapsesintheconvictionthatafullyrealizedartificiallyintelligent
machinewasfeasible.Forthisreason,thetermAIWintershouldbeunderstoodin
thecontextsofenthusiasmandprogress.Whetherornotthetotalamountoffunding
forartificialintelligenceincreasedordecreasedoverallislessrelevantthantheflow
ofmoneyinandoutofisolatedprojects.Forexample,whenresearchersfaced
algorithmprogrammingproblems,theonesthatDreyfuswascriticalof,theyshifted
theirattentiontoartificialneuralnetworksandtheMADALINEmodel.Whenthat
researchareaprovedfallacious,scientistsshiftedagaintoanewfieldofinterest
calledexpertsystems.Whenperceivedfailuresoccurredinparapsychology,
scientistswerequicktojumponthemasconclusiveevidence;whenthesame
occurredinartificialintelligenceresearch,theywerenotasquicktodenouncethe
entirefieldaspseudoscience.
Whenonelooksattheindividualpartsratherthanthewhole,itisevident
thatsolitaryprojectsworkingonminuteaspectsofartificialintelligencewere
76Marcus,“Is'DeepLearning'aRevolutioninArtificialIntelligence?,”
http://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/is-deep-learning-a-revolution-in-artificial-intelligence.
68
constantlyredirectedorsublimatedtoworkondifferentproblems,thuscreatinga
situationwhereprogresswasattimesnon-existent.ThisleftDr.KevinB.Korbto
remark,“ManythousandshaveworkedononeaspectoranotheroftheAIresearch
programandithasachievedagreatmanythings,butwhereistheAI?”77Withall
theresourcespouredintoartificialintelligence,theresultswereessentiallythe
sameasparapsychology:neitherwasdemonstrable.WhilethedegreeofAI’s
progressmaynotbethatsimple,thesecircumstancesarereflectiveofartificial
intelligence’scorrelationwiththeconceptofhypecycles.
Thefieldofartificialintelligencesufferedfromtheunboundedspeculationon
whatcouldbeaccomplished.Evenwhentherewereaccomplishmentsworth
celebrating,theywerenotseenassignificantmilestonestothegeneralpublic.For
example,considerDARPA’sspeechrecognitionprograms,oftenconsideredthe
“HolyGrail”ofDARPA’stechnologicalquest.78Forasubstantialamountoftime,the
creationofautomatedlanguagetranslationinrealtimewasanabysmalfailure.It
onlybegantobecomearealityintheearlytwenty-firstcentury,longaftertheendof
theColdWar,whichisillustrativeofjusthowlittlewasactuallyachieved
throughoutthatperiod.Thepublicisnowacquaintedwiththiskindoftechnologyin
theformoftoolssuchasGoogleTranslate,buteventhesemechanismsfallshortof
77“TheTrueStateofArtificialIntelligence,”MonashUniversity,November9,2012,accessedDecember3,2015,http://www.monash.edu/news/articles/4531.
78ClayDillow,“DARPA'sNewestLanguageTranslatorWouldBeLess
HandheldDevice,MoreRobotAssistant,”PopularScience,April6,2011,accessedMay15,2016,http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2011-04/darpas-newest-language-translator-would-be-less-handheld-device-more-robot-assistant.
69
beingdefinedasartificialintelligence.
Thedividebetweenwhatisconsideredamassivedevelopmentbyscientists,
andthatbynon-scientists,illustrateshowlittlethesignificanceofsupposed
breakthroughsfilterdownfromthelaboratorytothebureaucratsofficeorthe
public.IndicativeofthiswasalackofappreciationbyDARPAitself.DARPA,the
patriarchalinstitutioninthelifeofartificialintelligence,wasunsurebythelate
1980swhatexactlywasachievedinthefieldofAIintheColdWar.Inthe
PresidentialAddressoftheAssociationfortheAdvancementofArtificial
Intelligence,titled“FoundationsandGrandChallengesofArtificialIntelligence,”Raj
Reddytoucheduponthissentimentwhenherememberedbeingaskedbysenior
DARPApersonnel,“Whatarethemajoraccomplishmentsofthefield?Howcanwe
measureprogress?Howcanwetellwhetheryouaresucceedingorfailing?”79These
arenotquestionsthatareaskedofsomeonewhoseworkshouldspeakforitself.
DARPAwasnotapassivesponsor,itwasintegralintheresearcheverystep
ofthewaybecauseofthetechnologiescapabilitiesintermsofnationaldefense.Had
artificialintelligencereallyexperiencedmassivedevelopments,asproponents
wouldargue,DARPAwouldhaveknownofthemfromthestart.Onecaninferfrom
thisthateventhoughartificialintelligenceresearchhaseversoslightlychipped
awayattheproblemsithasencountered,thosesuccessesarenotperceivedas
79RajReddy,“FoundationsandGrandChallengesofArtificialIntelligence,”in
“PresidentialAddress,”AIMagazine(Winter1988):9-21,accessedDecember2,2015,http://www.aaai.org/Library/President/Reddy.pdf.
70
profoundorlife-changinginanyway.EventhoughDARPAsupportedprojectsit
knewwouldnothaveimmediateapplications,thepromisesmadetoitranghollow
aftersomanyyears.
Section3–TheFateofParapsychologyandArtificialIntelligenceattheEndofthe
ColdWar
ParapsychologicalresearchinthesecondhalfoftheColdWar,specificallythe
1980sthroughthe1990s,isintriguingbecausemanyoftheparticipantsinthose
programshavegoneontodetailtheirexperiencestothepublic.Thelatterphaseof
parapsychologyresearchencapsulatedthe1980s,whentheresearchwas
transferredfromtheCentralIntelligenceAgencytotheDefenseIntelligenceAgency,
totheendoftheColdWarinthe1990s.Theprogram’sdesignatedcodenamewas
changedonseveraloccasionsthroughoutthistime.80Publicitysurroundingthe
government’sinvolvementwithparanormalactivitiesreachedacrescendoduring
thistimeduetothesensationalizationofthesubjectbyvariousmediaoutlets.81
Withtheprogramnolongersecret,thegovernmentwasinatoughposition.Having
80StevenAftergood,“StarGate[controlledRemoteViewing],”Federationof
AmericanScientists,lastmodifiedDecember29,2005,accessedMay12,2016,http://fas.org/irp/program/collect/stargate.htm.
81DanielDruckmanandJohnA.Swets,“ParanormalPhenomena,”inEnhancingHumanPerformance:Issues,Theories,andTechniques(Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,1988),169-208,accessedJune29,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/1025/chapter/13.
71
knowledgethattheUnitedStatesofficiallyresearchedparapsychologyforseveral
decadesbythemid-1980s,peoplehavebeencuriousaboutwhatwasfoundthat
kepttheprogramaliveforsolong.Sinceparapsychologyisadeeplypolarizingissue,
severalcommitteesofscientistswerecommissionedtoanalyzewhatexactlythe
researchshowed.Oneofthesecommittees,theAmericanInstituteofResearch,was
responsiblefortheaforementionedAIRreportthatgaveapessimisticviewofthe
research.
AnotherbodythatwastaskedwiththesameobjectivewastheCommitteeon
TechniquesfortheEnhancementofHumanPerformancefromtheCommissionon
BehavioralandSocialSciencesandEducation(CBASSE)oftheNationalSecurity
Council.Thisreportiscuriousduetoasingleparagraphattheveryendofthetext.
Whileconcludingthattheactualdatajustdidnotsupporttheincredible
declarationsbeingmaderegardingESP,itnotesthatthecommitteewasurgedby
themilitarytoreconsiderbecauseseveralmilitarypersonnelhadconcluded
otherwise.Thereferenceisshortandvague,mentioningonlythat“twoofthe
militaryofficerswhobriefedus…urgedthecommitteetogiveseriousconsideration
toparanormalphenomena...Theydescribedavarietyofsuchphenomenathatthey
felthadmilitarypotential,eitherasthreatstosecurityorasaidstodefense.”82No
otherinformationordetailsaregivenastowhatparanormalphenomenathe
militarywastalkingabout,orhowitmightaidinnationaldefense.Onecanonly
82DruckmanandSwets,“”SourcesofInformation“withinParanormalPhenomena,”inEnhancingHumanPerformance:Issues,Theories,andTechniques,169-208,accessedJune29,2016,http://www.nap.edu/read/1025/chapter/13.
72
speculatewhetherthemostpotentevidencewaskeptconcealedfromthe
committeeorthepublicforpurposesofnationalsecurity.
Nevertheless,thecommitteedidnotalteritsassessment,meaningthese
divergentviewsweretoremainirreconcilable.Thecivilianwingofthe
parapsychologyprograms,suchastheCIAandDIA,tooktheseassessmentsasacue
tobackawayfromparanormalresearch,atleastpublicly;ontheotherhand,the
militarystoodbyitsownscientificassessmentsandinitiatednewprojectsdelving
deeperintoparapsychologyandincorporatingitwithinquantumphysics.Before
brieflyevaluatingthemilitary’stwenty-firstcenturypsychicwarfareprogram,a
summaryofparapsychologyattheendoftheColdWarwillshedsomelightonhow
thattransitionoccurred.
Bythelastdecadeofthetwentiethcenturyprogramsrelatedtoartificial
intelligenceandparapsychologyhadbeeninoperationforoverthirtyyears.The
fruitsofthislaborarehighlycontested.Neitherprogramestablishedthesortof
successthathadbeenprojectedovertheyears,nordidtheyaidinwinningtheCold
WarovertheSovietUnion.Thisisnottosay,however,thatalltheresearchand
resourcesexpendedontheseprogramswasinvain.Throughoutthecourseofthe
ColdWar,theprogramsonextrasensoryperceptionproducedovertwelvethousand
documentstotalingnearlyonehundredthousandpagesofinformation,andthatis
justwhathasbeendeclassified.Muchofthismaterialhasnotbeeninvestigated,but
73
includesinternalmemos,committeebriefings,experimentsandresults,financial
records,andforeignintelligence.83
Infact,asfarasIhavebeenabletouncover,therehasbeennoacademic
historianthathasundertakenasystematicreviewofthesedocuments,leading
amateurandbuddinghistorianstowadethroughthematerialthemselves.Despite
steadyderisionandunsubstantiatedclaimsthattheintelligencecommunity
purposefullyliedinthedocuments,theyarethemostprestigioussourceof
informationforfutureparapsychologicalresearchersandenthusiasts.Sincethe
topiciscontroversial,anylaboratorylookingintoitwillbemetwithskepticism,
evenifdoneatarespecteduniversity.Attheveryleast,thegovernment-supported
studiesprovideanextralayerofprotectionagainstdeceitbecausetheywerecarried
outunderthebannerofnationalsecurity.
Whenthegovernmentofficiallyrecognizedtheparapsychologyprojectsin
themid-1990s,itdidsowiththeunderstandingthatthoseprogramswerepromptly
terminated.Mostoftheprogramswerecloseddown,butnotall.Thoughsmallerin
sizeandscope,theDefenseIntelligenceAgencymaintainedacadreofpsychicsand
continuedtocarryoutresearch.84Notmuchisknownaboutthesenewerprojects
83TamraL.Temple,“ProjectStargateInteractiveArchives,”ProjectStargate
InteractiveArchives,2016,accessedNovember3,2015,http://www.stargate-interactive.com/index.html.
84KennethKress,“ParapsychologyinIntelligence:APersonalReviewand
Conclusions,”JournalofScientificExploration13,no.1(1999):69–85,accessed
74
buttheirexistenceissignificantforseveralreasons.First,someoneinthe
establishmentmusthaveseenpotentialinpsychicwarfarefornewstudiestobe
authorized.Heretheconceptofrationalityshinesthrough,closelymirroringthe
situationthatinitiallysparkedthissagahalfacenturyearlier.Maybethemost
successfulresearchwaskeptclassifiedfromthepublicandinternallyservedasa
reasonforrenewedefforts.Thisissheerspeculation,butthepointisthatevenafter
theColdWar,aftertheprogram’sdisclosure,andafterassurancesthat
parapsychologywasnotuseful,theintelligencecommunitystillconsideredfurther
parapsychologicalresearchastherationalapproach.
AnotherreasontheDIA’sdecisiontocontinueresearchissignificantis
becauseitcouldrepresentthebeginningofanewhypecycle.Theendofoneera
usheredinanewone.Althoughitremainstobeseenifgovernment
parapsychologicalresearchwillcausehypeinthefuture,itcertainlyisasubjectthat
isdiscussedandnotastabooasonemightexpect.Indeed,althoughtheCIA
transferredtheprogramtotheDIA,formerDirectorofCentralIntelligenceRobert
M.GatesmadeitclearthattheCIAwouldcontinuetomonitorparapsychological
researchconductedbyotherinstitutions,especiallyintheacademicworld,withthe
intentionoffocusingonabilitiesthatwouldhavepracticalandoperational
December3,2014,http://www.scientificexploration.org/journal/jse_13_1_kress.pdf.
75
applications.85Inadditiontotheintelligencecommunity,themilitaryhasalso
shownrecentinterestinparapsychology.
In2004,theUnitedStatesAirForcereleasedaspecialreporttitled
“TeleportationPhysicsStudy,”alargesectionofwhichwasfocusedon“psychic
teleportation.”Psychicteleportationcanbethoughtofasasynonymfor
psychokinesis.Theauthorofthereport,Dr.EricW.Davis,declared:
Theteleportationphenomenondiscussedinthechapterisbasedonpsychokinesis(PK),whichisacategoryofpsychotronics.TheU.S.military-intelligenceliteratureisreviewed,whichrelatesthehistoricalscientificresearchperformedonPK-teleportationintheU.S.,ChinaandtheformerSovietUnion.Thematerialdiscussedinthechapterlargelychallengesthecurrentphysicsparadigm;however,extensivecontrolledandrepeatablelaboratorydataexiststosuggestthatPK-teleportationisquiterealandthatitiscontrollable.86
ThereportspeaksratherhighlyoftheresearchconductedbyPuthoffandTargat
StanfordUniversityandgoesontostatethatthecentralfigureininitiatingthe
UnitedStatesGovernmentresearchprogramsintoparapsychology,Andrija
Puharich,isconsideredanexpertinthefieldbythemilitary.87Thefactthatthis
reportwaswrittennearlyadecadeaftertheprogram’sdisclosuretothepublic(and
85RobertM.Gatesetal.,videoconferencewithTedKoppel,November28,
1995,ABCNewsNightline,ABC,WashingtonD.C.86UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce,AirForceResearchLaboratory,
TeleportationPhysicsStudy,viii.87UnitedStatesDepartmentoftheAirForce,AirForceResearchLaboratory,
TeleportationPhysicsStudy,55.
76
itstacitdisavowal)ismoreevidencethatanewhypecyclemightindeedbe
underway.
ForscientistsintheAirForcetoseepotentialinthesamephenomenathat
civilianscientistsvehementlyconsiderapseudosciencemeansthatthepublicisnot
awareofthefullsituation.DoestheAirForcehaveaccesstoinformationthatthe
generalpublicdidnotthatswaysthemtowardseeingparapsychologyasareality?
Whatdotheyseethatcivilianscientistsdonot?Thesequestionscannotbe
answereduntilmoreinformationismadeavailableinthefuture.Fornow,allthat
canbeinferredfromthecurrentcircumstancesisthatahighlyelite,prestigious,
wealthyandpowerfulsectorofAmericansocietyhasandcontinuestobea
proponentoftherealityofextrasensoryperceptionandrelatedanomalous
phenomena.Theconcomitantinferenceisthatthecivilianscientificestablishment
hasbeenunsuccessfulinitsrepeatedattemptstodiscreditparapsychologyinthe
eyesofitsmilitaryandintelligencecounterparts.
Ontheothersideofthespectrum,artificialintelligenceexperiencedsimilar
fluctuations,butisnotasinherentlycontroversialasparapsychologyistothe
scientificestablishment.Bycomparison,researchintoartificialintelligencewas
moreopenintermsofwhatthepublicwasmadeawareof.Evenwhenreading
publicationsbyscientistswhoareskeptics,thecondescensionpresentinliterature
criticalofparapsychologyisnotpalpabletothereader.Thisisbecausetheideaof
artificialintelligencedoesnotinvadeuponthepre-acceptedprinciplesthat
scientistsadhereto.ArtificialintelligencewasnotasuccessfulenterpriseintheCold
77
War,but,unlikeparapsychology,thequestionwasnever,“Shouldwecontinueto
researchit?”Rather,thequestionthatmorecloselyresemblestherealissueathand
was,“whataspectofartificialintelligenceshouldbestudiednext?”Theformer
questionreflectedthemajorityofscientist’sperspectiveonparapsychology,the
latteronartificialintelligence.Indeed,thecorrespondencebetweenDARPAandthe
AAAIpreviouslymentionedexemplifiesawillingnessofthegovernmenttocontinue
itssupportofartificialintelligenceresearch.
Despitetheroleplayedbytheprivateandacademicsectorsinthegrowthof
artificialintelligence,thegovernmenthasandwillcontinuetobethebackboneof
supportinthefield.Theentanglementofthesethreeentitiessolidifiedthefieldof
computertechnologyandthisrelationshipiswhatfuelsartificialintelligence
researchtoday.Theseassociationswerepivotalforprogressincomputer
technology.Interrelationshipssuchasthesewillcontinueandbecomestrongerin
thefutureascomputertechnologybecomesevenmoreubiquitousthatitalreadyis.
Eventhoughresearchregardingartificialintelligenceisnotlikelytobe
terminatedanytimesoon,itisimpossibletoascertainwhetheritsprevious
fluctuationsrepresentedbythehypecyclewillcontinueinthefuture.DARPA,the
governmententitythatisprimarilyconcernedwithartificialintelligence,is
currentlyundertakingthreepublicprogramsgearedtowardartificialintelligence:
“ProbabilisticProgrammingforAdvancingMachineLearning”(PPAML),
“CommunicatingwithComputers”(CwC),andthe“BigMechanism”.ThePPAML
servesasaperfectexampleofthehypecycleastheproject’sintendedpurposeisto
78
“createmoreeconomical,robustandpowerfulapplicationsthatneedlessdatato
producemoreaccurateresults–featuresinconceivablewithtoday’stechnology.”88
Thisisthesametechnologythatwassoughtintheoriginalresearchthatwas
ultimatelyunsuccessful.Onceabandoned,theconceptformachineswitha
sophisticatedenoughartificialintelligencetomakesdecisionsfasterandmore
accuratewithlesstimeandresourcesisbeingrevisited.
Onthewhole,theartificialintelligenceandparapsychologyprograms
followedsimilartrajectoriesthroughouttheColdWarandbeyond.Theideaofthe
hypecycleisastrongconceptualaidthatillustratestheperiodicepisodesofintense
optimismfollowedbywidespreaddisillusionment.Thesetrendswereconsistent
withthestateoftheresearchatthetimeandtheexpectationsthatwereassociated
withthem.AlthoughitisimportanttoacknowledgethattheadvancesmadeinAI
havebeenmoreimpressivethaninESP,tothepublic’sknowledgeneitherventure
tothisdayhasprovedsuccessfultothepointwheregovernmentscientistscan
confidentlydemonstratetheminanopenforum.Yet,bothparapsychologyand
artificialintelligencearestillbeinginvestigatedfortheirpotentialbenefits.
Oneofthefactorsthatmakeparapsychologyandartificialintelligence
uniquelyconnectedisthefactthatbothinitiativesinthepost-ColdWareraare
directlydescendedfromtheprogramsthattookplaceinthesecondhalfofthe
88Dr.SureshJagannathan,“ProbabilisticProgrammingforAdvancing
MachineLearning(Ppaml),”DefenseAdvancedResearchProjectsAgency,accessedJanuary29,2016,http://www.darpa.mil/program/probabilistic-programming-for-advancing-machine-Learning.
79
twentiethcentury.TheUnitedStatesAirForceproposedfurtherresearchinthe
workofDr.AndrijaPuharichandtheexperimentsconductedatStanfordUniversity,
citingspecificinterestintheareaof‘psychicteleportation,’whichismoregenerally
knownaspsychokinesis.Withregardtoartificialintelligence,DARPAdecidedthatit
wasimperativetogobackandreexaminethesameproblemitencounteredinthe
1960s;theartofendowingamachinewithasignificantlyreducedperiodbetween
questionandanswer,orinputandoutput.Inbothcasesthegovernmentisholding
itsownpreviousresearchasthebenchmarkorbasisforwhatendeavorstoexplore
inthefuture.
80
CONCLUSION
Artificialintelligenceandparapsychologyaretwoconceptsthathavebeen
investigatedinpasterasandwillsurelycontinuetobethesubjectsofinquiryinthe
future.ThesefieldsundoubtedlytranscendtheColdWar,yettheirhistorieswithin
thatperiodareillustrativeofthekindsofdecisionsthatbesettheleadersofthe
UnitedStates’intelligenceandmilitarycommunities.Therawfirepowerof
conventionalweaponsthatwereutilizedinformerwarswereofnoconsequencein
theColdWar,leavingofficialswiththetaskofcreatingoffensiveanddefensive
weaponryofadifferentcaliber.Artificialintelligence,atthetime,waslargelybeing
consideredforitsdefensivecapabilities,asU.S.authoritiessoughttohavespeech
recognitiontechnologythatunderstoodandtranslatedlanguagesinrealtime.
Parapsychology,theoreticallyatleast,wasacknowledgedashavingpotentialinboth
offensiveanddefensiveobjectivesbytheintelligencecommunity,particularlyafter
scientistslearnedofreportsfromtheSovietUnion.Theseaberrantresearch
initiativesseriouslyquestionedtheconceptofrationality,asitwasthenunderstood.
Thoughtheorists’ideasofrationalitywerebynomeansmonolithic,priortotheCold
Wartherewasafairlyunifiedperspectivethatparapsychology,andtoacertain
extentartificialintelligence,wereirrationalresearchendeavors.
TheColdWarthatenvelopedtheworldinthesecondhalfthetwentieth
centurycreatedasituationwherebothsuperpowersfeltitwasnecessary,and
81
rational,toinvestigateconceptsthatotherwisewouldnothavebeenentertained.
Theseforaysintothefringeresultedinabreakfromtheformofrationalitythathad
beenpreviouslyacceptedandusheredinanerawhererationalitywasunderstood
withintheconfinesofaveryspecificcontext:theneedforalternativemeasures
againsttheSovietUnion.Indeed,thedecisionstoauthorizeresearchinto
parapsychologyandartificialintelligencewerenotwithouttheircritics,butinthe
faceofextraordinarycircumstances,suchastheintelligencethattheSovietswere
workingonparapsychologicalwarfaremeasures,theUnitedStatesGovernmenthad
nootheroptionbuttoresearchit,lestitriskfallingbehindtheUSSR.Inconjunction
withthis,themilitarywasimpressedwiththeworkofascientistnamedAndrija
Puharich,whoarguedforgovernmentsupportforresearchintoextrasensory
perceptionformilitaryandintelligenceapplications.
Artificialintelligence,thoughseeminglylesscontroversialthan
parapsychology,wasnotasacceptabletothescientistofthemid-twentiethcentury
asitistooneofthetwenty-first.Sincetheconceptofartificialintelligenceinits
modernincarnationdevelopedalongsidecomputertechnology,researcherswere
hesitanttoendorsethenotionthatapieceofhardwarecouldseamlesslysimulate
thefunctioningofthehumanbrain.Oneofthemostprominentargumentscritiquing
AIwasthatdespiterecordingvastswathsofinformationintoadevice,thatdevice
wouldnothavethecomprehensionequivalentofasmallchild;wordssuchas‘wood’
and‘would’wereconfusedbythemachine.TheDefenseDepartmentwasneverfully
82
deterredbythesecriticisms,eventhoughartificialintelligencewouldencounter
numerousroadblocksthroughouttheColdWar.
Bothparapsychologyandartificialintelligenceparalleledeachotherinthe
sensethatthoseworkingontheprojectswereardentproponentsoftheirpotential
capabilitiesandtheresultstheywerereceiving.Ontheotherhand,membersofthe
governmentthatwerefarremovedfromtheprogramsdidnotalwayssharethat
senseofaccomplishment.Thisdivisioninsupportersanddetractorsextends
beyondtherealmofthegovernmentandpervadesthepublicsphereaswell.Since
neitherside,forbothparapsychologyandartificialintelligence,wasabletowholly
convincetheother,ascenarioofperpetualconflictarose.Thisclashpointedtowhat
researchershavetermed“hypecycles.”Theconceptofthehypecyclesymbolizes
howideasfallinandoutoffavorbasedonavarietyofdatapoints.Bothprograms
experiencedcyclesanalogoustothesethroughoutthecourseoftheColdWar.
Parapsychologicalphenomenahaveperplexedmanforcenturiesandwill
continuetointhefuture,especiallyifthoseattheapexofscientificprogress,suchas
theAirForceResearchLaboratory,continuetofinditworthinvestigating.Artificial
intelligenceisslowlybeingintroducedtodaythroughnumerouselectronic
platforms,butitisnotthekindofartificialintelligencethatonewouldexpect.The
speechrecognitionprogramsundertakenbyDARPAwereneverabletotranslate
theRussianlanguageinrealtime.Infact,thatsortoftechnologyisonlycomingto
fruitioninthepresent.Inmanycases,speech-to-textsoftwarefailstorecognize
83
voices,accents,andwordsingeneral.Nevertheless,artificialintelligenceasa
concepthasbecomeubiquitousinsocietyandispromotedbyprivateindustryin
waysthatwhollycontradicttheactionsofcorporationswhenAIwasinitsinfancy.
WhereascorporationsintheearlyColdWarwerereluctanttofinanceresearchinto
asubjectwithoutalargeprospectofreturn,privateindustryinthetwenty-first
centuryispouringbillionsofdollarsintoresearchingwaystoendowmachineswith
human-levelintelligence.Thisdrivebytheprivateindustryisbuoyedbythe
interestoftheDepartmentofDefenseindevelopingartificiallyintelligentmachines,
neitherpartyofwhichislikelytoenditspursuitsanytimesoon.
84
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