reporty psycho
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THE NEWBORN
LEARNING OBJECTIVE
Summarize the reflexes and perceptual
abilities of newborns. Describe the four basic
temperaments that are visible at birth, the
extent to which those inborn temperaments
remain stable over time, and the reasons for
both stability and change.
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Reflexes
Neonates(newborns) have many reflexes
that help them to survive
Rooting reflex
Sucking reflex
Swallowing reflex
Stepping reflex
Grasping reflex
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Temperament
Temperamentrefers to characteristic patternsof emotional reactions and emotional self-regulation.
Temperament is influenced significantly byheredity and often remains stable intoadulthood.
However, environmental factors such asparents response to childs temperament canalso be an influence.
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Thomas & Chess (1977) identified three types of
babies:
Easy babies are good natured and adaptable,
easy to care for and to please.
Difficult babies are moody and intense, with
strong, negative reactions to new people andsituations.
Slow to warm up babies are relatively inactive
and slow to respond to new things; when they do
react, their reactions are mild.
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Kagan and his associates (1988, 1991, 1993, 1994)
have added a fourth: the shy child.
Shy children are timid and inhibited, fearful of
anything new or strange.
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Perceptual Abilities
Vision
At birth, babies can see faces or objects 8 to
10 inches away.
By 8 months they are able to see as well as the
average young adult, although their visual
system takes another 3 or 4 years to develop
fully.
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Depth PerceptionThe ability to see the world in three
dimensions is well developed by the time a
baby learns to crawl, between 6 and 12
months of age.
Demonstrated in a classic experiment using
the visual cliff (Walk & Gibson, 1961).
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Other Senses
Fetuses can hear sounds in utero, and
after birth babies show signs that they
remember sounds they heard in the
womb.
Newborns have clear preferences
regarding taste and smell.
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INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
LEARNING OBJECTIVES Describe how the human brain changes
during infancy and early childhood.Summarize the course of physical and motor
development in childhood. Describe Piagets stages of cognitive
development and Kohlbergs stages of moraldevelopment and summarize the criticisms of
each. Describe the course of languagedevelopment in childhood. Compare andcontrast the views of Skinner, Chomsky, andPinker regarding language development.
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Distinguish imprinting from attachment.Describe the nature of parentchildrelationships in the first 12 years of lifewith specific reference to Eriksons stages
of development. Describe how peerrelationships develop during childhood andthe importance of non-sharedenvironments.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont)
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LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont)
Distinguish gender identity, genderconstancy, gender-role awareness, and
gender stereotypes. Describe sex-typedbehavior including the extent to whichbiology and experience shape sex-typedbehavior.
Summarize the research on the effects oftelevision and video games on children.
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Neurological Development
The human brain changes dramatically duringinfancy and early childhood:
Dendrites begin to bloom and branch out.
The number of interconnections betweenneurons in the brain increases dramatically.
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There is rapid growth of myelin sheaths, which
provides insulation and increases speed ofconduction.
In infancy, synaptic growth is prominent in the
prefrontal cortex and in visual and auditory areasof the cortex.
A lack of external stimulation can have a negative
impact on brain development.
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Physical Development
On average babies grow 10 inches and gain 15
pounds in the first year.
Birth weight is doubled by 4 months and
tripled by the first birthday.
Rapid increases in height and weight will not
occur again until early adolescence.
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Young children are top heavy: They have large heads and small bodies. As they get older, the body and legs become
longer, and the head is proportionately smaller.
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Motor Development
Motor development refers to the acquisition of skillsinvolving movement, such as grasping, crawling, andwalking.
The average ages at which motor skills are achieved arereferred to as developmental norms.
Motor development proceeds in a proximodistalfashionthat is, from nearest the center of the body(proximal) to farthest from the center (distal).
Maturation - an automatic biological unfolding ofdevelopment in an organism as a function of thepassage of time.
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Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (18961980) observed and
studied children.
As a result of his observations, Piaget believed
that cognitive development is a way of
adapting to the environment.
In Piagets view, children are intrinsically
motivated to explore and understand things.
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Piaget proposed a 4-stage theory of cognitivedevelopment:
Sensory-motor 0-2 yrs
Preoperational 2-7 yrs Concrete-operational 7-11 yrs
Formal-operational 11-adulthood
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In the sensory-motor stage(birth to 2 years ofage), the individual develops object permanenceand acquires the ability to form mental
representations. object permanence - an awareness that things
continue to exist even when they are out of sight.
mental representations - mental images or
symbols (such as words) used to think about orremember an object, a person, or an event.
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Between the ages of 2 and 7, children are inthe preoperationalstage.
During the preoperational stage individuals
are able to use mental representations andlanguage to describe, remember, and reasonabout the world.
These abilities are limited because childrenare egocentric--limited in their ability to seethings from anothers point of view.
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The concrete-operationalstage, in which theindividuals can attend to more than one thing ata time and understand someone elses point of
view, occurs between the ages of 7 and 11 years. They are able to understand the principle of
conservation, the concept that the quantity of asubstance is not altered by reversible changes in
its appearance. This way of thinking is limited to concrete
matters.
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Beginning at 11 years old, individuals become
capable of abstract thought.
Piaget referred to this stage as the formal-
operationalstage of cognitive development.
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Criticisms of Piagets theory
Some see cognitive development as a more
gradual process, resulting from slow
acquisition of experience.
Piaget underestimated what young infantscould understand about the world.
Piaget underplayed the importance of social
interaction in cognitive development.
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Noam Chomsky (1965, 1986) argued that childrenare born with a language acquisition device,aninternal mechanism that is wired into the
human brain, facilitating language learning andmaking it universal.
This language acquisition device enables youngchildren to detect general patterns of grammar in
adult speech, permitting them to quickly learnthe words and rules of any language to whichthey are exposed.
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Moral Development
Kolhberg (1979, 1981) proposed a 3-level
theory of moral development:
Preconventional level
Conventional level
Postconventional level
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Preconventional level:
Preadolescent children tend tointerpret behavior in terms of its
concrete consequences.
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Conventional level:
Arrival of adolescence (formal-operational
thought): right behavior defined as that
which pleases others.
Mid-adolescence: a shift toward considering
abstract social virtues and respecting
authority.
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Postconventional level:
Marked by an emphasis on abstract principles
such as justice, liberty, and equality.
For the first time, people become aware ofdiscrepancies between what they judge as
moral and what society has determined to be
legal.
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Language Development
2 months of age - infant begins to coo.
3-4 months of age - babbling- repeating meaninglesssounds that are the building blocks for later languagedevelopment.
4-6 months - babbling takes on certain features ofadult language (intonation, basic sounds of nativelanguage).
6 months - recognize commonly used words such astheir own names and Mommyand Daddy.
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By 1 year, vocalization becomes increasingly
communicative and socially directed.
Caregivers facilitate this process by using infant-
directed speech.
During the next 6-8 months children build a vocabulary
of one-word sentences called holophrases.
In the 2nd year of life, children begin to distinguish
between themselves and others, and possessive words
become part of their vocabulary.
Feedback from parents enhances vocabulary.
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B.F. Skinner believed that parents and other people
listen to the infants cooing and babbling and
reinforce those sounds that most resemble adult
speech. However, most psychologists and linguists now
believe that learning alone cannot explain the speed,
accuracy, and originality with which children learn to
use language.
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A more recent theory of language acquisition, advanced bySteven Pinker (1994, 2007; Pinker and Jackendoff, 2005),holds that, to a large extent, evolutionary forces may haveshaped language, providing humans with what he calls alanguage instinct.
Young children learn a second language more quickly andspeak it more fluently than adults, supporting the idea of acritical period during which a second language is mostreadily acquired.
Research has shown that learning a second language haslong-term effects on the brain, including increasedneuroplasticity and greater neural density in languagecenters (Song, Skoe, Wong, & Kraus, 2008).
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Human newborns do not imprint. They graduallyform an attachment, an emotional bond that makeshuman infants cling to their caregivers for safety andcomfort.
In humans, this attachment is built on many hours ofinteraction, during which baby and parent come toform a close relationship. Signs of attachment areevident by the age of 6 months or even earlier.
Infants demonstrate attachment through strangeranxiety, a fear of unfamiliar people, which usuallyemerges around 7 months, reaching its peak at 12months and declining during the second year.
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Erik Erikson (19021994) proposed a theory of
eight psychosocial stages of development: Trust vs. mistrust
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
Initiative vs. guilt
Industry vs. inferiority
Identity vs. role confusion
Intimacy vs. isolation
Generativity vs. stagnation
Ego identity vs. despair
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Developing a secure attachment early in lifehas implications for later cognitive and socialdevelopment.
As infants develop basic trust, they begin toventure away from the caregiver to investigateobjects and other people around them.
This exploration is a first indication ofchildrens developing autonomy, or a sense ofindependence.
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This autonomy is a first step in socialization,
the process by which children learn thebehaviors and attitudes appropriate to their
family and culture.
Toddlers who fail to acquire a sense ofindependence and separateness from others
tend to have more shame and doubt.
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According to Erikson, independence increasesbetween the ages of 3 and 6.
Children become increasingly involved inindependent efforts to accomplish goalsmaking
plans, undertaking projects, mastering new skills. Parental encouragement of these initiatives lead
to a sense of joy in taking on new tasks.
If children are repeatedly criticized and scoldedfor things they do wrong, they may developstrong feelings of unworthiness, resentment, andguilt.
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Diana Baumrind (1972, 1991, 1996) identified four basicparenting styles:
Authoritarianparents control their childrens behaviorrigidly and insist on unquestioning obedience.
Permissive-indifferent parents exert too little control,failing to set limits on their childrens behavior. They arealso neglectful and inattentive.
Permissive-indulgent parents are very supportive of theirchildren, but fail to set appropriate limits on their behavior.
Authoritative parents provide firm structure and guidancewithout being overly controlling. They listen to theirchildrens opinions and give explanations for theirdecisions, but it is clear that they are the ones who makeand enforce the rules.
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At a very early age, infants begin to show an interest inother children, but the social skills required to playwith them develop only gradually.
Sibling relationships can have a major impact,
especially on how children learn to relate to otherpeers.
Peer groups, networks of same-aged friends andacquaintances who give one another emotional andsocial support, teach children many valuable things,
such as how to engage in cooperative activities andhow to negotiate the social roles of leader andfollower.
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Most developmental psychologists believe that non-shared environmentshave a major impact ondevelopment.
Non-shared environmentsare unique aspects of the
environment that are experienced differently bysiblings, even though they are reared in the samefamily.
Although family experiences are important, the crucialenvironmental influences that shape personality
development are specific to each child, rather thangeneral to an entire family (Plomin & Rende, 1991, p.180).
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Insert Summary Tablep. 308
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Sex-Role Development
By about age 3, both boys and girls have
developed a gender identity, that is, a little
girl knows that she is a girl, and a little boy
knows that he is a boy.
Gender constancy, the realization that gender
does not change with age, does not develop
until age 4 or 5.
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At a young age, children also start to acquire gender-role awareness, knowledge of what behaviors areexpected of males and females in their society
As a result, they develop gender stereotypes, or
oversimplified beliefs about what the typical maleand female are like.
At the same time that children acquire gender-roleawareness and gender stereotypes, they also develop
their own sex-typed behavior, which are sociallyprescribed ways of behaving that differ for boys andgirls.
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Television, Video Games, and Children
On average, American children spend about 4 hours aday watching television (American Academy ofPediatrics, 2006) and 9 hours a week playing videogames (C. A.Anderson, Gentile, & Buckley, 2007).
The American Academy of Pediatrics (1999, 2007)recommends that children under the age of 2 shouldnot watch television at all and that parents limit theirchildrens TV and video-game time to no more than 1
or 2 hours a day. A major concern is the impact of witnessing aggressive
behavior on television
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Two comprehensive reviews of the research (C. A. Anderson
et al., 2003; Huesmann, 2007) found that the effects of mediaviolence can extend well into adulthood, even for people who
are not highly aggressive.
Short-term exposure was found to increase the incidence of
physically and verbally aggressive thoughts, emotions, andbehaviors, whereas longitudinal studies linked exposure to
media violence in childhood with aggression later in life,
including physical assaults and spousal abuse.
Despite this, children can learn worthwhile things fromwatching television and playing educational video games.
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